電子4 1
電子4 1
電子4 1
Motivation: Diodes are useful in electronic switching and waveshaping circuits. However, they are
not capable of amplifying currents or voltages. “Transistor”, a three-terminal device, can amplify
Two major types of transistors are BJT: switch, digital circuit, amplifying device
FET: ?
Two pn junctions in the BJT device, four possible bias combinations may be applied:
VBC
1. forward-active mode: E/B forward, B/C reverse amplifying
Inverse
2. Inverse-active mode: E/B reverse, B/C forward digital circuit Saturation
active
3. Saturation mode: E/B and B/C are forward transistor in saturation
VBE
4. Cut-off mode: E/B and B/C are reverse-biased transistor “OFF” Cut off Forward
active
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Since E/B junction is forward biased, electrons from the emitter are injected across the E/B
junction into the base, creating an excess minority carrier in base. Since the B/C junction is reverse
biased, the electron concentration at the edge of the B/C junction is approximately zero. (electrons
are attracted across the B/C junction due to the reverse E-field)
Ideally, all the electrons injected from the emitter will be swept into the collector without
recombining with holes in baseelectron concentration is a linear function of distance across the
base. However, carrier recombination “does” occur in the base, the e - conc. will deviate from the
linear curve. To minimize recombination effects, the width of the neutral base must be smaller than
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Collector Current
The # of electrons reaching the collector per time #. of e- injected into the base, which is a
function the B/E voltage and is indep. of B/C voltage. IC dn/dt eVBE/KT
Base Current
B/E is forward/biased, holes from the base flow across B/E junction into the emitter.
The base current iB1 the # of holes flowing into the emitter eVBE/kT
A few electrons recombine with majority carrier hole in the base,. This “recombination current iB2
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iC
F (100~200): Common-Emitter Current Gain,
iB
F is affected by two factors: base width (W) and the relative dopings of the base region and the
emitter region (nE / nB)
1. Usually nE ~ 1019, nB ~ 1017, nC ~ 1015, the e- conc. in emitter >> the h+ conc. in base
no. of e- injected into base >> no. of h+ injected into the emitter. iE >> iB1
Emitter Current
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A general model (Ebers-Moll model)
Arrows:
1. specify the emitter node.
2. indicate the normal current flow direction
of the emitter.
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I-V Characteristic of a npn BJT in common-emitter configuration
CE
Early Effect: at a given value of vBE, increasing vCE increases the reverse-bias voltage on the C/B
junction and thus increases the width of the depletion region in the base. This in turn results in a
As vCE Is ic
The nonzero slope of the iC – vCE lines indicates that the output resistance ro is finite.
1
i VA
ro C
vCE v BE const
IC
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Complete Static Characteristics and Second-Order Effects
Common-Base Characteristics
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Common-Emitter Characteristics
Fig. 4.68
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3.5 Analysis of the BJT circuits at DC
Example: 4.1 Consider the following circuit with F =100 and a vBE =0.7V. Find IE, IB, and IC.
V E ( 10)
(1) VBE = 0.7 V VE = -0.7 V (VB= 0 V) I E 0.93 mA
RE
(2) assume this BJT in forward-active mode, IE = IC + IB, IC = FIB
F 50
IC I E 0.93 0.91 mA,
F 1 50 1
(3)
IE
IB 0.0182mA 18.2 A
F 1
(4) IC = 0.91 mA VC = 10-ICRC = 5.44 V
VCE = VC - VE = 6.14 V > VCE(Sat) = 0.3 V
(Right Assumption)
F = 100, VBE(on)=0.7 V,
VCE(sat) = 0.3V
F = 100, VBE(on)=0.7 V,
VCE(sat) = 0.3V
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Example 4.3 Example 4.7
F = 100, VBE(on)=0.7 V,
VCE(sat) = 0.3V
+15 V
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Example 4.8
(1) Biasing circuit is the same as in Example 4.7 IB1 = 12.78 A ~ 0.012 mA.
V 15 V B1 V 15 V B1
B1 I B1 B1 0.013 , V B1 4.57V
RB2 R B1 50 100
(2) VB1 =4.57V >>0.7V, assume BJT1 is in forward-active mode to prove VCE > VCE(sat)
IE1 = (F +1)IB1 = 1.29 mA, VE1 = IE1 RE1 = 3.87 V
IC1 = F IB1 = 1.28 mA, VC1 = ??? determined by Q2 and RC1
(3) For Q2, VC1 = VB2, VE2 = VB2+0.7 (assume Q2 is ON & in forward-active mode)
15 V E 2 15 (VC1 0.7)
I E2
RE 2 2
15 VC1 15 (VC1 0.7)
(4) For node C1, B2, KCL: IRC1 + IB2 = IC1 1.28mA
5 2
VC1 = 8.74 V, IRC1 = 1.252 mA, IB2 = 0.0275 mA, IE2 = 2.78 mA, IC2 = 2.75 mA
VE2 = 9.44 V, VC2 = 7.43 V, VB2 = 8.74 V,
VEC2 = 2.01 > 0.3 = VEC(sat)
VCE1 = 8.74-3.87 = 4.87 > 0.3 = VCE(sat)
Q1 & Q2 in forward-active mode, right assumption!
The voltage divider network is the most commonly used for biasing a transistor amplifier is only a
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VBB VBE
Using Thevenin equivalent circuit, we can obtain I E
RE RB / F 1
If VBB >> VBE and RE >> RB/(F+1), then IE is insensitive to temperature, VBE, and F.
Recall, we want VCB and VCE to be large to provide a large signal swing before the BJT cutoff
or saturation. Therefore, there is a compromise between high VBB and VCB/ VCE. As a rule of
thumb, one designs for VBB 13 VCC , VCB (or VCE) 13 VCC , and ICRC 13 VCC
values of R1 and R2, which means that a higher current drain from the power supply and results
in a lowering of the input resistance of the amplifier (undesired), which is the trade-off involved
in this part of the design problem. Smaller R1 and R2 also mean that the base voltage is
determined solely by the voltage divider and is indep. of F. Typically, one selects R1 and R2
1. RE in the emitter provides a negative feedback action to stabilize the bias current. Consider that
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Using Two power Supplies
A simpler bias arrangement is possible if two power supplies are available. In this case,
VEE VBE
IE
RE RB / F 1
IE VCC VBE
VCC = IERC +IBRB+VBE = IERC + RB+VBE I E
F 1 RC RB / F 1
To obtain an IE insensitive to F, we select RB/(F+1)<<RC. However, the value of RB determines
the allowable signal swing at the collector since VCB = IBRB =IERB/(F+1)
The emitter current is independent of the values of F and RB. Thus RB can be made large to
increase the input resistance at the base without adversely affecting bias stability.
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Consider a current source circuit as shown: assume Q1, Q2 are matched.
VCC ( VEE ) VBE
I REF I current mirror
R
To operate as an amplifier a transistor must be biased in the active region. That is establishing a
constant dc current in the emitter (or the collector). This bias current should be predictable and
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Load Line and Modes of Operation
A graphical analysis is illustrative to view the operation of a simple transistor amplifier circuit.
Consider the circuit of the following figure, a graphical analysis could be performed as follows:
2. Determination of the dc bias current of the transistor: that is to determine the dc base current IB
(or VBE).
3. Sketch the load line vCE = VCC – iCRC
the intercept point of the load line and the iC-vCE curve is the Q point.
If a small signal vi is applied to the base, the total instantaneous base-emitter voltage vBE becomes
vBE = VBE + vbe
vbe v
If vbe << kT, iC I C (1 ) I C I C be I C ic ----small-signal approximation
kT kT
Thus the collector current is composed of the dc bias value IC and a signal component ic. The
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iC IC
transconductance gm is defined by g m
vBE iC I C
kT
Fig 4.37
Voltage Gain
A small signal vbe applied, small current signals ib, ic, iethe total collector voltage vC will
be vC VCC iC RC VCC ( I C ic ) RC VC ic RC VC vc
vC
Therefore, the voltage gain of the amplifier is Voltage gain g m RC
vbe
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3.7 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models
The analysis in the previous section indicates that every current and voltage in the amplifier circuit
superposition principle to do the dc and ac analysis separately, and then sum up.
Hybrid- model
looking into the base r. This model can be used to carry
T model
This model represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled current source and includes the input
resistance, looking into the emitter, re. This model yields the correct expression ic and ie.
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Modified hybrid- model to account for the Early Effect.
The Early effect causes the collector current to depend on vBE and vCE. Therefore, we have to
include the finite output resistance ro in the hybrid- model. Then, the output voltage will become
vo = -gmvbe(RC//ro)~ -gmvbeRC if ro >> RC. In general, the ro in the M, which is much larger than
RC ~ k.
B C
B
C
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Application of the small-signal equivalent circuits
The availability of the small-signal BJT circuit models makes the analysis of transistor amplifier
4. Replace the BJT with one of its small-signal equivalent circuit models.
VCC = +10V
Example: 4.9 Determine the voltage gain the BJT amplifier.
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There is a constraint on the maximum amplitude that vi is allowed to have i.e., to ensure the BJT
still operates in forward-active mode. Consider that if the peak amplitude of vbe,
R r
Vˆbe = 10 mV. the peak amplitude of the input signal Vˆi Vˆbe BB 0.91 V
r
the peak amplitude of the collector voltage vc: VˆC AvVˆi 0.91 3.04 2.77 V
We can easily determine the maximum value of the peak of the input signal such that the BJT
remains in forward-active mode by finding the value of Vˆi that corresponds to the minimum
value of the collector voltage being equal to the base voltage, which is ~0.7V.
Vˆ
Thus the maximum Vˆc =3.1-0.7=2.4 V the maximum Vˆi C 0.79 V
Av
The location of the dc bias point in the iC-vCE curve plane significantly affects the maximum
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Consider the QA point: this corresponds to a low value of RC and results in the vCE very close to
VCC. Thus, the positive swing of vCE will be severely limited. On the other hand, the bias point QB
corresponds to a large value of RC and results in the vCE too low. Thus, the negative swing of vCE
will be severely limited by the proximity to the saturation region. We have to bias the BJT
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3.9 Basic BJT Configurations
CE: a bypass capacitor connecting the emitter and ground is assumed to be sufficiently large
so that its resistance, 1/jCE, is small at all signal frequencies of interest. In effect, CE
The input signal vs is fed into the base, the output signal vo is taken at the collector, and the
resistance Ri, voltage gain Av, current gain Ai s, and the output resistance Ro.
vx
output resistance Ro Rc // ro since v = 0 due to vs is set to 0.
Ix vS 0
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Common-Emitter amplifier with RE in the emitter
Ri
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Including s resistance between emitter and ground can lead to significant changes in the amplifier
characteristics.
1. Input resistance Ri by a factor of (1+gmRe)
2. Av , but is less sensitive to .
3. large voltage swing at input signal, because only small fraction of input signals at the base
appears between base and emitter. (by a factor of 1+gmRe)
vb v ve ie (re Re )
Input resistance: Ri 1(re Re )
ib ib ib
Ri (with Re ) ( 1)(re Re ) R
Compared to Ri (w/o Re) 1 e 1 g m Re
Ri ( w/o Re ) 1re re
vo iR ie RC RC
Voltage Gain: Av o C
vs ib Rs vb ib Rs ie (re Re ) Rs 1re Re
RC
Compared to Av(w/o Re)= , gain is lower but less sensitive to .
Rs
v re 1
Input Voltage Swing: , thus for the same v, the input signal can be
vb re Re 1 g m Re
greater than that for the CE amplifier by the factor (1+gmRe) without incurring nonlinear distortion.
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Common-Base Amplifier
RO
Ri
ve
Input resistance: Ri re (very small ~25 at a bias current of 1 mA)
ii
vo io RC ie RC RC
Voltage Gain: Av ,
vs ii ( Rs re ) ie ( Rs re ) Rs re
indep. of , but depends critically on Rs.
if Rs>>re, Av RC/Rs; (more common)
if RC<<re, Av gmRC; (very rare since re is very small)
i ie
Current Gain: Ai o 1: common-base short-circuit current gain
ii i e
Output resistance: Ro RC
Comment: Since the input resistance is very small, the CB circuit alone is not attractive as a
voltage amplifier. It is more suitable as a unity-gain current amplifier or current buffer. The
most significant advantage of the CB circuit is its excellent high-frequency response.
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Common-Collector Amplifier or Emitter Follower
Applications in the design of amplifiers, both small-signal and large-signal and in digital circuits.
The input signal is applied to the base and the output is taken from the emitter.
vb ie (re ro // RL )
Input resistance: Ri 1re ro // RL
ib ib
For the case re RL ro Ri 1RL
The CC amplifier exhibits a relatively large input resistance.
Voltage gain:
v i (r // RL )
Av o e o
ie (ro // RL )
1(ro // RL ) 11
vs ib RS vb ib RS ie re ro // RL RS 1re ro // RL
Output resistance:
vx ie re 1 ie RS R R
Ro ro // re S re S relatively LOW
ix vs 0
vx
i 1 1
ro e
io r
Current gain: Ai 1 o 1 if RL << ro.
ib ro RL
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Summary:
1. high input resistance
2. low output resistance: useful as the last stage or output stage in a multistage amplifier.
3. voltage gain1
4. large current gain+1
Comment: It is suited for applications in which a high-resistance source is to be connected to a
low-resistance load, namely as a voltage buffer amplifier.
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3.10 BJT as a Switch – Cutoff and Saturation
Cutoff Region: If vI < 0.5 V, the BJT is in the cutoff mode, iB = iE = iC = 0, vC = VCC
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Active Region
To turn the BJT on, vBE should be about 0.7 V and vI >0.7 V.
v 0. 7
iB I , iC = iB, vC = VCC - iCRC and then check whether vCB 0.
RB
Saturation Region
Saturation occurs when we attempt to force a current in
the collector higher than the collector circuit can support while maintaining active-mode
operation.
In saturation, the base voltage is higher than the collector
voltage by about 0.4 to 0.6 V, that is vCE 0.1 ~ 0.3 V
( set VCEsat 0.2 V).
V VCEsat
I Csat CC ,
RC
I Csat
we at least force a base current I B ( EOS ) to ensure the BJT in saturation. Normally, IB
is higher than IB(EOS) by a factor of 2 to 10. So in saturation, the ratio of IC/IB is called forced
I
(forced). forced Csat F
IB
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Model for the Saturated BJT
npn
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Basic BJT Logic Inverter
Comment: The choice of cutoff and saturation as the two modes of operation of the BJT logic
circuit is motivated by
1. low power dissipation: the currents in cutoff region are all zero and the voltage across the
transistor is very small (VCEsat) in saturation
2. The output voltage-levels (VCC and VCEsat) are well defined. If operating in the
forward-active mode, vO = VCC – iCRC = VCC - iBRC, highly dependent on .
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Voltage Transfer Characteristics
If RB = 10 k, RC = 1 k, =50, and VCC = 5 V
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High-Frequency hybrid- model
Cutoff Frequency
Consider the CE short-circuit current gain, hfe, in which the collector is shorted to the emitter.
(That is, no load is connected).
Ic g m sC
Therefore, the CE short-circuit current gain, hfe, can be obtained: h fe ;
I b 1 r s(C C )
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Example: Frequency Response of The CE Amplifier
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High Frequency Response
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Low Frequency Response
Figure 5.73 Analysis of the low-frequency response of the CE amplifier: (a) amplifier circuit with dc
sources removed; (b) the effect of CC1 is determined with CE and CC2 assumed to be acting as perfect short
circuits;
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Figure 5.73 (Continued) (c) the effect of CE is determined with CC1 and CC2 assumed to be
acting as perfect short circuits; (d) the effect of CC2 is determined with CC1 and CE assumed
to be acting as perfect short circuits;
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SPICE BJT MODEL
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H.W.: 5.20, 5.21, 5.24, 5.25, 5.26, 5.36, 5.44, 5.47, 5.53, 5.57, 5.58, 5.65, 5.66, 5.67, 5.69, 5.74,
5.78, 5.79, 5.87, 5.96, 5.98, 5.100, 5.112, 5.115, 5.124, 5.126, 5.130, 5.135, 5.141, 5.143, 5.159,
5.166
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