Mono47 18

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES lN
PAINT MANUFACTURE AND PAINTING

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES lN PAINT
MANUFACTURE AND PAINTING
1. Historical Perspectives and Description of Painting 'fades
1.1 Description of paint products
The term organic coating encompasses conventional paints, varnishes, enamels, lac-
quers, water-emulsion and solution finishes, nonaqueous dispersions (organosols), plasti-
sols and powder coatings. The following definitions have been used commonly, although
they have not always been strictly applied.
Paint is a suspension of finely divided pigment particles in a liquid composed of a binder
(resin) and a volatile solvent, sometimes with additives to impart special characteristies. The
volatile solvent evaporates from the diying fim after application, while the binder holds the
pigment in the diy fim, causing it to adhere to the substrate. Some high quality, hard gloss
paints are referred to as enamels (Piper, 1965; Schurr, 1981).
Lacquer is defined as a coating that dries priariy by evaporation rather than by oxida-
tion or polymerition. Because the solvents used in lacquers are relatively volatile and no
chemical change is required for formation of the mm, lacquers diy veiy rapidly (Piper, 1965;
Hamilton & Early, 1972).
Vámish is defined as a homogeneous, transparent or translucent liquid that is converted
to a solid, transparent fim after being applied as a thin layer (Schurr, 1981).
The basic components of paints may have a widely vaiyg chemical composition, de-
pending on the colour, durability and other properties required from the paint.
(a) Pigments
Pigments can be classified as (i) inorganic, (ii) organic and (ii) earth pigments, such as
ochre. They can also be classified into whites, colours, metallic flake pigments and powders.
They are generally added in considerable proportion by weight (20-60%) and are used in
paints to provide colour, opacity and sheen and also affect the viscosity, flow, toughness, du-
rability and other physical properties of the coating. The physical properties of pigments,
such as particle shape and size, vary; the diameter of the particles is generally .. 3 J.ff. The
particles in diy pigment powders (0.5-10 J.m) are partially in the range of respirable dust
(Kvanek, 1982).
(i) lnorganic pigments
Inorganic pigments are an integral part of numerous decorative, protective and func-
tional coating systems, snch as automobile finish es, marie paints, industrial coatings, traffic
paints, maintenance paints, and exterior and interior oil, alkyd and latex hou se paints. Inor-
ganic pigments belong to numerous chemical classes, priariy including elements, oxides,
carbonates, chromates, phosphates, sulfides and silcates (Schiek, 1982).
-'UQ-
330 IAC MONOGRAHS VOLUME 47
Many forms of lead have been used for more than 20 years in pigments; these include
carbonate (white lead), oxides (litharge, red lead), sulfate, oxychloride (nrner's yellow),
acetate, borate and chromates (lARC, 1980a,b; Schiek, 1982).
Zinc chromate, little known before 1914, was widely employed durig the Second
World War to inhibit rust on all sorts of equipment (Brunner, 1978). Other chromium pig-
ments that have been used in paint for many years include lead chromates, barium chromate
and chromium oxide (lARC, 1980b). Other inorganic pigments include cadmium sulfide,
cadmium sulfoselenide and antimony trioxide (see monograph, p. 291). Various grades of
naturally ocurrg ferrc oxide provide yellow, red and brown pigments (Schiek, 1982).
White pigments constitute over 90% of all pigments used (Kvanek, 1982). Until the
nineteenth centuiy, white lead in linseed oil was used priariy, and prior to 1920 the avail-
able white pigments were basie carbnate white lead, basic sulfate white lead, zinc oxide,
leaded zinc oxide and lithopone (Martens, 196; Federation of Societies for Paint Technolo-
gy, 1973). Increasing awareness of the toxic hazards of white lead stimulated the develop-
ment of other pigments, which became available to paint manufacturers in the early part of
the twentieth centuiy (Brunner, 1978).
The most common pigment employed in paint is the white pigment titanium dioxide
(see monograph, p. 307), produced in two different crystal forms - rutile and anatase. AI-
though it was introduced shortly after 1918, it was not used widely because of its high cost.
The first titanium dioxide pigment was a composite of 30% titanium dioxide (anatase ciystal
structure) and 70% barium sulfate. A major gain was made by the production of titanium
dioxide with the rutie ciystal structure, which has almost 25% greater opacity than the ana-
tase form. Because of the chemical inertness of titanium dioxide, its extreme whiteness, ex-
cellent coverig power and lack of toxicity, compared to white lead, it son dominated in the
manufacture of white paint and, by 1945, represented80% of white pigment on the market.
Concomitantly, the use of white lead in paints fell durig 190-45 from nearly 100% to less
than 10%. The share of lithopone, a coprecipitate of 28-30% zinc sulfide and 70-72% bari-
um sulfate (Schiek, 1982), introduced before the First World War, rose to 60% byabout 1928
but fell to 15% by 1945 (Brunner, 1978). Calcium carbnate and aluminium silcate have also
been used as white pigments.
The most common metallc dusts and powders used in paint are aluminium powder,
zinc dust (Schiek, 1982) and bronze powders, which consist of metals in a finely divided state;
e.g., gold bronzes are alloys of copper with vaiyg proportions of zinc or aluminium.
Materials used as extender pigments include barium sulfate (baryes), calcium carbn-
ate (ground limestone and chalk), silca (diatomaceous and amorphous; see IARC, 1987a,b),
clays (hydrated aluminium silcate), talc (hydrated magnesium silcate; see IARC, 1978c,d)
and mica (hydrated potassium aluminium silcate). These minerais are often added to paint
to reduce cost, improve physical characteristics and increase resistance to wear; their effects
are largely governed by the average particle size (Martens, 196).
(ii) Organic pigments
Hundreds of organic pigments, compriing a broad spectrum of structural classes, are
used in the paint industry. Organic pigments may be classified as azo or nonazo pigments.
PAI MAUFACfURE AN PAIG 331
Azo pigments are formed by successive diatiztion of a priai amine and coupling.
Monoaw and dia pigments contain, respectively, one and more than one chromophore
(-N = N-) group and are subdivided into two tys, the pigment dyes and the precipitated azo
dyes. The most importnt and established uses for pigment products include the coloration
of sudace-cating compositions for interior, exterior, trade and automotive applications, in-
cluding oil and water emulsion paints and lacquers (Fytelson, 1982).
Pror to the disveiy of Perkis' mauve in 1856, colour was obtained from natural
sources, Le., woad, madder, indigo, cohineal and log woo. The development of sythetic
colourig materiais continued with the discveiy of fuchsin in 1858 and of other triphenyl-
methane dyes, such as alkali blue, methyl violet and malachite green. Lakes of the
se dyes
were used as the first sythetic organic pigments. The largest single advance in pigment
technology after the Firt World War was the discveiy in the 1930s of phthalocanine blue
(Monastral blue) and, later, its halogenated derivatives (Monastral greens) which were wide-
ly used in automotive finishes (Brunner, 1978; Fytelson, 1982). Other main categories of
nonazo organic dyes and pigments used in paints and related products include quinacr-
don es, thioindigos, periones, peiylenes and anthraquinone (Fytelson, 1982).
(ii) Earh pigmnts

Iron oxides are the most widely used of the coloured pigments derived from natural
sources. Natural iron oxides are processed from several different ores, including haematite
(see IARC, 1972, 1987e), limonite, siderite and magnetite, and provide a range of reds, yel-
lows, purples, browns and blacks (Schiek, 1982).
(b) Binders (resins)
The vehicle portion of paints contains components collectively termed 'binders', which
hold the pigment in the diy film and cause it to adhere to the sudace to be painted. AImost
all binders in modern paint films are composed of polymer materials, such as resins, and dry-
ing oils, whose main functions are to provide fim hardness, gloss, su dace adhesion and resis-
tance of the film to acids, alkalis and other agents (Kvanek, 1982). A large variety ofboth
natural and sythetic resins has been employed in paints. Natural resins have been used in
paints for centuries, while sythetic resins have been commercially available since the early
190.
(i) Natural resins and oils
From early times, various natural resins have been used to reinorce linseed oil and
other diyg oils, since paints based only on pigment and oil yield only veiy soft fims. Shellac
(Brunner, 1978) and insect exudations are natural oleoresins that have been used in paints
for centuries. Oleoresins from tree saps (shellac) are a mixure of single- and fused-rig
compounds with various oxygenated groups possessing a wide range of molecular weights,
solubilties and chemical and physical properties.
Kauri, a fossil resin, was used widely but had been replaced by the beginning of the
twentieth centuiy by Congo copal, which is a much harder resin but which requires pro-
longed heat treatment, known as 'gum running'. The term 'copal' is a generic name coverig
332 !AC MONOGRAHS VOLUME 47
a number of fossilized and recent resins found in many tropical and subtropical parts of the
world, which include all the harder resins used for oil varnishes (Brunner, 1978).
Another useful na tu rai resin is rosin (colophony), which is obtained as a residue after
distiling pine oleoresin for the production of turpentine. Rosin consists of about 85% rosin
acids and 15% neutral substances and can be classified into two main tyes - gum rosin and
wood rosin. Rosin has been used in paints (pricipally alkyd resins) for many years. They
are
often upgraded to yield higher quality resins by chemical reactions, including liming (calcium
rosinate), esteriication of rosin with glycerol, and reactions with triethylolpropane,
phthalie anhydride, maleic anhydride, adipie acid and sebacic acid (Krvanek, 1982).
Vegetable and fish oils have long been used as binders in traditional paints and var-
nishes. White linseed oil has been the most important oil in standard exterior paints, despite
its moderately slow diying rate. It is inrequently employed in interior paints because of yel-
lowing. Other important oils include castor oil, tall oil, soya bean oil, conut oil, cottonseed
oil, tung oil and various fish oils (Brunner, 1978; Lowell, 1984).
AIthough raw oils are useful as paint binders, it has been advantageous to use them in
conjunction with refined oils and oils treated with heat to increase viscsity (heat-boied
oils) which isomerie the oil and improve the diyng rate of the films. Oleoresinous varnishes
are made by cokig oils with natural or sythetic resin, resulting in more rapid diyg and a
harder film (Lanson, 1978).
(ii) Synthetic resins

A wide variety of sythetie resins has been commercially available since the early 190s.
Those that have been most frequently employed in paints, varnishes and lacquers include
cellulosic, phenolic, alkyd, vinyl, aciylic and methaciylic, and polyurethane resins, chlori-
nated rubber derivatives, styrene-butadiene and silicone oils (Martens, 196; Krvanek,
1982).
Mixures of different synthetic resins are often incorporated into a paint to furnish cer-
tain properties not provided by a single resin. While the amount of resin in paint varies,
values of 20-35 wt% are common (Krvanek, 1982). The choice of a resin(s) for a particular
application depends on factors such as appearance, ease of application, cost and resistance to
chemicals, heat and wear.
Some resins (plyurethanes, epoxys; see IARC, 19700) are blended immediately before
use with cross-linkig agents between the individual polymer chains, resulting in a hard, ser-
viceable film.
AIkyd, aciylic, polyurethane and polyester resins have broad areas of use in paints, in-
cluding paints for houses, automobiles, furniture and appliances, as well as in the protection
of metal sudaces, e.g., in chemical plants and oil refineries.
Phenolic resins: The first sythetic resins used in paints were phenolic resins, which
were introduced in the 1920 and are made from formaldehyde (see IARC, 1982a, 1987f) and
phenol (see monograph, p. 263) or substituted phenols in the presence of alkaline or acid
catalysts. Depending on the tye and proportion of reactants, and on the reaction condi-
tions, the resins may be heat-reactive or not. The first product of the reaction is methylol
phenol, which reacts further. With an excess of formaldehyde under alkaline conditions,
methylol groups react slowly with phenol, are retained in the reaction product and can act as
reactive sites in varnish preparations or for cross-linkig in finished products (Lwell, 1984).
The early phenolic resins developed between 1905 and 1910 were based on unsubsti-
tuted phenols, e.g., cresols, paa-phenylphenol and paa-tert -butylphenol, which are oil-so-
lubie, and constituted a new tye of varnish with superior hardness and resistance to water,
solvents, chemicals and heat. Heat-sensitive phenolic resins that are insoluble in oil may be
dissolved in solvents and employed as the sole vehicle for metal coatings (Lowell, 1984).
Alkyd resins: The advent of alkyd resins is considered to be a major breakthrough in
modern paint technology. AIkyds are oil-modified polyester resins produced by the conden-
sation reaction of polyhydric alcohols, polybasic acids and monobasic fatty acids, e.g., linseed
or soya fatty acids (Lwell, 1984). The specific definition, which has gained wide acceptance,
is that alkyds are polyesters modified with monobasic fatty acids (Lanson, 1978). The alkyds
used initially were pricipally products of the chemical reaction of phthalic anhydride and
glycerol with certain vegetable oils or their correspnding fatty acids (Brunner, 1978).
ln recent years, the terms 'non-oil' and 'oil-free' alkyd have been used to describe poly-
esters formed by the reaction of polybasie acids with polyhydric alcohols in excess of stoiehio-
metric amounts. These products are best descnbed as saturated polyesters containing un-
reacted -OH or -COOH groups (Lnson, 1978).
Monobasie acids modif the properties of alkyd resins by controlling functionality, and
th us polymer growth, as well as by the nature of their inherent physical and chemical proper-
ties. The majority of monobasie acids used in alkyd resins are derived from natural glyceride
oils and are in vaiyg degrees of unsaturation. The most common fatty acids present in
these oils include lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleie, linolenic, eleostearic, ricinoleie and
licanic acids. Alkyd resins with relatively high fatty acid contents are called 'long-oil' alkyds;
when the oil percentage is relatively low, theyare known as 'short-oil' alkyds (Lanson, 1978).
Although glycerol and pentaeiyhritol are the major polyhydric alcohol components of
alkyd resins, a number of other polyols are employed to a lesser degree, including sorbitol,
triethylolethanol, triethylol propane, dipentaeiyhritol, tripentaeiyhritol, neopentyl-
glycol and diethylene glycoL. The pricipal polybasic acid for alkyd resins is phthalic acid,
which is prepared and used as the anhydride. Isophthalic anhydride is also employed to yield
somewhat faster diyg and tougher, more flexible films than the analogous ortho-phthalic
resins.
Long-oil alkyds are soluble in minerai spirts and are widely employed in architectural
brushing enamels, exterior tri paints and wall paints, and their flexibilty and durabilty
have made them useful for top-side marie paints, metal maintenance paints and as a clear
varnish. Medium-oil alkyds are the most versatile of the alkyd class, and their superior air
diyg, flexibilty and durabilty allow for their use in maintenance paints, metal priers and
a variety of general-purpse enamels. Short-oil alkyds are either diyg or nondiyg, re-
quire a strong aromatic solvent, such as tolueneorxylene (see monographs, p. 79 and p.125),
and have been employed pricipally as industril bakig finishes.
Many polymerie materils and reactive functional materils can be used to produce
suitably designed alkyds and to impart improved and/or specil film-forming properties, in-
cluding nitrocellulose, polyisoanates, urea-formaldehyde resins, silcones, melamine-

formaldehyde resins, reactive monomers, phenolie resins, cellulose acetobutyate, chlori-
nated rubber, phenolic varnishes, viyl resins, polyamides, chloriated paraffin, natural
resins, epoxy resins and monobasic aromatic acids (Lnson, 1978).
Short-oil alkyd resins with a phthalic anhydride content of 38-5% contain a higher
proportion of hydroxyl groups, which provide reactive sites for alkylated urea-formaldehyde
and melamine-formaldehyde resins. These alkyds are generally based on tall-oil fatty acids,
soya bean oil or fatty acids. Amino-alkyd resins are widely used in industrial bakig enamels
(Lanson, 1978).
The compatibility of alkyd resins with nitrocellulose extends up to 55% nitrocellulose

content, and nitrocellulose lacquers are produced in large quantities. AIkyds modified with
short-chain acids, such as those from conut oil and castor oil, are widely used in high-
grade furniture lacquers (Lnson, 1978).
The general effect of the alkyd modified resins has been to upgrade the gloss, adhesion
and durabilty of nitrocllulose lacquers. Alkyd resins have been used in protective coatings
for over 40 years, and they stil rank as the most important sythetic coating resin, constitut-
ing about 35% of all resins used in organic coatings (Lanson, 1978). The largest market for
alkyds in product finishes includes machines and equipment and woo and metal fumiture
and fixures (Connollyet al., 1986).
Vinyl resins: Vmyl polymers and copolymers were among the first sythetic polymers
and are widely employed in trade paints. Although sythesis of polyvyl chloride (see
IARC, 1979a) was first reported in 1872 and that of polyvyl acetate (see IARC, 1979b) in
1913, neither was developed commercially until the mid-1920 (powell, 1972).
Vinyl monomers can be induced to polyerie readily by the addition of initia
tors, such
as peroxides and azo compounds, which decompose at reactor temperature to generate free
radicals. Polymerition processes involve radical formation, initiation, propagation, includ-
ing chain transfer, and termination (powell, 1972). The pricipal viyl resins of importnce
in the paint industiy are polyvyl chloride, polyvyl acetate and polyvyl butyate, which
are available in a range of different compositions for speciic uses and in grades that can be
handled as true solutions in organic solvents, as high-solid disersions ('organosols' or 'plas-
tisols'), as diy powders or as water-borne latexes. Polyvyl acetate is extensively used in
emulsion paints, providing exceptional flexibilty, toughness and water and chemical resis-
tance. Vinyl chloride copolymer coatings are used in coil coatings and in industril and ma-
rie coatings (Lwell, 1984; Connolly et al., 1986).
Water emulsions of high molecular-weight polyvyl acetate have been widely used in
interior house paints. Copolymers of viyl acetate with acilic monomers are also employed
in exterior emulsion house paints. Latexes of viyl chloride polyers and copolymers have
been commercially importnt for a number of years, e.g., as copolymers in exterior house
paints, which often include a viyl chloride-acilic ester copolymer modifed with a speclly
designed alkyd resin. Polyvyl acetate and viyl acetate copolymers are used in latex-based
interior and exterior paints (powell, 1972).
PAI MAUFACTURE AN PAIING 335
The pricipal modifg monomers that have been used with viyl acetate include dibu-
tyl maleate and fumarate, butyl-, 2-ethylhexyl- and isecyl aciylates and higher vinyl esters
(Powell, 1972). Copolymers of the aciylates and viyl acetate are coffmonly called viyl
aciylics and generally contain 15% aciylic monomer by weight (Connolly et aL., 1986).
Acrylic and methacrylic eser resins: Aciylic resins have been divided into four specific
tyes: water-based, solvent-based thermoplastic (lacquer tyes), solvent-based thermoset-

ting and powder coating resins (Connolly et al., 1986).
Commercial aciylic and methaciylic polymers are made from a variety of aciylie and
methaciylic monomers (see IARC, 1979c). The major monomers used are the methyl, ethyl,
butyl and 2-ethylhexyl esters of aciylic and methaciylic acids, which readily undergo poly-
merition in the presence of free-radical initiators, such as peroxides, to yield high molecu-
lar-weight polymers (Allyn, 1971; Lowell, 1984; Connollyet al., 1986).
Monomeric aciylic esters are produced commercially by several processes based on
ethylene cyanohydri, acetylene, ß-propiolactone (see IARC, 1974a) and ethylene oxide
(see IARC, 1985a, 1987g). The acetone-canohydri process is the major method for the
production of monomeric methaciylate esters (Allyn, 1971).
Several tyes of functionality can be incorprated into aciylic and methaciylic mono-
mers. These are pricipally the amide, carbxyl, hydroxyl and epoxy tyes and are used to
confer cross-linking capabilties and thermosetting properties on the resulting polymers (Al-
lyn,1971). Other monomers are used in conjunction with the aciylic monomers to achieve
different properties, including viyl acetate (see IARC, 1986), styene (see lARe, 1979d),
viyl toluene, aciylonitrie (see IARC, 1979a, 1987h) and methylaciylamide (Allyn, 1971).
Aciylic and methaciylic polymers are used in the formulation of clear and pigmented
lacquers. Dispersions in water and in organic solvents provide latex and organosol coatings,
respectively. Polymethaciylates are harder and less flexible than the correspnding aciy-
lates (Lowell, 1984).
AIthough thermoplastic acrylic emulsions have been commercially available since

1925, they were not widely used in coatings until1953 when new grades specifically designed
for paints were introduced (AIlyn, 1971). ln the late 195Os, lacquers of greatly improved du-
rabilty, based on polymethylmethaciylate or thermosetting aciylic enamels were adopted by
the automobile industiy (Lowell, 1984). By the 196s, the use of aciylic emulsion polymers
had been firly established in exterior coatings for woo sudaces, a field long dominated by
oil paints (Allyn, 1971).
Epoxy resins: Epoxy resins were first derived from bisphenol A and epiehlorohydri (see
IARC, 1976b, 1987i) and introduced into the paint industiy in the late 1940s. Two major tyes
of epoxy resin exist - glycidyl ether epoxy resins (see monograph, p. 237) and epoxidized ole-
fins - the former of which is the most importnt. Epoxy resins based on bisphenol A and
epichlorohydrin are the most prominent of the glycidyl ether categoiy and are produced by a
condensation reaction in which bisphenol A and epiehlorohydri are reacted in the presence
of alkali (Allen, 1972). The resultant diglycidyl ether resin has a functionality of two reactive
epoxy groups per molecule. Epoxy resins can be polymeried through their reactive epoxy
group using amines or polyamides (Allen, 1972; Lowell, 1984).
336 lAC MONOGRAHS VOLUME 47
Epoxy resins of a second major tye, epoxidized olefins, are based on epoxidation of the
carbon-crbn double bond. Coating compositions derived from epoxidized olefin have bet-
ter weatherig characteristics than analogous systems based on bisphenol A diglycidyl ether
resins (AIlen, 1972).
ln order to proceed from the relatively low molecular weight of the coating composi-
tion, as applied, to the high molecular-weight polymer necessaiy for optimal film properties,
a 'curig' or polymerition must take place, which can involve either the epoxide or free
hydroxy groups in the resin, or a combination of the two. Some of the pricipal reactions that
have been used include chemical cross-linkig via the amine-epoxide reaction, an anhy-
dride-epoxide reaction, reaction with methylol groups, e.g., between the secondaiy hydroxyl
groups of the higher molecular-weight resins and the methylol groups of phenol-formalde-
hyde and urea-formaldehyde resins, cross-linkig via the isoanate-hydroxyl reaction and
esteriication reactions between solid-grade epoxy resins and carbxyl-cntaining com-
pounds, partieularly diyg-oil fatty acids (AIlen, 1972).
Solid-grade glycidyl ether resins are readily soluble in polar solvents, snch as ketones,
esters and ether-alcohols, as well as in chloriated hydrocrbn solvents (AIlen, 1972).
Glycidyl ether resins of high molecular weight (number average1, about 700; weight
average2, about 20 (0) are unique among epoxy coatings in that they form coatings by sol-
vent evaporation alone (Allen, 1972). Because of their toughness, adhesion and corrosion
resistance, epoxy resins are used in many applications, including industril maintenance, au-
tomobile priers and coatings for appliances and steel pipes. Epoxys combined with pheno-
lic resins and thermosetting aciylic resins yield high bake finishes with hardness, flexibilty
and resistance to chemicals and solvents (Lwell, 1984).
Polyurethane resins: Although polyurethanes were sythesized in 1937, the utilty of
weather-resistant polyurethane coatings became manifest only in the 196s. Polyurethanes
are obtained from the reaction of polyhydric alcohols and isoanates. Nonreactive poly-
mers can be prepared by terminating the polymer chains with monofunctional isoanates or
alcohols. Cross-linked polymers are formed from polyfunctional isoanates or alcohols
(Lowell, 1984). lsoanates that have been employed include toluene diianate (see
IARC, 1986b) and hexamethylenedüsoanate.
Because of the wide range of physical properties obtained through variations in formu-
lating polyurethane coatings, they are used in industril and maintenance coatings, as well as
in coatings for woo, concrete and flexible structures (Lwell, 1984). Polyurethane coatings
are being used increasingly for automobiles and aircraft. Urethane ester-tye resins (also
lMolecular weight value from number of molecules each multiplied by molecular weight and total divided by
number of molecules
2Molecularweight value from sum of number of grams of material with a particular molecularweight each multi-
plied by its molecular weight and total divided by total number of grams
PAI MAFACfURE AN PAIG 337
called urethane alkyds or uralkyds) are used priariy in architectural coatings. Two-m-
ponent systems are used as high-pedormance coatings for maintenance and product finish es
(Connollyet al., 1986).
Silicone resins: Silcones are characteried by a siloxane backbone, e.g., -Si-O-Si-O-,
with organic groups which determine the properties of the final polymer attached to the sil-
con atoms. The monomeric precursrs of silcone polymers are mono-, di- and triubsti-
tuted halosilanes (usualy chlorosilanes). Monosubstituted silanols condense to highly cross-
linked polymers, which are chiefly used in coatings. The degree of cross-linkig and
consequent physical properties are controlled by adjusting the ratio of mono- and disubsti-
tuted chlorosilanes. Alkyd resins with terminal hydroxyl groups can be condensed with sil-
cones to produce hybrid polymers (Lwell, 1984).
Silcone resins are used to waterproof masoniy and are blended with alkyds to formu-
late industril maintenance coatings for storage tanks and other metal structures (Lwell,
1984).
Cellulose derivatives: Cellulose nitrate, commonly misnamed nitrocellulose, is the old-
est cellulose derivative, first prepared in 1838 from cotton linters using a nitrating mixure of
nitric and sulfuric acids (Jones, 1938; Sears, 1974). Before the early 192Os, only very high
molecular-weight cellulose nitrate was available, which had limited utiity in lacquers. The
development of stable cellulose nitrate with lower visity after the First World War re-
sulted in fast-diyg lacquer coatings which were used extensively in automobile and furni-
ture production. ln the USA, three tyes of commercially available cellulose nitrates are
distinguished by their nitrogen content and solubilty. Each of these tyes is available in a
variety of visity grades, which are a measure of the polymer chain length (Hamilton &
Early, 1972; Brewer & Bogan, 1984).
Cellulose nitrate lacquers have also been formulated to contain resins, plasticizers, sol-
vents and thinners. The resins that were employed initially with cellulose nitrate lacquers
inc1ude shellac, sandarc, mastic and ester gums, whieh were added in amounts of about two-
thirds of the weight of cellulose nitrate. Plasticizers are usually added at about 10% of the
weight of cellulose nitrate. Camphor, which was first used in the USA in the mid-l80s, was
replaced by castor oil; by the late 192Os, plasticizers such as triphenyl phosphate, tricresyl
phosphate, dibutyl phthalate and butyl tartrate were being used increasingly. The pricipal
solvents used initially with cellulose nitrate included ethyl, butyl and amyl acetates, acetone,
'diacetone alcohol', industrial spirt, ethanol and mixures of alcohol with benzene or tolu-
ene and of alcohol with esters (Heaton, 1928; Hamilton & Early, 1972).
Another cellulose derivative, ethyl cellulose, is made by treating cellulose from woo
pulp or cotton with a solution of soium hydroxide to obtain priariy what is commonly re-
ferred to as 'alkali' or 'soa' cellulose. Further treatment with ethyl chloride under heat and
pressure yields ethyl cellulose, which can be made in different visities. It is widely used in
c1ear, dyed or pigmented lacquers for flexible substrates. Although less often used in paints,
it has been formulated with silcone coatings to prevent pigment settling and sagging (Singer,
1957; Hamilton & Early, 1972).
338 IARC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 47
Cellulose acetate is a linear high polymer that is obtained by first pretreating cellulose
with a reduced amount of acetie acid to cause a certain amount of swelling, and th
en reacting
it with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulfuric acid. Cellulose acetate lacquers are stable
to light and heat and have goo resistance to oils, greases and weak acids (Singer, 1957).
Methylcellulose, carbxyethyl cellulose and hydroxyethyl cellulose are water-so-
lubie polymers that are used as thickeners in latex-based coatings. Cellulose acetate-buty-
rate is used as a resin modifier in automobile lacquérs based on polymethylmethaciylate.
(c) Solvents (see also the monographs on solvents, pp. 43 et seq.)

Solvents are widely used to keep paints in liquid form so that they can be applied easily.
Until the late nineteenth centuiy,turpentine and alcohol were the only solvents of any im-
portance. Since the early 190s, the number of solvents has increased considerably to en-
es, alcohols, esters, ke-
compass initially a broad range of petroleum and coal-tar distilat
tones, glycols and halogenated.hydrocrbns and, more recently, sythesized glycol ethers
and esters. A large variety of mixures of these classes is also employed.
Solvents in the turpentine categoiy are derived mainly from the resinous exudations of
various species of pine and other conifers and consist essentially of mixures of various ter-
penes such as a- and ß-pinene (Heaton, 1928).
A petroleum distillate, knownas 'white spirts' (see the monograph on some petroleum
solvents, p. 43), which consists mainly of aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic hydrocrbns, was
Introduced as a solvent in the paint industiy in 1885. For many years it was regarded as a
cheap adulterant for turpentine but, as its use developed, it attained recognition as a differ-
ent solvent. ln addition to white spirts, several other paint solvents are prepared from pe-
troleum and coal-tars (see IARC, 1985b, 1987j). Coal-tar distilates were the original source
of commercial quantities of solvents such as benzol (a mixure containing mainly benzene,
with smaller amounts of toluene, light hydrocrbns and carbon disulfide), benzene (see
IARC, 1982b, 1987k), toluene, xylene and solvent naphtha (Heaton, 1928).
(d) Additives
Additives are defined as those chemicals that pedorm a special function or impart a
special propert to paint. They are present at low concentrations, generally 0.2-10%, and
include driers, thickeners, anti-skining agents, plasticizers, biocides, sudactants and dis-
persing agents, antifoam agents and catalysts (Krvanek, 1982).
(i) Surfactants
Sudactants, which are classified Into anionic, cationic, amphoteric and nonionic cate-
gories, are used as pigment dispersants in both nonaqueous and aqueous systems. Disper-
sants employed in nonaqueous systems include lecithin, zinc naphthenate, calcium naphthe-
nate, copper oleate and oleic acid. Ionizble disersants that are usually employed in
aqueous coatings include tripotassium polyphosphate, tetrapotassium pyrophosphate, so-
dium salts of aiylalkyl-sulfonic acids and soium salts of carbxylic acids (Lowell, 1984).
ln addition to pigment dispersion, sudactants are used in paints as emulsifg agents,
protective colloids, wetting agents, thickeners and antifoaming agents. A number of water-
soluble resins and gums have been used as protective colloids or thickeners in emulsion
paints. Water-soluble hydrophilc colloids include agents such as gum arabic, gum traga-
canth, starch, soium alginate, methyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, polyvyl alcohol,
ammonium caseinate and soium polyaciylate. The aciylate salts, casein and cellulosics,
have been widely used in aciylic paints, while the major thiekeners for styene-butadiene
paints have been alkali-soluble proteins (soya bean proteins). Methyl cellulose and hydroxy-
ethyl cellulose are common thickeners for polyvinyl acetate paints (Martens, 196).
Noncellulosic thickeners used in latex paints include maleic anhydride copolymers,
minerai filers, such as colloidal attapulgite (see IARC, 19871,m) and treated magnesium
montmorilonite clays, natural products (e.g., alginic acid, casein and soya bean protein),
polyaciylamides, polyaciylic acid salts and acid-cntaining cross-linked aciylic emulsion co-
polymers (Connollyet al., 1986).
A recent partiallist of sudactants employed in water-borne paints includes aluminium
stearate, cellulose ethers, polydimethyl siloxanes, polyethylene, alkali metal phosphates and
sodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate (Hansen et al, 1987).
A variety of other sudace-active agents are added to paints to control flow, levelling,
sagging, settling and viscsity, including hydrogenated castor oils, lecithin, metallc soaps
(e.g., linoleates, palmitates and stearates), treated montmorilonite clays, peptized oil gels,
polyolesters, silcas and soap solutions (Connolly et al., 1986).
(ü) Driers
Driers (sicctives) that have been used in water-borne paints containing unsaturated
polymers (e.g., alkyds) to accelerate curig are pricipally metal salts (lead, calcium, cobalt,
manganese, zirconium, barium, zinc and cerium-Ianthanum) of naphthenic acid, tall oil acid,
2-ethylhexanolic acid and neodecanoie acid, generally at levels ranging from 0.3 to 0.8%
(w/w; Hansen et al., 1987). Cobalt-based driers are the most commonly used commercially
and are active catalysts in both air diyg and heat cure systems. Manganese is another major
active drier. Other metal driers serve as auxiaiy driers and are usually used in combination
with cobalt and manganese. Lead (see IARC, 1980a, 1987n) driers were at one time the ma-
jor auxiaiy driers; however, legislation limiting the amount of lead that can be used in sur-
face coatings has resulted in a sharply reduced use. The most suitable replacements for lead
appear to be zirconium, calcium and cobalt-zirconium compounds (Connollyet al., 1986). ln
addition, 1,IO-phenanthroline has been employed at levels of 0.02% (w/w; Hansen et al.,
1987).
(ii) Plasicizers
The early use of plasticizers is ilustrated by the incorpration of castor oil and glycerie
into alcoholic spirt varnishes and of camphor into spirt varnishes and lacquers, as well as
into cellulose ester enamels and lacquers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centu-
ries (Heaton, 1928). ln 1912, triphenyl phosphate began to replace camphor for the plastici-
zation of cellulose nitrate; later, tricresyl phosphate was used. The use of plasticizers was
generally expanded by the mid 1920s with the introduction of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (see
IAC, 1982c) and dibutylphthalate in the mid-1930s (Sears, 1974).
340 IAC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 47
Plasticizers that are generally added in quantities of up to about 2% include dibutyl-,

diethyl-, diethylhexyl- and dioctylphthalates and, to a lesser extent, the low molecular-
weight esters of adipic and sebacic acid, tributyl phosphate and castor oil. Polyester resins,
including maleic residues, sulfonamides, triorthocresyl phosphate and chloriated diphe-
nyls, have been used ocsionally (Pper, 1965; Krvanek, 1982).
(iv) Biocides (fngicides, preservatives and lmildewcides ')
Biocides are generally added to paint at low concentrations -less than 1% - for preser-
vation in the tin. Each biocide formulation can con tain several agents.
The function of a preservative is to retard the enzyatic degradation of cellulosie and
other thiekeners in latex paints in the tin. The function of a mildewcide is to retard the
growth of fungi on applied exterior latex and solvent-based paints. These compounds are
often the same, but are used in different quantities. Much less preservative is needed to
preserve a latex paint than the amount of mildewcide required to retard mildew growth on an
exterior paint (Connollyet al., 1986).
Phenylmercuiy compounds (e.g., acetate, propionate, benzoate, dodecyl succinate and
oleate) were previously used extensivelyas mildewcides. Although mercuric compounds are
no longer employed in solvent-based paints in the USA becuse of legislative restrictions,
they are stil permitted in water-based paints. Biocides that have been employed include
tributyltin oxide, chlorothalonil (see IARC, 1983a), 1,2-benzisthiaolin-3-one, carbenda-
zim, benzyl alcohol mono(ply) hemiformal, 1-(3-chloroallyl)-tetra-aza-adamantane hy-
drochloride, 5-chloro-2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one, dodecyl dimethylammonium chlo-
ride, 5,8, Il, 13, 16, 19-hexaoxatricosane, 3-iodopropynyl butyl carbamate, 2-methyl-4-iso-
thiazoline-3-one, formaldehyde, soium nit rite and soium benzoate (Connollyet al., 1986;
Hansen et al., 1987).
(v) Antiskinnng agents

Antiskining agents are added to paints to retard the formation of ski on the surface
of the liquid coating, in either closed or open tins, without retarding the drg of the prod-
uct. The pricipal antiskining agents are oximes or phenol derivatives; the major oxie
used is methyl ethyl ketoxie. Smaller quantities of butyldoxie and cyclohexanone ox-
ime are used. The phenol derivatives used are mainly methoxyhenol, ortho-aminophenol
and polyhydroxyhenoL. Minor quantities of cresols, guaiacol, hydroquinone (see IARC,
1977a), isobutoxysarol and lignocl have also been used as antiskining agents (Connollyet
al., 1986).
(vi) Miscellanous additives

Other additives are employed in paints, including polymerition initiators such as ben-
zoyl peroxide (see IARC, 1985c) and azobisutyonitrie; antioxidants snch as hydroqui-
nones, phenols and oxies; ultraviolet light absorbers, luminescent and fluorescnt materi-
ais and heat stabilizers (Connollyet al., 1986).
PAI MAUFACTURE AN PAIG 341
1.2 History of the manufacture of paints and related products
(a) History ofpaint manufacture

The histoiy of paints and other related products has been reviewed (Heaton, 1928;
Jones, 1938; Singer, 1957; Martens, 196).
Paint has existed from the earliest times - literally from the beginning of histoiy. Wa-
ter-based paint was used for pictorial and decorative purpses in caves in France and Spain
as early as 30 0015 00 BC. The earliest efforts of cavemen were expressed by daubing
coloured mud on the walls of their caves. The addition of crushed berres, bloo, milk, eggs,
dandelion or milkweed sap and other natural materils, such as chalk, earth colours, char-
coal and ashes, to early paints improved both adhesion and utility.
The earliest pigments were natural ores. By 60 BC, calcined (fired) mixures of inor-
ganic components and organic pigments were employed in China. By 150 BC, the Egy-
tians were using dyes such as indigo and madder to prepare blue and red pigments, and by
100 BC they had developed a varnish from gum arabie that contnbuted to the permanence
of their art. Although paint and varnish have existed since earliest times, it was not until the
1700s that commercial manufacture of paints began in Europe and the USA. The early man-
ufacturers of paint ground their pigments on a stone table with a round stone.
Whitewash, which is essentially water-slaked lime, was used durig the early histoiy of
many countries. Various materials, such as Portland cement, were added to improve the ma-
terial and it gradually evolved into the present-day cement paints. Skimed milk and, later,
casein were added to improve adhesion and durability. The addition of pigments, whiting
and clay and, finally, the replacement of lime traced the evolution from whitewash to casein
paint. Diyg oils were later added to casein paints to improve water resistance. Casein
paints were continually improved and, by the 1930s, they contained highly refractive index
pigments simIlar to those used in oil paints.
ln the late 180s, grinding and mixing machines were developed to enable manufactur-
ers to produce large volumes of paint. However, it was not unti the twentieth centuiy, dur-
ing the period from the mid-1920s to prior to the Second World War, when improvements in
paint technology began to parallel more closely advances in chemistry, that paint became
sophisticated with regard to the process of manufacture, its use and the methods of its appli-
cation. The development of highly efficient paint-making equipment and an expanding
scpe of areas of utility, e.g., automobile, marine and architectural areas, contributed to
these advances. Paint technology advanced most rapidly in countries where industrializtion
developed fastest, i.e., in western Europe and the USA, the greatest advances ocurrg af-
ter the Second World War (Brunner, 1978).
For centuries, it was common practice for painters to prepare their own products from
pigments and oils (pricipally linseed oil). Little 'ready-mixed' paint was available until just
before the beginning of the twentieth centuiy, when a large number of factories were estab-
lished, pricipally in Europe and the USA (Brunner, 1978).
Mixg was originally conducted in an apparatus known as a 'pug mill, the general con-
struction of which was a cylinder fitted with a vertical shaft carig arms. U ntil the introduc-
tion of machineiy, griding was generally accmplished by rubbing down the mixed paint
with a large 'muller' of glass or granite on a slab of similar materiL. Cone mils were later
employed which were made in various sizes - small ones for hand use and larger sizes for
factoiy use. Griding machineiy was introduced into paint manufacture in Europe around
the late 1870s and developed enormously in design and efficiency durig the twentieth cen-
tuiy. Two- and, later, three-roller griding mils were first introduced which greatly en-
hanced the speed and efficiency of griding. Multiple-roll mils, e.g., four and five as weU as
combinat ions of edge-runner, horiontal mixers and roller mils, were aU used in the 1920
for paint production and were employed until the advent of more modem plant methods.
The conversion of paste paints to the liquid or 'ready-mixed' condition required a step called
'thinning' or the addition of a thinning vehicle. Vertical mixers were used for this purpse
(Heaton, 1928).
(b) History of lacquer manfacture

The use of lacquer dates from about 50 BC when the Chinese and Japanese used the
sap of the tree, Rhs verncefera, to prepare lacquer for the ornamentation of woos and met-
ais (Singer, 1957).
ln the early manufacturig processes of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-
turies, the most frequent method of mixg the components of lacquers was by use of a slowly
revolvig churn that contained baffles. ln older works, these were merely wooen barrels,
but later they were specially designed and made of aluminium, since other metals are likely
to affect the colour of clear lacquers due to the acidity of the solvents or resins used. At
lifting
larger installations, a method that involved lifting up a container by means of a special
carrage to a batteiy of paddle stirers was also used. After completion of dissolution, the
container was covered and lifted by crane to its storage bench as standardized lacquers or
stock solutions for further mixg (Heaton, 1928; Jones, 1938).
(c) History ofvamsh manfacture

The use of oil varnishes and resins was already well understoo at the time of
Theophi-
lus the monk, who wrote about them in the eleventh centuiy. The preparation of a diyg oil
by treating linseed oil with lime and litharge was described at an even earlier date by Eraclius
in the ninth centuiy (Barr, 1939). The travels of Marco Polo and the disveiy of the New
World brought a great variety of exotic gums and resins to Europe.
Towards the end of the eighteenth centuiy, paints and varnishes were based on natural
resins, e.g., copal and amber, and vegetable oils, e.g., linseed, walnut, hempseed and poppy
seed oils. By the nineteenth centuiy, fossil and semi-fossil gums replaced amber, which was
by then scarce and expensive. These pricipal substitut
es included gum arabic, gum elastic,
copal, mastic and shellac (Singer, 1957). Early in the twentieth centuiy, the first practical
phenol-formaldehyde resins were developed. Research over the following two decades pro-
vided the basis for greatly improved varnishes.
Varnishes can be divided into three main tyes - oil, spirt or alcohol and water - of
which the oil varnishes are the most important, such that the term 'vamish' generally implies
oil varnish. The manufacture of oil varnishes involves the followig operations: (i) 'gum run-
ning' or melting the resin; (n) boiling the oil and mixg with the melted 'gum'; (ii) boiling the
varnish; (iv) introducting driers; (v) thinning the varnish; and (vi) maturig the varnish (Hea-
ton, 1928).
1.3 Construction painting and paint products used
Paints that are used on architectural structures (indoor and outdoor sudaces) are com-
pried of priers or undercoats for walls and woowork and mat, semigloss or gloss fiiishing
coats. The priers and finishing coats differ priariy in pigmentlvehicle balance and in
additives and vehicle tye. Prers (usually called 'priers/sealers') are used to se
al the
varible porosity of the substrate (e.g., woo) and to adhere to the substrate and to subse-
quent coats of paints. For most architectural uses, an alkyd-based prier/sealer is used
(Schurr, 1981).
(a) Exenor house paints

Ca sein paints, which have been used sin ce the mid-l80s, were continually improved
so that, by the 1930s, they contained high-refractive index pigments. Later, a diyg oil was
added to casein to produce an emulsion paint (Martens, 196). Traditionally, linseed oil and
oleoresinous vehicles have accunted for the bulk of architectural (house) paints. Several
other oils have been used, but to a much lesser degree than linseed oil, and often in conjunc-
tion with linseed oil. The more important have been tung oil, perila oil, soya bean oil, fish
oils, saflower oil and dehydrated castor oil. Modern oil-based house paints generally con-
tain combinations of untreated diyg oil (unboied oil) and diyg oil treated (polymerized)
so that its viscosity is increased (bied oil) (Schurr, 1974).
vents has been employed traditionally - pricipally
A wide variety of thinners and sol
turpentine, white spirts, benzene and solve nt naphtha. Thrpentine was the accepted thinner
until the 1930s, at which time white spirts were introduced for reasons of cost and odour
(Schurr, 1974).
The classie house paint consisted of ",80% basie lead carbonate - white lead - and i 1 %
raw or boiled linseed oil which contained a small amount of drier in the form of metallc
soaps. The paint was thinned with additional oil for application. Gradually, other prier
pigments and inert filers were introduced into the basic lead-in-oil formula. These in-
cluded zinc oxide, leaded zinc oxide, lithopone and, finally, titanium dioxide (see mono-
graph, p. 307). The use of lead pigments has been increasingly curtailed because of legisla-
tion (Schurr, 1974, 1981).
ln the late 1930s and 1940s, alkyd paints were gradually introduced, particularly in the
dark colours, with a marked improvement in properties such as colour and gloss retention.
ln the 1960s, white alkyd house paints without lead pigments were marketed by a few paint
companies; they usually contained phenylmercuiy oleate and other arylmercuiy derivatives
as, fungicides. By the 1970s, alkyd house paints were replacing oil house paints, the faster
diyg time of the alkyds being obtained with cobalt and calcium soaps.
Around 1957, the first exterior water-based house paints were introduced. Most of
these were based on aciylic-tye latexes, and the paint had excellent colour retention on
exterior exposure. Since that time, water-soluble and emulsified linseed oil house paints
have been marketed which combine the advantage of an oil paint and a water-tye paint in
one product (Martens, 196). Because of ease of application, cleaning abilty with soap and
water and goo service, latex paints comprise most of the exterior paint market. Among the
more common latexes are the aciylics, polyvylacetate-dibutylmaleate copolymers, ethy-
lene copolymers and aciylate copolymers (Schurr, 1974). Thble Ilists the ingredients of tyi-
cal white hou se paints with oil and latex binders (Fisher, 1987).
Table 1. Examples of formulations of white bouse paints

from the 1980s"
1Y of paint and ingredients Weight (%)
Oil-based
TItanium dioxide (anatase) L
12.7
TItanium dioxide (rutile)
Zinc oxide (acicular) 19.8
Water-ground mica 6.2
Magnesium silicate 23.2
Refined linseed oil 23.4
BOied linseed oil 7.8
Lead and manganese soap solution 1.3
Mineral spirits 5.7
Acrylic late
TItanium dioxide (rutile) 20.2
TItanium dioxide (anatase) 0.8
Water-ground mica 2.5
Magnesium silcate 8.4
Calcium carbonate 6.9
Acrylic latex 41.9
Water 7.0
Cellulosic thickener 8.0
Nonionic emulsifier 0.9
Alkyl-aryl sunactant 0.2
Commercial defoamer 0.2
Ethylene glycol 2.1
Ammonium hydroxide 0.2
Organic mercurial fungicide 0.2
Pine oH 0.6
tlrom Fisher (1987)
The main categories of organic pigments used in interior and exterior construction or
architectural paints include phthalocánine and monoaw dyes (Volk & Abriss, 1976).
(b) Interior pants

Until the early 193Os, the vehicles employed in interior paints were based on oils
treated to increase viscsity (bied oils) and heat-treated oils, usually combined with rosin,
ester gum or other natural gums. Most solvent-tye paints for interior use contain some oil
and diy by oxidation. Oils that have been used in interior compositions include bleached
linseed oil, dehydrated castor oil, soya bean oil, tung oil and oiticica oil. The pricipal pig-
ments used for interior white paints are titanium dioxide, zinc oxide and various carbnate
and siliceous exteiiders which are used to control pigment volume and gloss. From about
1927, with the development of alkyd resins, a variety of architectural enamels for interior and
exterior use was based on these résins. However, the bulk of enamels produced for interior
use contained oil treated to increase viscsity (bied oil) and/or varnish as the binder until
after 1945 (Volk & Abriss, 1976).
Early water-based interior paints were alkyd-resin emulsions stabilized with large
amounts of casein and other stabilizers. The alkyds used were generally long-oil vehicles
and the paints generally had por emulsion stabilty. Three tyes of latex polymers are used
most commonly in the manufacture of latex paints: styene-butadiene tyes, polyvyl ace-
tate tyes and acilies. Copolymer blends of styene and aciylate have also been employed,
combining the most durable features of each monomer into a single polymer (Volk & Abriss,
1976).
After the Second World War, the excess capacity for manufacturig styene-butadiene
rubber (see IARC, 1979d) was adapted to make styene-butadiene latexes that could be used
in paint. These water-based latexes appeared in the USA around 1948 in interior wall fi-
nishes (Martens, 196; Schurr, 1981). Although polyvyl acetate latexes have been in exi-
tence since the late 1930s, they were used as adhesives rather than in paints until after the
Second World War (Volk & Abriss, 1976).
The general categories of extender pigments that are used in latex paints include clays,
calcium carbnates, silicates, diatomaceous earths, silicas, baryes and talcs (see IARC,
1987a,b,c,d). Along with latex, sudactants, pigments and several other additives are usually
incorprated into the formulation to obtain a stable and satisfactoiyproduct, including thick-
eners, defoaming agents, freeze-thaw stabilizers, coalescents and pH adjusters. Although
natural thickeners, such as casein, were formerly used, their use has decreased appreciably in
recent years. The thickeners employed most commonly are cellulosics - pricipally hydroxy-
ethyl cellulose and methyl cellulose - polyacilates, polyacilamide, polyvyl alcohols and
many others. Ethylene and propylene glycols serve as freeze-thaw stabilizers. Coalescents
are additives designed to optimize the coalescence of latex particles (Volk & Abriss, 1976)
and include hexylene glycol, butyl cellosolve and butyl carbitoL.
(c) Masonr pants

Casein-based paints applied to masoniy and plaster surfaces were used in early con-
struction work. These paints usualy contained about 10% casein with sorne lime to insolubi-
lize the casein after application (Martens, 196). Latex-based priers/sealers are now often
used for masoniy sudaces. The latex vehicle is generaly more resistant to alkali and permits
evaporation of water from masoniy sudaces without disruption of the film. Both alkyd and
latex vehicles adequately seal porous surfaces (Schurr, 1981). Also, oil paints and styene-
butadiene copolymer, polyvyl acetate emulsion, resin-emulsion and chloriated rubber
paints have all been used extensively on masoniy surfaces.
Concrete floor coatings must possess goo water resistance and adhesion over damp
sudaces. Powdeiy concrete is first covered with a solvent prier. A satisfactoiy floor paint
can be formulated using a styene-butadiene latex fortifed with an epoxy ester (Martens,
1964). Two examples of concrete floor enamels are presented in Thble 2. Aciylic emulsion
paints are widely used outdoors on concrete, stucc and cinder block because of their dura-
bility, adhesion and flexibilty (Allyn, 1971).
Table 2. Examples of formulations of grey concrete ßoor

enamels from the 1950s4
1Y of paint and ingredients Weight (%)b
Polystyene-butaiene-based
Lampblack 0.5
Organic ester 0.2
Polystyene-butadiene copolyer resin 27.0
Raw Iins oil 1.9
40% Chlorinated paraffins 4.7
High-flash naphtha 25.0
White spirits 24.4
Chlorited rubber-based
Lampblack 0.5
Organic ester 0.3
Chlorinated rubber 13.8
40% Chlorinated paraffins 3.2
Thermolyd tung oil 3.5
Alkyd resin 7.8
Soya lecithin 0.4
Dipentene 7.5
High-flash naphtha 14.1
Aromatic high-solvency petroleum solvent 24.6
White spirits 6.4
Antiskinning agent 0.1
aprom Singer (1957)

lilculated by the Working Group
AIthough cement paints are used on all tys of masoniy, they tend to be brittle and to
'powder off'. Cement paint tyically contains white Portland cement, gysum, cacium chlo-
ride and hydrated lime added to water. Fortified cements have been prepared using latexes
such as styene-butadiene, polyvyl acetate and acilic esters added to Portland cement in
amounts ranging from 10 to 40% latex on a solid basis (Martens, 196).
(d) Waterproofingpants
These paints are applied on the outside of unpainted concrete, brick, stucc, etc., and
have been formulated in a variety of ways to include components such as wax, aluminium
stearate and silcone resins. The earliest, simplest waterproofing formulations were of the
wax tye and consisted of paraffin wax, raw chinawoo oil and white spirts. Stearate formu-
lations consisted of aluminium stearate in white spirts, with ocsional addition of paraffin
wax. A significant advance in the manufacture of waterproofing paints in the mid-1950s in-
volved the use of silcone resins. A tyical formulation of silcone waterproofing con
tains
silcone resin and xylene. Another commonly used product contains special silicones, such as
sodium methyl silconate, in aqueous solution (Singer, 1957).
1.4 Sunace coating in the wood industry and products used

Shellac and other gums or resins, such as elemi, sandarac, manila and benzoin, dis-
solved in alcohol or spirts of wine were introduced by the French in the seventeenth centuiy
and have been used for a long time in Europe for finishing woo grain and for their quick-
diyg properties. By the beginning of the eighteenth centuiy, use of varnishes on furniture
increased rapidly, particularly in France and England, although the manufacture of var-
nishes was stil incidental to the work of painters, decorators and gilders. By the mid- and
late eighteenth centuiy, varnishing offurniture was well established in Europe (Jones, 1938;
Barr, 1939).
Four properties are considered to be essential in furniture varnish: quick, hard, tough
diyg (3-4 h); goo sanding and polishing properties; goo resistance to water, acids, alkalis,
etc.; and goo heat resistance (Singer, 1957). Thble 3 gives the formulation of a best-grade
furniture varnish used in the 195Os.
Table 3. Formulation o( a (umiture coating (rom the 1950sa
1J of product and ingredients Weight (%)b
Phenolic resin-based fumiture vamish

para-Phenyl phenol, pure phenolic resin 16.5
Modified phenolic resin, hard-oil ty 11.0
China woo oil 17.3
Dehydrated castor oil 4.4
Xylene 16.5
White spirits 35.8
Cobalt naphthenate 0.3
Lead naphthenate 0.7
Ilrom Singer (1957)
lialculated by the Working Group
Four categories of woo stains were employed in the late nineteenth and early twen-
tieth centuries: (i) water stains which consisted of water-soluble dyes or colourig agents
(e.g., potassium permanganate, potassium bichromate, pigments such as Venetian Brown,

Bismark Brown); (ii) oil stains (e.g., brownish resins, bitumens, asphalts or pitches in white
spirts, or petroleum tinted with oil-soluble dyes); (ii) naphtha stains, whieh consisted of
naphtha-soluble dyes dissolved in coal-tar naphtha and containing a little resin such as cou-
marone or ester gum as a binder; (iv) and spirt varnish stains which consisted of methylated
spirt-soluble dyes with a little alcohol-soluble gum and usually contained manila as a binder
(Jones, 1938).
The range of organic dyes that are found in woo stains (see IARC, 1981) include rosa-
niline (magenta; see IARC, 1974b), nitrosine, indigo, amaranths, carmoisine (see IARC,
1975), croceine, rhodamine (see IARC, 1978a) and several CI solvent and acid dyes (Kva-
nek, 1982).
Finishing operations for woo include staining, wash coating, filing (if necessaiy), seal-
ing, sanding, application of one or two lustre coats and polishig. 1\o tyes of oil stains-
soluble and suspended pigment tye - impart the desired colour to woo. Woo stains are
dissolved in a vehicle that enables the stain to soak into the woo rather than stick to its sur-
face as a fim. After the staining operation, a clear, thin coat of lacquer is often applied be-
fore application of a filer, which is called a 'wash coat'; it stiffens the protruding fine woo
fibres and can be reffoved by light sanding. ln some procedures, filer is used to fil the de-
pressions before the sealer and finish coats are applied. These finishes are cured by solvent
evaporation; finish coats usually contain cellulose nitrate (Lwell, 1984). Some tyical sand-
ing sealer formulations that have been used contain cellulose nitrate in ethanol, zinc stea-
rate paste, maleie resin solution, castor oil, butyl and ethyl acetates, toluene and petroleum
lacquer diluent (Singer, 1957).
Oil stains based on linseed oil and tung oil have been used in the finishing of furniture,
since they protect against staining without leavig an apparent film on the sudace. Var-
nishes based on urethane oils rather than oil resins are being used increasingly (Wicks, 1984).
Formulations of paint utilized for furniture are pricipally dependent on the end-use.
N urseiy furniture, for example, requires extremely hard, tough coatings containing non-tox-
ic pigments. A wide variety of coatings has been used on furniture, including low-bake fi-
nishes based on urea-formaldehyde resins, polyurethane paints based on diphenylmethane
diisocanate and hexamethylene diisoanate, and lacquers composed of ethyl cellulose or
cellulose acetate butyate combined with aciylic resins (Singer, 1957; Lowell, 1984).
1.5 Painting in the metal industry and paint products used
(a) Metal primers. finish coats an corrosion inhbition pants

Since iron and steel rust in time when in contact with moisture and oxygen, many prod-
ucts made with the se metals are coated with rustproof priers and finish coats (Schurr,
1974).
Priers are vehicle-rich coatings intended for application as foundation and adhesion-
promoting coats. Metal priers are used to form a fir adhesive bond with the sudace and
also serve as an impermeable barrer between the envionment and metal sudace. Wh en
active rust preventionis essential, rust-inhibitive pigments that retard oxidation chemically
are used.
Although there are many formulae for structural steel priers, red lead (P304; see
IARC, 198O) in a linseed oil vehicle has been used for a long time. Other formulations of
red lead include combinations with alkyd resins and with red iron pigment. A tyical red
lead-iron oxide prier formulation is shown in Thble 4. Zinc chromate (zinc yellow; a double
salt of zinc and potassium and chromic acid) was introduced durig the Second World War
and is stil used extensively. It is usually formulated as the basie pigment with an alkyd resin
or linseed oil. Less zinc chromate is required to give the same protection as red lead, and zinc
chromate is often combined with red iron oxide (Singer, 1957).
Because of restrictions on the use of lead and chromates, the pigments favoured in in-
dustril maintenance coatings are now mainly zinc metal, zinc oxide, molybates and phos-
phates (Schurr, 1981).
Finish coats cover the metal prier and seal il. Some metal products are covered by
enamels which contain alkyd resins and diy by oxidation. The most durable coatings avaIl-
able are generally used on machineiy and other industrial equipment and are based on epoxy
or polyurethane resins which are cured by chemical reaction. Typical formulations are shown
in Thble 4.
(b) Marne pants

Paints for sudaces that are continuously immersed in seawater must be formulated
with antifouling properties to resist the growth of marie fauna. Diverse species of hard and
soft fauna which require a permanent anchorage in order to mature and reproduce form
colonies on hulls.
The Phoenicians used copper on the hulls of their ships more than 300 years ago. Dur-
ing the early nineteenth centuiy, compounds (generally oxides) of copper, tin, lead, mercuiy
and arsenic (see IARC, 198O, 19870) were the biocides used in antifouling paints, since these
agents are effective against the broad range of organisms encountered in the marie envi-
ronmenl. Biocides based on lead, mercuiy and arsenic are now prohibited from use in many
countries (Brunner, 1978; Brady et al., 1987).
Antifouling coatings based on derivatives of triphenyl or tributyl tin have been intro-
duced durig the past 15-20 years. ln some coatings, an organotin compound, such as the
acetate, chloride, fIuoride or oxide, is simply mixed into the formulation. These coatings are
known as 'free-assoiation' coatings and are characteried bya leach rate of organotin which
is quite high when the coating is new but rapidly diminishes until it is insufficient to prevent
fouling. A more useful formulation is obtained when the organotin in 'copolymer' coatings is
covalently bound to the resin of the coating and is released when the bond hydrolyses in sea-
water. Since organotin compounds do not prevent accumulation of algae on hulls, some
commercial organotin coatings contain a small amount of cuprous oxide to control algae and
grasses (Brady et al., 1987).
Table 4. Examples of formulations of metal paints
1Y of paint and ingredients Weight (%)
Red lead-iron oxide primer (from 1950s)a

Stearated processd clay antisetting agent 0.3
Red lead (97%) 28.2
Red iron oxide (85% Fe203 min) 7.0
Magnesium silicate 14.1
Mica, white, water-ground 3.5
Nkyd 27.9
White spirits 18.3
Cobalt naphthenate (6%) 0.1
Lead naphthenate (24%) 0.4
White epoxy powder paint (from 1980s)b
Epoxy resin (1400 D) 60

Dicyanamide curing agent 4
2-Methylimidazole (accelerator) 1
Calcium carbonate (extender) 15
Titanium dioxide (pigment) 15
Aciylic polymer flow additive 1
Water-based white epoxy enamel (from 1970s)c

Epoxy resin emulsion (50% solids) 28.3
Polyamide resin cunng agent (65% nonvolatiles) 20.0
Titanium dioxide 22.2
Hydroxyethyl cellulos 0.1
Water 29.4
White polyurethane enamel (from 1980s)d
Hydroxyl-functional resin (solids) 21.0
Dibutyl tin dilaurate (catalyst) -=0.1
Titanium dioxide (pigment) 19.0
Aromatic hydrocrbons 6.0
Propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate 29.0
Polyisoanate resin (solids) 8.0
Butyl acetate 1.0
Ethyl acetate 17.0
aprom Singer (1957); weight calculated by the Working Group

bprom Peltonen (1986); two-component product
Cfrom Nlen (1972); two-component product
áprom Dupont (1988); two-component product
PAI MANUFACTURE AN PAIG 351
Most commercial antifouling paints contain a viyl binder, although products with oth-
er binders are also available. Rosin or sorne other leaching agent is generally added to cu-
prous oxide formulations to permit its controlled release into seawater, where it is lethal to
fouling larva forms. More recent developments in antifouling methods have involved use of
a sheet material of black neoprene rubber impregnated with tributyl tin (Drisko, 1985). An
antifouling coating used extensively by the the US Navy consists of cuprous oxide dispersed
in a mixure of natural rosin and a viyl chloride-viyl acetate copolymer (Brady et al., 1987).
More recent strategies have focused on nontoxic alternatives to antifouling paints.
These include the use of fluoropolyurethane foulant-release coatings. One such formula-
tion consisted of Desmodur-N-75 (an aliphatic polyianate), polytetrafuoroethylene
(38% by volume; see IARC, 1979c), titanium dioxide (see monograph, p. 307) and solvent
(Brady et al., 1987).
(c) Automobile coatingr
The development of low-visity cellulose nitrate lacquers in the early 1920s revolu-
tionized the painting of automobiles. AIthough these lacquers did not flow well and required
an expensive buffing operation to obtain an acceptable gloss, their fast-diyg characteristics
permitted production line assembly and painting of automobiles for the first time (Lowell,
1984).
Cellulose nitrate lacquers were followed by the introduction of alkyd enamels to the
automobile industiy in the early 19308. These compositions were usually modified with small
amounts of amino resins to provide harder, more thoroughly cross-linked films. These were
followed by the adoption of thermosetting aciylic enamels in which alkyds were replaced by
aciylic copolymers containing hydroxyl groups which could stil react with melamine modifi-
ers (Lowell, 1984).
ln the late 1950s, lacquers of greatly improved durabilty and gloss, based on polyme-
thylmethylaciylate or thermosetting aciylic enamels, were adopted by the automobile indus-
tiy (Lwell, 1984).
Today, many new polymers, including maleic resins, amino resins (urea-formaldehyde
and melamine-formaldehyde polymers), silcones, epoxides, polyesters and polyurethanes
form the basis of highly diverse coating systems. ln addition, nonaqueous dispersion lac-
quers and aciylic enamels have been developed. Steel used in automobiles is pretreated with
a conversion coating (phosphating or bonderiing) to improve corrosion resistance and adhe-
sion. ln the traditional procedure, which is stil employed to sorne extent, the solvent-borne
prier was sprayed onto the automobile bo shell followed by a sudacer which could be
sanded. The prier and sudacer were often combined into a siigle adhesive formulation
which could be sanded. The vehicles of prier-sudacers were combinations of oxidizing
alkyd, epoxy and amino-formaldehyde resins, alkyd- and rosin-modified phenolic resins and
others. Applications of the colour coats followed applications of the prier-sudacer combi-
nations (Lwell, 1984).
Solvent-borne priers have been almost completely replaced by water-borne electro-
deposited priers. The original anodic tye has been largely replace by the cathodic tye
which is superior in corrosion protection. The binders for cathodic deposition are tyically
acid salts of amino-treated epoxy. The formulations contain polyepoxides or blocked poly-
isocanates which cross-link the coating when it is baked. Prior to application of the top coat,
a coat of solvent or water-borne epoxyester prier-sudacer is applied (Lowell, 1984).
Veiy solid top coats are being used increasingly, th us eliminating lacquer-tye formula-
tions. Versions of conventional thermosetting aciylic enamels that can be applied in about
40-50% volume solids are nowavailable (Lowell, 1984).
A broad range of organie pigments is employed in automotive finishes. These include
Hansa yellows (prepared from chloro- and nitroanilines and acetoanildes), diaiylide yellow,
nickel azoyellow (nickel (see IARC, 1976c, 1987p) chelate of diaotized 4-chloroaniline and
2,4-dihydroxy quinoline), lithol reds (precipitated am pigments compried of a family of the
sodium, barium, calcium and strontium salts of the coupling product from diazotized
2-naphthylamine-1-sulfonie acid and 2-naphthol), yellow BON -maroon (manganese salt of
the coupling product of diazotized 4-hloroanthranilc acid with 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic
acid), and naphthol reds and maroons (monoazo pigments such as the copper precipitation
product from the coupling of diazotized 4-nitroanthranilic acid with Naphthanil RC). Other
classes of nonazo organic pigments that have been employed in automotive finishes include
quinacridones, thioindigos, periones (diiides of naphthalene-l,4,5,8-tetracarbxylic
acid), peiylenes (diimides of perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarbxylic acid) and anthraquinones
(Fytelson, 1982).
Thble 5 gives a tyical formulation of a lacquer for automobile finishing.
Table 5. Formulation of an automobile paint from the 1970s"
iy of paint and ingredients Weight (%)

Aciylic resin 41.8
Blue metallic lacquer
Methyl methaciylate (93%)

Butyl aciylate (7%), compriing 40% nonvolatiles in toluene
Cellulos acetate butyate
Plasticizr 8.24.4
Acetone
Xylene 10.5
Aluminium pigment (65%) 1.8
Phthalocanine blue pigment dispersion 1.4
4.0
Methyl ethyl ketone 10.0
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate 13.0
Mixed methyl esters of adipic and glutaric acid 4.9
llrom Willams (1977)
(d) Aluminium pants

AIuminium paints sold today in ready-mixed form are used as protective coatings on
iron and steel, aluminium, magnesium and other metals, providing high resistance to mois-
ture penetration and heat and a high reflectance for ultraviolet radiation. These paints con-
tain aluminium pigment in finely divided form and are formulated in two tyes - non-Ieafing
and leafing. The former consists of aluminium ground to a powder that is dispersed in ve-
hieles to give a metallc-grey finish. 'Leaing' is a phenomenon in which finely divided alu-
minium flakes rise to the sudace and form a continuous metallc finish consisting of inter-
meshing aluminium flakes (Singer, 1957).
(e) Coi! coatingy

One of the most rapidly growig areas of industrial coating is coil coating. The coll
stock consists of enormous rolls of thin-gauge steel or aluminium, which are coated at steel
mils, aluminium mils or by specially equipped contractors. The coils are unwound, coated
on high-speed roller coaters, heat cured and rewound. Binder compositions include alkyd-
amino-formaldehyde combinations, viyl chloride-viyl acetate copolymers (see IARC,
1979a,b) and thermosetting aciylics, often modified with small amounts of epoxy, which pro-
duce coatings that are flexible, durable and adhesive. ln the coil coating industiy, solvent
vapours are often collected and disposed of by incineration (Lwell, 1984).
1.6 Other painting trades and paint products
(a) Traffc paints

The major requirements for traffic (road) paints are fast and hard diyg. The paints
that are generally used contain a high pigment volume, fast-diyg vehicles, such asresin
combinations with low oil content or oil-free sythetic resins, and low-boiling solvents (e.g.,
petroleum fractions with distilation ranges of l00-15O°C). Solutions of plasticized chlori-
nated rubber made of styene-butadiene copolymers (containing an aromatic hydrocibn
tain solubilty) have been used. Glass spheres are added to formulations of
solvent to main
reflecting paints (Lowell, 1984).
Conventional alkyd formulations (including both straight alkyd and alkyd/chloriated

rubber tyes) stil accunt for most of the traffic paints used in the USA. However, there has
been a significant increase in the use of more durable pavement markig materials, snch as
two-component polyester and epoxy systems and one-cmponent hot extruded thermoplas-
tic types (Connolly et al., 1986).
Although traffic paints can be made in any colour, the most widely used are white (tita-
nium oxide) and yellow (chrome yellow; Connolly et aL., 1986).
(b) Fíre-retardant pants

Fire-retardant or intumescent paints, when applied to woo or other combustable sur-
faces, retard the spread of fire by foaming at elevated (but less than charrg) temperatures.
A number of intumescent formulae employed in the mid 1950s contained a chemical combi-
nation of polyol (e.g., pentaeiythritol), a mono- or diammonium phosphate and an amide
(e.g., dicyandiamide; Martens, 1964; Lowell, 1984). Certin pigments such as antimony oxide
and borates are also added to enhance the fire-resistant properties of such paints. Other
intumescent paint formulae have included polyvyl acetate and aciylic latexes (Martens,
1964).
(c) Aerosol colours

A large variety of paints have been packaged in aerosol tins for touching up and paint-
ing small areas, hobby aircrafts and other such objects. The pricipal tyes of paint used are
of alkyd composition, are thinned out to a low visity (generally with ketones and aromatic
hydrocrbons) to allow atomiztion, and contain a gaseous propellant which is liquid under
pressure (e.g., propane, butane and isbutane or dichloromethane, which has replaced di-
chlorofluoromethane in many countries). Other aerosol paint compositions inc1ude acrylic
and cellulosic lacquers and epoxyester systems (Cannell, 1967; Lowell, 1984; Connolly et al.,
1986).
(d) Paint and vamsh strippers

Before the advent of chemically-resistant sythetic paint vehicles, simple organic sol-
vents, mixures of solvents or solutions of caustic alkalis could be used to soften and strip
most paints and various fims (Downing, 1967).
Diehloromethane (see IARC, 1986, 1987q) is the most widely used paint striper base
of the organic group. Other chloriated hydrocrbns that have been used with dichlorome-
thane are, in order of decreasing effectiveness, 1,2-dichloroethane (see IARC, 1979f, pro-
pylene dichloride, dichloroethyl ether and ortho-dichlorobenzene (see IARC, 1982d, 1987r).
Other solvents that can soften paint fims are, in (approxiate) decreasing order of effec-
tiveness, ketones (e.g., methyl ethyl ketone), esters, aromatic hydrocrbns (toluene (see
monograph, p. 79) and naphthas), alcohols and aliphatic hydrocrbns (Downing, 1967).
Phenols and chloroacetic acids have been used in certin, speciic situations, such as for
stripping epoxy coatings. ln addition, many less common solvents have been used, sorne pri-
mariy for specific applications, inc1uding 2-nitropropane (see IARC, 1982e), dimethylfor-
mamide (see monograph, p. 171), dimethyl sulfoxide, tetrahydrofuran and 1,1,2-triethoxy-
ethane (Downing, 1967).
The main inorganic compounds that have been used as paint strippers are al
kalis, pri-
cipally in the form of a boiling solution of soium hydroxide and, to a lesser degree, potas-
sium hydroxide and lime or soa ash (anhydrous soium carbnate). Additives such as se-
questerig agents (e.g., gluconic acid and alkali metal gluconates), sudactants (e.g., soium
resinate, fatty acid soaps, soium lignin sulfonate, alkylarenesulfonates and petroleum sul-
fonates), water-soluble activators (e.g., phenolic compounds and their soium salts - cresol,
chlorocresol, sodium pentachlorophenate) and solvents (e.g., monoethers of ethylene glycol
and diethylene glycol) are often used to increase the stripping rates of inorganic paint remov-
ers. Paint removers that are used on steel, aluminium and other nonferrous alloys often
con tain corrosion inhibitors such as phosphates and chromates (Downing, 1967).
Molten and fused alkali baths are also employed to salvage ferrous metal parts with
defective finishes. At temperatures up to 50°C, even heavyfims of epoxyand silcone
coat-
ings can be removed rapidly (Downing, 1967).
PAI MAUFAClURE AN PAIG 355
2. Prouction and Use of Paint Products
2.1 Production
(a) Production processes

The modern manufacture of paints, which are generally made in batches, involves
three major steps: (i) mixg and griding of raw materils; (ü) tinting (shading) and thinning;
and (ii) filing operations (US Envionmental Protection Agency, 1979), as ilustrated in
Figure 1.
To produce a batch of paints, manufacturers first load an approprite amount of pig-
ment, resin and various liquid chemicals into a roller mil, which is a large, hollow, rotating
steel cylinder. Mils for griding prier or OOrk pigments are partlyfiled with steel balls that
measure about 1-2 cm in diameter. Mils for griding light colours usually contain flattened
ceramic spheres (pebbles) that measure about 3-4 cm in diameter. Depending on the tye of
mil used, the griding process lasts about 24 h or until the pigment has been ground to a
sufficiently fine paste. After the pigment has been ground, more resin and solvent are added
to the paste in the mil and the paste is 'let down'; that is, pumped out of the mil through a
strainer which removes the griding media to a holding tank.
Unti the 1930s, diying vegetable oils, priariy linseed oil, were used as binders in
paints and as liquids for griding. Since these oils were relatively por pigment wetters, con-
siderable energy was required for the griding (dispersion) steps. Earlier dispersion tech-
niques which involved pebble, steel ball or roller mils were replaced durig the 196s by
high-speed equipment which was first used to dissolve large chips of pigment dispersed in
solid binders. As pigment production and wetting characteritics improved, pigments were
dispersed satisfactoriy in high-speed dissolvers (Schurr, 1981).
The 'tinting' step involves comparig samples in the holding tank with colour stan-
dards. Small amounts of shading pastes, which are highly concentrated blends of ground
pigments, and a vehicle are added as required to match the standard. After the batch has
been shaded to specifications, it is thinned to the desired visity by the addition of solvent,
filtered and poured into containers for shipment (Schurr, 1981).
The complexity of paint technology is indicated by the numerous tyes and number of
raw materials required. A plant that produces a broad line of trade, maintenance and indus-
trial paints requires over 50 different raw materials and purchased intermediates, including
oils, pigments, extenders, resins, solvents, plasticizers, sudactants, metallc driers and other
materials (Federation of Societies for Paint Technology, 1973).
The modern manufacture of unpigmented lacquers is generally a cold-cutting or sim-
ple mixg operation. For example, cellulose nitrate solutions are made by adding the ni-
trated cellulose from alcohol-wet cotton to the solvent mixure and agitating for 1-2 h in a
paddle or turbine blade mixer. Alkyd resins, which are supplied in solution, can be added
directly to the cotton-based solution. Hard resins may be dissolved separately, usually in
toluene, and added as solutions, or the lumps may be dissolved directly in the cotton-based
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solution by stirg. Liquid plasticizers are th en simply poured or pumped into the mixg
tank (Hamilton & Early, 1972).
ln pigmented lacquer manufacture, the pigments are first dispersed in ball mils with
plasticizers, such as dibutyl phthalate, after which natural or sythetic resins are added. Cel-
lulose nitrate (or cellulose acetate) is then added and all the components are mixed in a verti-
cal mixer or churn before the finished product is run off into containers (Browne, 1983).
Modern manufacture of varnish is carred out in jacketed and enclosed kettles or set
pots, and the required high temperature is achieved by different methods, including the use
of heat-transfer media (Browne, 1983).
(b) Production figures

Traditionally, two distinct tyes of coatings are produced - trade sale paints and indus-
trial product finishes (Kine & Co., 1975).
Trade sale paints are sold through a variety of distribution channels to builders, con-
tractors, industril and commercil users and government units, as well as to the general
public. These products are priariy for exterior and interior coatings for houses and build-
ings, although sizeable amounts of automobile and machineiy refinishes, trafic paints and
marie shelf-goos are also dispensed through trade sales outlets (Kine & Co., 1975).
es or chemical coatings are produced to user specifcation and
Industrial product finish
sold to other manufacturers for factoiy applications on such items as automobiles, aircraft,
appliances, furniture and metal containers. They also include the categoiy of industrial
maintenance coatings, whieh are specially formulated and are used to main
tain industril
plants and equipment (e.g,. as resistance to corrosion). Within these majorproduct lines, the
paint industiy produces thousands of different products for a broad spectrum of substrat
es,
applications and customers (Kine & Co., 1975).
World production in 1971 of sudace coatings by selected countries or regions is given in
Thble 6. North America was the largest producer and manufactured 4.5 milion tonnes
(31.6%), while western Europe produced 4.2 milion tonnes (29.3%) and eastern Europe
produced slightly over 3 milion tonnes (21.6%; Kline & Co., 1975).
A more recent listing of paint production in the USA Japan and western Europe is
presented in Thble 7. Japan is now the largest paint producer outside of the USA followed by
the Federal Republic of Germany, France, the UK and ltaly. ln 1986, US paint production
was 967 milion gallons (approxiately 4340 thousand tonnes l (Reish, 1987).
Estimated consumption of various resins, pigments and solvents in the USA in 1975,
1980 and 1985 is shown in Thbles 8, 9 and 10. The major resins used in the production of
paints are alkyd, acilic and viyl resins, which accunt for over 60% of total resin use in the
USA. The main pigment was tItanium dioxide and the major solvents aliphatic hydrocr-
bons, toluene and xylenes (see monogrphs, p. 125).
The number of paint manufacturers in the USA has declined steadily from about 150
in 1963, to about 1300 in 1972 and 100 in 1987 (Kine & Co., 1975; Layman, 1985; Reish,
1987). ln the UK, there have been similar reductions froID about 50 paint manufacturers in
the 1950 to only about 25030 in 1985 (Lyman, 1985).
Table 6. World production (in thousands of tonnes) of

sunace coatings by selected country or region in 1971 a
Region Production % Distnbution
Nort Ainca
USA 4155 29.0
Canada 379 2.6
Thtal 4534 31.6
Europe
Germany, Federal Republic of 1192 8.3
France 744 5.2
UK 614 4.3
1 taly 420 2.9
Spain 207 1.4
Netherlands 192 1.3
Sweden 160 1.1
BelgiumlLmbourg 130 0.9
Austna 101 0.7
Denmark 84 0.6
Yugoslavia 80 0.5
Switzrland 68 0.5
Noiway 66 0.5
Finland 46 0.3
Portugal 32 0.2
Thrkey 27 0.2
Greece 20 0.1
Ireland 17 0.1
Total 4200 29.3
Easrn Europe (total) 3094 21.6
Asia
Japan 1140 7.9
India 67 0.5
Israel 49 0.3
Hong Kong 26 0.2
Otherb 304 2.1
Total 1586 11.1
Latin Amrie 484 3.4
Oceania
Australia 179 1.2
New Zeland 45 0.3
Other 4 0:0.1
Tota 228 1.6
Table 6 (contd)
Region Production % Distribution
Africa
South Africa 81 0.6
Other 138 1.0
Total 219 1.5
TOTAL 14 345 100.0
aprom Kline & Co. (1975)

b¡ncludes the Philippines and the Republic of Korea
qncludes Mexico
Table 7. Paint production (in thousands or tonnes)

in selected countries in 1984"
Country Prodution
USAb 4432
Japanc 1803
Gennany, Federal Republic of 1321
France 809
UKd 670
Italy 625
Spain 278
Netherlands 253
Sweden 189
Denmark 133
Belgium 131
Austria 126
Portugal 92
Finland 82
Switzerland 82
Norway 75
aprom Layman (1985), unless otherwise specified

bprom Connolly et al. (1986)
Cfrom Kikukawa (1986)
dProduction in milions of litres
Table 8. Estimated consumption (in thousands of tonnes)

of resins in paints and coatings in the USA a
Resin 1975 1980 1985
Alkydb 315 295 300

Acrylic 158 203 223
Vinyl 166 183 191
Epoxy 38 70 87
Urethane 33 54 58
Amino 29 33 41
Cellulosic 24 27 24
Polyesterb 11 33 62
Phenolic 11 11 12
Chlorinated rubber 6 8 8
Styene-butadiene 11 7 6
Natural 9 8 7
Unseed oil 23 35 36
Other resins 77 61 66
PlasticIzrs 20 19 17
Total 931 1047 1138
Ilrom Connolly et al. (1986)

boata for 1985 are not comparable to thos for previous years, since it is
probable that some of the resins reported as alkyds in previous years were
actually polyesters.
CJncludes unmodified epoxy resins plus hybrids (e.g., acrylate enhance-

ment)
Table 9. Estimated consumption (iD thousands of

tonnes) of pigments in paints and coatiDgs in the USAa
Use and pigment 1975 1980 1985
Colours
TItanium dioxide 323 354 393
Chrome 29 33 33
Iron oxide 43 53 57
Carbon black 8 8 9
Other coloured inorganic 7 5 5
Phthalocanine 1 2 2
Other organic 7 7 8
Aluminium 10 11 11
Filers
Calcium carbonate 175 175 213
1àlc 136 150 136
Clay 154 159 199
Table 9 (coDtd)
Use and pigment 1975 1980 1985
Filers (contd)
Silca 59 71 83
Baryes 34 33 34
Nepheline syenite and feldspar 19 34 35
Other extenders and filers 17 20 26
Other
Zinc oxide 10 12 12
Zinc dust 24 32 24
Led (corrosion inhibiting) 11 8 5
Cuprous oxide 2 4 3
Other 3 6 6
Thtal 1072 1177 1294
llrom Connolly et al. (1986)
Table 10. Estimated cODsumptioD (iD thousaDds oCtoDDes)

oC solveDts iD paints aDd coatings iD the USA a
Solven t 1975 1980 1985
Aliphatic hydrocrbons 533 456 433

Toluene 281 265 277
Xylenes 240 213 211
Other aromatic compounds 91 79 84
Bu tyl alcohols 50 59 68
Ethyl alcohol 82 84 95
lsopropyl alcohol 48 53 41
Other alcohols 25 26 29
Actone 79 79 89
Methyl ethyl ketone 145 154 152
Methyl isoutyl ketone 47 48 50
Ethyl acetate 31 35 36
Butyl acetates 55 62 71
Propyl acetates 8 8 9
Other ketones and esters 61 68 75
Ethylene glycol 23 29 34
Propylene glcol 14 12 14
Glycol ethers and ether esters 109 120 136
Chlonnated solvents 6 10 21
Misllaneous 16 16 15
Thtal 1944 1876 1940
aprom Connolly et al. (1986)

2.2 Use
(a) Uses and application methods

The various uses of paint products are described by tye of resin in Thble 11.
Paints are applied by direct contact or by deposition by atomiztion processes. The di-
rect-contact categoiy includes the familiar brushing and roller techniques, dipping, fIow
coating and electrodeposition. Deposition by atomiztion processes includes conventional
spray, hot spray and electrostatie spray. Machine roller coating is used in the industrial appli-
cation of paint to paper, plywoo and metal sheets, as weIl as continuous coating of metal
coils. Dip coating is used in large industrial operations (Browne, 1983; Lowell, 1984)
Probably the greatest advance made durig the early 190s in the field of paint technol-
ogy was the introduction of the spray gun. Hs advent helped in the introduction of cellulose
nitrate lacquers and their application to automobile assembly line production. Electrostatic
sprayig was first introduced in the USA in the 1940s and later in the UK. Electrodeposition
of paint, introduced durig the 1960s, is an important milestone in industrial painting and has
proven especially advantageous for painting automobile boies and other parts because of its
superior corrosion resistance. ln this technique, the coating is an aqueous dispersion of low
solid content. The binder particles carr ionized functional groups which may be positive or
negative, thus having either anodic or cathodic deposition. The anodic tye tyically uses
amino- or alkali-solubilized polycarbxylie resins and the cathodic tye, salts of amine-
treated resins, such as epoxy resins (Brewer, 1984; Lowell, 1984).
(b) Use pattern

Use of paints in the major markets in the USA in 1985 is presented in Thble 12. Distri-
bution of use of resins and the other main components of paints in the USA in 1985 is shown
in Thble 13.
2.3 Exposures iD the workplace
(a) Introduction
No data on the numbers of paint production workers or painters worldwide were avail-
able to the Workig Group. Acrding to a 5% census sample of the US population in 1970
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1970), paint manufacturers
employed approxiately 62 00 workers. Extrapolating from the proportion of world pro-
duction of sudace coatings contnbuted by the USA (see Thble 6), it can be estimated that the
total number of paint production workers in the world is approxiately 20 00. Acrding
to the same US census survey, there were 362 00 construction/maintenance painters and
106 00 painters/paperhangers/decorators in the USA. On the basis of these figures, it can
be similarly estimated that the number of painters worldwide must be at least several million.
Table 11. Uses of polymer systems in industrial coatingsa
Polymer systems Coil Metal Appli- Furni- Hard- Lumber Marine Mainte- Auto- Auto- Tins Paper-
an ce ture board and nance mobile mobile board
plywoo manu- refinish
facture
Natural and modified polymers

Drying oils + + + + + +
Cellulos esters + + + + + +
Cellulos ethers + +
Condensation sytems
Alkyd resins + + + + + + + + + + + +
Polyesters, high molecular weight + + + + +
Amino resins + + + + + + + +
Phenolic resins + + + + + + + +
~
Polyamides + + + + +
Polyurethanes + + + + + + +
~
Epoxy resins + + + + + + + + +
Silcones + + + + +
Vinyl polymers and copolymers based on:
~
C
Butadiene + +
Acrylic or methacrylic ester + + + + + + + + + + + SJ
Vinyl acetate + + + + + q
Vinyl chloride + + + + + + + + + + C
Vinylidene chloride + + + ~
Styrene + + + + + + + +
tI
Vinyl acetal or butyal + + + + +
Fluorocarbons
Resin combinations
+ ~
Acrylic and amino + + + + + + + +
Acrylic and epoxy + + + +
Acrylic and silicone + + + ~
Alkyd and amino + + + + + + + + + Z
Alkyd and acrylic + + + + + + + 0
Alkyd and epoxy + + + +
Alkyd and silcone + + +
Polyester and epoxy + + + + + +
Polyester and silicone + + +
Cellulose ester and urethane +
Alkyd, acrylic and amino +
Polyester and amino + +
Phenolic and epoxy + + +
Epoxy and amino +
Phenolic and amino +
Alkyd and vinyl chloride polymers + +
w
0\
"From Lowell (1984) w
Table 12. Consumption or paints and coatings

by major market in the USA, 1985a
Paints and coatings % % of total
Architectural coatings 46
Water-base 73
Solvent-base 27
Product finishes 38
Miscllaneousb 32
Containers 15
Wooen fumiture 14
Automotive 12
Machineiy 10
Metal fumiture 7
Coils 5
Woo flat stock 4
Special purp coatings 16
1taffic 28
Auto refinishes 25
Speial maintenance 19
Aerosls 10
Other: 18
tlrom Connolly et al. (1986)
bJncludes appliance, other transporttion, marine, paper
and foil, and other
CJncludes paints for roofs, bridges, marine shelf goo, met-
ais and others
A wide range of potential ocupational health hazrds is present in relation to the man-
ufacture and use of paints, varnishes and lacquers. Coatings are complex mixures contain-
ing a variety of groups of substances, such as organic solvents, organic and inorganic pig-
ments, exenders, resins and additives such as catalysts, surfactants, driers, plasticiers and
biocides. Each of these categories covers a range of tens or hundreds of individual chemical
compounds (Connollyet al., 1986). It has been reported that over 300 individual paint COff-
ponents are used worldwide.
Occpational expsure results predominantly from the inhalation of gases and va-
pours, mainly organic, from solvents, binders and additives, of mainly inorganic pigment
dusts and of complex inorganic and organic mixures such as dusts from dried coatings and
mists generated durig the sprayig of paint. The other major route of ocupational exp-
sure is through cutanoous contact with the various paint compounds, many of which can be
absorbed through the ski. Ingestion related to persnal work habits constitutes another
potential route of entiy.
PAI MAUFACfURE AN PAIING 365
Table 13. Distribution of use of components of paints in the USA in 1985"

Use Proportion by use (wt% of total) Total
Resins Pigments Additives Solvents Water (wt% of
grand total)
Product finishes
Woo fumiture and fixures 25.7 2.9 0.1 66 5.3 4.4
Woo mat stock 38 20 0.6 24 17 1.7
Metal fumiture and fixtures 32 25 0.1 36 6.7 2.8
Containers and closures 38 6.2 0.3 43 13 4.8
Sheet, strip and coil 32 26 0.1 33 8.1 2.3
Major appliances 37 24 0.1 33 5.4 1.4
Other applicances 39 22 0.1 35 3.5 0.8
Automobile
Topcoat 32 16 0.05 46 5.7 1.7
Prmer 23 24 0.3 29 23 1.7
Underbody components and parts 26 18 0.2 35 21 1.1
1lcks and buss 31 16 0.1 27 25 1.2
Railroad 25 25 0.1 33 17 0.4
Other transporta tion 38 25 neg 38 neg 0.4
Machineiy and equipment 30 27 0.2 38 5 4.2
Electrical insulation 51 0.0 0.0 49 neg 1.1
Paper, fim and foil 39 2 0.1 43 17 1.0
Other product finishes 27 17 0.2 40 16 5.2
Total 31 17 0.2 41 11 36.8
Architectural coatings
Interior water-basd
Mat 14 40 2 1.6 43 16.5
Semigloss and gloss 18 23 2 9.5 48 4.5
Other 18 21 1.5 0.2 57 1.3
Interior solvent-based
Mat 21 58 0.2 30 0.0 1.1
Semiglos and gloss 27 41 0.1 32 0.0 2.6
Vamish 33 1.4 0.2 27 0.0 0.7
Other 26 21 0.2 43 0.0 0.7
Exterior water-based
Mat (house paints) 19 35 25 4.2 39 11.2
Thm 20 23 2.6 3.3 51 0.9
Stains 17 19 1.5 3.5 59 1.4
Other 17 24 1.7 5 52 0.8
Exerior solvent-based
Mat (house paints) 28 38 0.5 33 0.0 2.1
Enamel 42 26 0.3 32 0.0 2.4
Prmer 25 37 0.7 37 0.0 0.7
Vamish 58 0.0 0.4 42 0.0 0.3
Stains 41 0.0 0.4 59 0.0 1.2
Other 24 40 0.5 36 0.0 0.3
Total 20 33 1.7 12 33 48.5
Table 13 (contd)
Use Proportion by us (wt% of total) lOtal

Resins Pigments Addi tives Solvents Water (wt% of
grand total)
Special-purp coatings
Maintenance 36 23 0.2 33 8.2 2.8
Marine
Pleasure 50 0.0 0.5 50 0.0 0.04
Commercial and maintenance 35 29 0.1 35 0.5 1.1
Automobile refinishing 23 22 0.2 55 neg 3.2
ltaffic paints 15 59 0.1 26 0.9 5.6
Aerosol 15 5.5 0.1 80 neg 1.1
Other 21 46 0.2 32 0.1 3.2
Total 23 38 0.1 37 1.8 16.4
Grand total (thousands of tonnes) 1138 1294 42 1217 884 4536
tlrom Connolly et al. (1986); neg, negligible
Workers in the painting trades may also be expsed to a number of chemical agents
originating from other operations that they or fellow workers are involved in, such as clean-
ing and preparig by chemical or mechanical means the object to be painted or cleaning
themselves and the painting equipment.
The main substances to which workers may be expsed are listed in Thble 14. The main
occupational agents for which quantitative expsure data are available are presented in the
following sections, coverig the major paint trades.
Exposure to solvent mixuresis often described in the followig sections using a sum-
maiy measure, the cumulative expsure index (CEl), Le., the sum of ratios of various mea-
sured levels to the respective ocupational expsure limits. If this index exceeds unity, the
combined expsure to different components of a solvent mixure is considered to exceed the
recommended expsure limit. The values of the CEl are not always comparable because the
exposure limits may vaiy with countiy and time.
ln some painting operations, personal protective equipment is worn. However, it is
common industril hygiene practice to determine potential expsure by monitorig the
breathing zone outside such protective gear. The results reported are thus not necessariy
actual personal expsures.
Table 14. Main substances (and classes of substances) to which workers may be exposed
in the painting trades"
Material Prncipal us or sources of emissions IARC
Monographb
Acrylates (e.g., ethyl acrylate, methyl methacry- Acrylic resins, ultraviolet curing paints IARC (1979c)
late)
Acrylic resins Binders IARC (1979c)
Alcohols, aliphatic (e.g., methanol, isopropanol, Solvents (lacquers), paint removers
n-butanol)
Alkalis (e..g. soium hydroxide, potassium hydrox- Paint removers
ide
Alkyd resins Binders
Aluminium, powder Pigment
Amides, aliphatic (e.g., dimethylforramide) Solvents This volume
Amines (mono), aliphatic (e.g., diethylamine) and Water-bas paints
alkanolamines (e.g.,2-amino-2-methyl-I-pro-
panol)
Amines (poly), aliphatic (e.g., diethylenetriamine) Curing agents (epoxy resins)
Amines, aromatic (e.g., meta-phenylenediamine, Curing agents (epoxy resins) IARC (1978b)
4,4-methylenedianiline) IARC (1986d)
Amino resins (e.g., urea-forraldehyde resins, Binders IARC (1982a)
melamine-forraldehyde resins)
Ammonia Water-basd paints
Anhydrides, organic (e.g., maleIc anhydride, Alkyd resin sythesis, curing agents
phthalic anhydride, trimelltic anhydride) (epoxy resins)
Antimony compounds (e.g., antimony trioxide) Pigments, fire retardant pigments This volume
Arnic compounds (e.g., copper aceto-arsnate) Antifouling agents IARC (198Oc)
Asestos Filler, spackling and taping compounds, IARC (1977b)
talc
Barium compounds (e.g., barium sulfate, barium Pigments
carbona te )
Benzoyl peroxide Catalyst IARC (1985c)
Bisphenol A Epoxy resins
Cadmium compounds (e.g., cadmium sulfide, cad- Pigments IARC (1976c)
mium sulfoslenide)
Calcium compounds (e.g., calcium sulfate, calcium Filers
carbonate)
Camphor Plasticizr
Carbon black Pigment IARC (1984)
Cellulos ester resins (e.g., cellulos nitrate, cellu- Binders
los acetate)
Chloracetamide Fungicide (water-based paints)
Chromium compounds (e.g., chromic oxide, Pigments IARC (1980a)
chromates)
Chlorofluorocrbons Spray-can paint propellants IARC (1986e)
Clays (e.g., bentonite) Filers
Table 14 (contd)
Material Prncipal uses or sources of emissions IARC
Monograph"
Coal-tar and asphalt Special waterproof coatings (ships, IARC (1985b)

tanks, pipes)
Cobalt compounds Pigments, driers
Copper and copper compounds (e.g., bronz pow- Pigments, antifouling agents
der, cuprous oxide)
Dyes and pigments, organic (e.g., aromatic azo Pigments IARC (1974b,
dyes, phthalocanines, rhodamine) 1978a)
Epichlorohydrin Epoxy resins IARC (1976b)
Epoxy resins Binders IARC (1976a)
Esters, aliphatic (e.g., ethyl acetate, isopropyl ace- Solvents
tate)
Ethers, aliphatic (e.g., isopropyl ether, tetrahydro- Solvents
furan) and glycol ethers (e.g., methylcelloslve)
Fonnaldehyde Amino resin varnishes, biocide (water- IARC (19813)
based paints)
Gasoline Solvent IARC (1989a)
Glycidyl ethers (e.g., n-butyl glycidyl ether and Epoxy resin diluents and constituents This volume
bisphenol A diglycidyl ether)
Glycols (e.g., ethylene glycol) Polyester resins, water-based paints
Hydrocrbons, aliphatic (e.g., hexanes, heptanes) Solvents (naphthas, white spirits)
Hydrocrbons, aromatic (e.g., benzene, toluene, Solvents (naphthas, white spirits), paint IAC (1982b);
xylenes, trimethylbenzene) removers this volume
Hydrocarbons, chlorinated (e.g., dichloromethane, Solvents, paint removers, metal de- IARC
1,1,1- trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, trich- greasers (1979g,h,i;
loroethylene) 1986c)
Hydrochloric acid (hydrogen chloride) Catalyst (amino resins)
Iron compounds (e.g., iron oxides, ferrc ferroca- Pigments IARC (1972)
nide)
Isocanates (e.g., 1,6-hexamethylene diisoanate, Tho-component polyurethane resins IARC (1986b)
toluene diisoanate)
lsothIazolones (e.g., 1,2-benzisthiazolin-3-one) Biocides in tinned foo
Kerosne Solvent IARC (1989b)
Ketones, aliphatic (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ke- Solvents, lacquers, paint removers
tone, cyclohexanone,. isophorone, diacetone alco-
hol) .
Led compounds (e.g., lead chromate, lead Prmers, pigments, driers IARC (1980a)
oxides, basic lead carbnate, lead naphthenate)
Magnesium compounds (e.g., magnesium Filers
carbonate)
Manganes naphthenate Drier
Mercuiy compounds (e.g., mercuric oxide, Fungicides (water-base paints)
phenyl mercuric acetate)
Methyl cellulos Thickener (water-base paints)
Table 14 (contd)
Material Prncipal use or sources of emissions lARC

Monographsb
Mica FiUer
Molybdenum compounds (e.g., lead molydate) Pigments
Nickel, metal powder Pigment IARC (1976c)
Nitroparaffins (e.g., nitroethane, 2-nitropropane) $olvents IARC (1982e)
Oils, vegetable (e.g., linseed oil, tung oil) Binders
Oxmes (e.g., methyl ethyl ketoxime) Anti-oxidants, anti-skinning agents
Petroleum solvents (e.g., Stoddard solvent, $olvents, paint removers This volume
VM & P naphtha)
Phenol Phenol-formaldehyde resins, paint re- This volume
mover (formerly)
Phenol- formaldehyde resins Binders
Phenols, chlorinated (e.g., pentachlorophenol) Fungicides (water-base paints) IARC (1979j)
Phosphates, organic (e.g., tricresyl-orto- Plasticizrs
phosphate, tributyl phosphate)
Phthalate esters (e.g., dibutyl phthalate, dioctyl Plasticizrs IARC (1982c)
phthalate)
Polychlorinated biphenyls Plasticizrs IARC (1978c)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocrbns Speial waterproof coatings (ships, IARC (1983b)
tanks, pipe)
Polyester resins Binders
Polyrethane resins Binders IARC (1979k)
Polynylacetate resins Binders IARC (1979b)
Pyolyis fumes Removal of paint by buming; heat-
curing operations
Rosin Binder
Rubber, sythetic (e.g., butyl rubber, styene- Binders (special paints, water-based IARC (1982f)
butadiene rubber) paints)
Shellac resin Binder
Silca, amorphous (e.g., diatomaceous earth) Filer IARC (1987b)
Silca, crytallne (e.g., quart) FiUer, sand-blasting operation IARC (1987b)
Silcates (e.g., soium silcate, aluminium silcate) FiUers
Stearates (e.g., aluminium, zinc stearates) Sops, flattening agents
Strontium compounds (e.g., strontium chromate, Pigments IARC (1980b)
strontium sulfide)
Styene Polyester resins IARC (1979d)
Styene oxide Diluent (epoxy resins) IARC (1985d)
Sulfuric acid Metal cleaner
1àlc Filer IARC (1987c)
nn, metal powder Lacquers (tinplate containers)
nn, organic compounds (e.g., tri-n-butyltin Antifouling agents, catalyts
oxide, dibutyltin laurate)
ntanium dioxide Pigment This volume
paa- Thluenesulfonic acid Catalyt (amino resins)
'Irpntine $olvent
Table 14 (contd)
Material Prncipal uses or sources of emissions lAC

Monographb
Vinyl acetate Polyvnylacetate re3ins IARC (1986a)

Zinc and compounds (e.g., zinc metal powder, Pigments, catalysts, bodying agents IARC (1980b)
zinc oxide, zinc chromate)
tlrom Stemer (1941); Piper (1965); Philips (1976); O'Brien & Hurley (1981); O'Neil (1981); Dufva (1982);
Krvanek (1982); Ringen (1982); Adams (1983); Selikoff (1983); National Institute for Ocupational Safety and
Health (1984); Swedish Work Environment Fund (1987) and previous sections
hSee also IARC Monograph Supplement 7
(b) Manufacture of paints and related products

The manufacture of paints and related products such as varnishes, lacquers, enamels
and paint removers involves the handling and processing of a complex array of raw materils,
e.g., pigments, extenders, solvents, binders and additives, described in section 1, implyig
overall potential worker expsure to hundreds of chemicals (National Institute for Occupa-
tional Safety and Health, 1984). Furthermore, raw materils are often subjected to chemical
changes such as durig polymerition and cokig, thus creating a variety of new hazards.
The potential for ocupational expsure depends largely on the basic tyes of products
being manufactured, the degree of automation of the manufacturig process, the availabilty
of exposure control measures and the nature of the specific job held. Various job classifica-
tion systems have been developed for the paint manufacturig industiy. Workers have thus
been'regrouped accrding to the basic product made - water-based paints, solvent-based
paints, lacquer and vehicle - and to functions - pre-batch assembler, mixer, tinter, filer,
tank and tub cleaner, reactor operator, varnish coker, filter press operator (Morgan et al.,
1981). Additional functions are raw materils handler, laboratory personnel and others such
as packagers, maintenance persnnel, shippers and warehouse workers (National Institute
for Occpational Safety and Health, 1984).
Heavy expsures, both by inhalation and ski contact, ocur specifically in operations
that can involve manual handling procedures such as weighing dry ingredients (pigments,
extenders, resins, additives), loading them into mixg equipment, adding solvents to mils,
and cleaning equipment (mixers, mils, reactors, kettles, tanks, filters). Additional expsure
to solvents ocurs in thinning, tinting and shading procedures, filingoperations and filterig
of varnishes. The cokig of varnishes may produce emissions of various aldehydes such as
acrolein, of phenol, ketones, glycerie and fatty acids as well as dusts or vapours of maleic,
phthalic and fumaric anhydrides durig the loading of kettles. The production of powder
coatings can be assoted with signifcant expsure to dúst from resin powders, pigments,
curig agents and other additives. ln the manufacture of radiation-crable cotings, exp-
sures may ocr to monomers such as ethyl acilate, other acilates and photoinitiators.
Caustic solutions may be used in the cleaning of disersion equipment (National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, 1984). ln general, importnt opportunities for expsure
result from the presence of spils and the continuous spatterig from machines (Adams,
1983).
(i) Exsure to solvents
Because of their volatilty, solvents are ubiquitous air contaminants in paint manufac-
turig industries.
Expsure levels measured for various categories of workers in nine Swedish companies
and reported as the sums of standardized concentrations are summaried in Thble 15. High
concentrations of solvents were found in all operations, the worst situation being manual
cleaning of equipment with solvents. Lol exhaust ventilation was common, and respirators
were not often used. Of the 14 tyes of solvents monitored, the most common were xylene,
toluene, butanol and esters (Ulfvarson, 1977).
Expsure to organic solvents was measured in the breathing zone of 17 Swedish male
paint industiy workers presumed to have the highest expsure of 47 workers employed in
seven facto ries in Sweden, by collecting air with batteiy-driven syges and analysing with
two portble gas chromatographs. The median expsure values were (mg/m3): xylene, 111
(16 persons); toluene, 11 (16 persons); isobutanol, 5 (15 persons); ethylacetate, 20 (14 per-
sons); n-butylacetate, 14 (13 persons); ethanol, 13 (13 persons); n-butanol, 7 (13 persons);
methylacetate, 12 (eight persons); dichloromethane, 719 (three persons); white spirts, 45
(three persons); and isopropanol, 129 (one person) (Haglund et al., 1980).
Overall solvent expsure of workers known to be expsed to toluene was measured in
seven paint manufacturig companies in New Zealand. Mean totallevels of solvents ranged
from 19 ppm in one company (five worker ' sampled) to 130 ppm in another one (three work-
ers sampled), with individual values ranging from 7 to 297 ppm. Toluene, xylene and ethyl-
benzene were found in the atmosphere of all seven plants; the frequencies of other solvents
were as follows: heptane, 6/7; n-hexane and methylethylketone, 5/7; acetone, 4/7; pentane,
methylisbutylketone, ethanol and n-butylacetate, 3/7; and isopropanol, 1/7 (Winchester &
Madjar, 1986).
ln another study in Sweden, 47 employees of seven paint manufácturig industries,

known to be expsed to solvents and inc1uding nine manual c1eaers of paint mixg equip-
ment, were surveyed for expsure to 12 solvents. The results are summaried in Thble 16.
The main expsures with regard to both frequency and weight were to xylene and toluene.
Outstandingly high expsures ocurred durig the manual cleaningof equipment (Lundberg
& Håkansson, 1985).
ln a study on the effects of long-term exposure to solvents in the paint industty in
Sweden, overall solvent expsure in a large paint manufacturig company was estimated for
various work tasks over three historical periods. The results are presented in Thble 17 in
terms of the CEl, i.e., the sum of the ratios of the variousexpsure levels to the respective
Swedish ocupational standards in 1982 for the various solvents (0rbaek et al., 1985).
Table 15. Exposure levels (personal breathing-zone samples) to combined organic

solvents during various paint manufacturing operations"
Operation Sampling condition Combined exp Main solventsC No. of samples in
sureb which solvent found
No. of Samplìng Mean Range
samples time (min)
Charging solvents 33 4-43 2.0 0.2-16 Xylene 16

Mesitylene 4
Toluene 4
Styene 2
Butanol 9
Pigment dispersion 18 9-66 1.5 0.2-4.4 Xylene 13
Butanol 4
TInting, thinning 14 15-32 0.9 0.1-2.0 Xylene 11
Butanol 3
Can filling, paints 39 11-32 1.3 0.02-6.6 Xylene 23
AIkanes 4
Butanol 7
Benzne 4
1òluene 6
Can filing, thinners 14 9-20 1.8 0.1-7.4 Toluene 3
Xylene 5
1lchloroethylene 3
Esters 2
Actone 1
Manual cIeaning of 51 3-28 5.7 0.5-30 Xylene 33
equipment with sol- Butanol 8
vents 1òluene 13
Dichloromethane 9
Esters 7
Ketones 4
tlrom U1fvarsn (1977)
bSum of ratios of individual solvent levels to their occupational expoure Iimits
CSolvents constituting at least one-fifth of individual combined expure levels
The overall improvement in exposure levels over time has been attributed in large part
to better control measures and to the increasing production of water-based paints. These
results are corroborated by other estimates of the evolution of average solvent expsures in
the Swedish paint manufacturig industiy with the followig values for the overaii CEl: 2 in
1950-69, 1.5 in 1970-74, 0.7 in 1975-79 and 0.3 since 1980 (Lundberg, 1986). Heavy naphthas,
toluene and benzene are reported to have been the most commonly used solvents durg
the 1930s, presumably with high exposure levels. Substitutes for aromatic hydrocrbns,
Table 16. Exposure levels (8-h time-weighted average) to organic

solvents or 47 paint manuracturing workersa
Solvent No. exp Exure (mg/m3)
Median Range
Xylene 44 82 1-6070
Toluene 43 10 1-1260
lsobutanol 36 4 1- 1040
n-Butanol 35 6 1-1540
Ethanol 33 12 1- 1090
Ethyl acetate 32 26 1-767
n-Butyl acetate 31 9 1-1680
Whte spirits 18 44 5-74
Methyl acetate 11 13 3-169
Dichloromethane 5 719 10-2420
Methyl ethyl ketone 5 39 8-124
lsopropanol 3 129 6-258
aprom Lundberg & Hãkanssn (1985)
Table 17. Average combined organic solvent exposurea or paint indus.

try workers in various work areas over three periodsb
Work area Period
1969 and earlIer 1970-75 1976 and later
Industrial paint section

Mixng 2 1.3 0.7
Grinding 3 1.8 0.9
TInting- finishing 2.2 1.5 0.6
Thpping 2.2 1.2 0.6
Cleaning of vessls 4.5 3 1.5
Alkyd paint setion (mixng, 0.1-0.2
tinting, tapping)
Small batch manufacturing lA 0.7
Piller manufacturing 0.2 0.15 0.1
Storage 0.2 0.15 0.1
Cellulos paint section 2.5
Laboratory
Product development 0.7 004 0.15
Controllaboratory 1 0.75 004
Procss engineering 2 1 004
asum of ratios of individual solvent levels to their ocupational expure limits; solvents con-
sidered: acetone, butanol, butylacetate, ethanol, ethyl acetate, white spirits, methyl isobutyl
ketone, toluene and xylene
bprom 0rbaek et al. (1985)
including turpentine, decaline and tetraline, would have been used durig the Second World
War and immediately after. From 1950 until today, the most commonly used solvents would
have been xylene, toluene, white spirts, ethanol, butanol, ethyl acetate and butyl acetate.
While operations were largely manual before the late 196s, improvements such as locl ex-
haust ventilation were gradually introduced in the mid-l96s.
(ii) Expsure to dusts
ln a Swedish investigation coverig ten factories manufacturig paint and industrial
coatings, dust was round durig tinting, handling of bags, compressing empty bags, floor
c1eaning and emptyg air-cleaner fiters. The principal expsure to dust, however, was
found durig charging of raw materials. Sixty-one breathing-zone samples taken over dura-
tions of 5 min to 8 h indicated total dust expsure levels of 1.7-70 mg/m3. Raw materials
charged included inorganic and organic pigments and filers, chromium and lead com-
pounds, talc and silca. The highest total dust levels (range, 7.7-70 mg/m3; four samples)
were found in a powder coatings factory. Locl exhaust ventiation was widely used, but few-
er than half of the wotkers wore respirators. A few air samples were obtained to evaluate
exposure to specifie dusts during charging operation in some of the companies. Quartz was
measured in five factories, with levels ranging from 0.01 to 0.9 mg/m3. Asbestos levels
ranged from 0.3 to 5 fibres/cm3 (four factories). Chromium levels (as Cr03) ranged from
0.003 to 1.6 mg/m3 (seven factories), while lead levels ranged from 0.00 to 4 mg/m3 (three
factories; Ulfvarson, 1977). Bloo lead concentrations monitored in 80 workers in 12 paint
manufacturig companies in Finland were 5-72 J.g/lOO mL. The highest value was found in a
spray pain ter (fola et al., 1976).
(ii) Other expsures

Expsure to ammonia was reported while charging it for use in water-based paints in
the Swedish paint industiy, at average levels of 5080 ppm (35-56 mg/m3). ln one case, more
than 700 ppm (490 mg/m3) was measured. The levels of pentachlorophenol and phthalic
anhydride were below the standards of 0.5 mg/m3 and 2 ppm (12 mg/m3), respectively (Ulf-
varson, 1977). The concentration of diethylene triamine was below the detection limit (0.01
mg/m3) in the breathing zone of two workers canning epoxy paint curig agents in a Finnish
paint factoiy (Bäck & Saarien, 1986).
ln a US paint manufacturig company, the 8-h time-weighted average (I A) concen-
tration of viyl acetate ranged from 1.0 to 8.4 ppm (3.6-30.6 mg/m3; four samples). Personal
and area air samples indicated concentrations of ethyl aciylate ranging from below the limit
of detection to 5.8 ppm (23.8 mg/m3); concentrations ofbutyl acetate were all below the limit
of detection (16 samples), except one sample at 0.9 ppm (4.7 mg/m3; Belanger & Coye, 1980).
(c) Consruction painting an lacquering

Usual painters' work in the construction industry involves the use of a rather limited
number of tyes of coatings - mainly decrative water- or solvent-based paints and woo
lacquers and varnishes. The potential for expsure to a variety of substances (mainly 801-
vents and pigments) is high, however: painting pedormed inside buildings, where por ven-
tilation opportunities, especiaUy in confined spaces such as small rooms, cupboards, bath-
rooms, can lead to very high levels of contaminants; whereas when painting the outside of
buildings (facades, windows, roofs), natural ventiation is usually effective. Painting of new
buildings usually involves mainly water-based paints and spraying equipment; however, dur-
ing renovation or maintenance, solvent-based paints are stil widely used and work is usually
pedormed by hand with a brush or roller.
Sudaces to be coated can be made of plaster- or gysum-based wall-board composite
materials, concrete, woo such as for widows, doors and floorig, and more rarely metal.
Construction painters may spend a goo proportion of their time in preparatoiy or accessoiy
work. ln a Finnish study on construction painters, 92 of 231 (40%) painters estimated that
they spent more time on such work than actually painting (Riala et al., 1984). Removing old
paint and preparing sudaces in general may involve the use of paint strippers containing sol-
vents such as dichloromethane, of gas-operated blow torch units or hot air guns which may
generate organic pyrolysis fumes, metallc fumes and dusts from pigments containing inter
alia chromium, lead and arsenic compounds. Other accessoiy tasks may be polishing, sand-
ing or sandblasting operations, which generate old paint, quartz, concrete, plaster, woo and
metal dusts. Acid or alkali washing solutions may be used, as well as steam generators for
removig wallpaper, which release carbn monoxide-cntaining exhaust gases. Preparig
sudaces also often involves filing cracks and holes using plaster, cement, sealers, spackling,
taping and dry wall materials, putties and woo filers, implyig possible additional exposure
to inorganic dusts and fibres (including asbestos) and solvents. Further expsure stems from
the use of solvents durig the cleaning of equipment as well as for personal cleaning (Rin-
gen, 1982; Huré, 1986; Swedish Work Envionment Fund, 1987).
The use of solvents in construction paints, and thus painters' expsures, has evolved
radically with time. Early whitewashes and distempers contained no organic solvent, and oil
paints contained only about 10% turpentine or, later, white spirts. Alkyd paints introduced
in the 196 required approxiately 50% of a solvent such as white spirts. With the intro-
duction of epoxy paints for special sudaces such as floors, other solvents such as alcohols,
esters and aromatic hydrocrbns became more widely used. Water-based latex paints were
introduced in the 1950s but were more widely accepted in the 196s and 1970s, to become
predominant in the 1980s; now, an estimated 6080% of building trade coatings are water-
based (Dufva, 1982; Hansen, 1982; Riala et al., 1984). Vmylic and aciylic water-based paints
are the most common, and these contain onlya small percentage of organie solvents, mainly
alcohols or glycol ethers.
The 8-h 1W A expsure to solvents of 45 Dutch maintenance painters workig on 12
different projects has been measured. Summed air concentrations averaged LOI mg/m3 (geo-
metric mean) for the whole group and 59 mg/m3 for a subgroup of 20 house painters who
applied only alkyd resins by brush and roller. Benzene was detected at only two of the sites
and at low concentrations (up to 0.2 mg/m3). Toluene concentrations were below 4 mg/m3,
except at one site where it reached 43 mg/m3. C2- and C3-substituted benzenes and Ca-C11
alkanes were found at most sites, originating mainly from the use of white spirts. Workers
using chlororubber paint in a pumping station were expsed to carbn tetrachloride at levels
ranging from 10 to 17 mg/m3; the highest level of toluene was also found at this site (Schef-
fers et al., 1985).
The expsure of Danish hou se painters to 13 solvents was investigated in 1974. Overall
exposure, standardized to relevant ocupational expsure limits, was above the permissible
limit for five of 11 maxal values, reaching up to 34 times the permissible limit. Individual
solvent average expsure levels were especially elevated for benzene (55 ppm (175 mg/m3);
41 samples), believed to originate from thinners, and for trichloroethylene (91 ppm (490 mg/
m3); 33 samples). The origin of the trichloroethylene was not specified (Mølhave & Lajer,
1976).
ln Finland, concentrations of Stoddard solvent durig application of solvent-cntain-
ing alkyd paints were 22-65 ppm (seven samples) and those durig application of woo pre-
servatives or alkyd varnishes, 68-280 (four samples). The overall solvent CEl durig parquet
floor varnishing using cellulose nitrate lacquers and urea-formaldehyde varnish ranged
from 0.6 to 2.3, accrding to Finnish ocupational expsure limits. Actone, ethanol, isbu-
tanol and butyl acetate were the main solvents used. Expsure to formaldehyde durig var-
nishing averaged 2.8-.5 ppm (3.4-5.5 mg/m3; Riala, 1982). The rik of formation ofbis( chlo-
romethyl)ether (see IARC, 1987s) from the reaction between formaldehyde and hydro-
chloric acid (used as a hardener) in urea-formaldehyde varnishes has been evoked (Dufva,
1982), but levels higher than 0.2 ppb (:; 0.9 J.g/m3) have not been found (O'Neil, 1981).
ln a study in Finland mainly of maintenance construction workers, the overaii average
airborne concentration of solvents durig alkyd and urethane painting and varnishing, ex-
pressed as solvent naphtha expsure, was 132 ppm (77 samples); this was much higherwhen
there was no ventilation, either natural or artificil (197 ppm; 46 samples), than with ventila-
tion (38 ppm; 31 samples). Highest concentrations were observed durig painting in small,
unventilated rooms (303 ppm) and on large sudaces such as walls and ceilings with no venti-
lation (20 ppm with roller and brush painting and 243 ppm with spray painting). 1àkig into
accunt other activities, e.g., use of water-based paints, the overall average 8-h 1W A exp-
sure level was 40 ppm (Riala et al., 1984).
Ai concentrations (mg/m3) of organic vapours generated durig the application of wa-
ter-based paints were measured by personal sampling in Denmark, as follows: butyl acilate,
0-2; diethylene glycol butyl ether, 4-5; diethylene glycol methyl ether, 8-32; dipropylene gly-
col methyl ether, 30-; ethylene glycol butyl ether, 2-6; ethylene glycol phenyl ether,
0-.7; propylene glycol, 2-70; 2,2,4-triethylpentane-l,3 diol monoisbutyte, 0.5-12; tri-
ethylamine, 4-; and white spirts, 4075. Concentrations of two gases, formaldehyde (at
0-.4 mg/m3) and ammonia (at 2-12 mg/m3) were also reported (Hansen et al., 1987).
ln a Swedish study of renovation spray painters, very high concentrations of white spir-
its (120150 ppm) were measured durig use of alkyd-tye paints and 100100times low-
er concentrations of solvents durig use of acilate-polyvyl acetate-based water-bme
paints. Dust concentrations, originating from paint mist, were higher durig use of water-
based paints (77-110 mg/m3) than solvent-based paits (17-27 mg/m3). Inorganc substances
were found to represent 80% and 70-85% of the dust content, respectively. Exsures to
substances such as lead (in solvent-based paints) and zinc (in both tyes of paints) were
10-23% and 1-2% of their respective expsure limits (Bobjer & Knave, 1977).
The mean bloo lead level measured in 1962 for a group of 107 decorative and house
painters in the USA was 23 llgllOO g bloo, similar to that in control groups (Siegel, 1963).
(d) Painting, vamishing and lacquering in the wood industry

Application of clear varnish or lacquer finishes on furniture represents the main use of
coatings in the woo industiy. Paints, varnishes and lacquers are also used in the production
of various wooen raw materials (e.g., composite woo boards) and miscellaneous wooen
articles (e.g., toys, tableware). Until the mid-195Os, cellulose ester-tye lacquers were al-
most the only ones used in the fumiture industiy; however, amino resin-based, polyurethane
and polyester coatings now constitute the main coatings in the industry (Swedish Work Envi-
ronment Fund, 1987).
Workers are expsed mainly through inhalation or cutaneous absorption of solvents
either from paint mist or from vapours generated by sprayig operations, from vapours
evolved from finished products or from auxiaiy work such as mixg the coatings, cleaning
equipment or applying other products such as woo filers and sealants. The amount of ex-
posure is infuenced by the method of applying coatings; the most common are sprayig, usu-
ally at low pressure, curtain and roller coating and dipping. The main categories of solvents
used are aliphatie esters, ketones, alcohols and hydrocrbns as well as aromatic hydrocr-
bons (O'Brien & Hurley, 1981; Swedish Work Envionment Fund, 1987).
Low molecular-weight resin constituents such as formaldehyde and isocanates may
be evolved durig application or cu ring of coatings. Another possible expsure is to woo
dust from the general factoiy environment and from preparatoiy work such as sanding.
Air monitorig was carred out over a ten-year period (1975-84) in 50 Finnish furniture
factories, where the main coatings used were acid--cured amino resin-based paints and var-
nishes. The most commonly used solvents were xylene, n-butanol, toluene, ethanol, butyl-
acetate and ethylacetate, whieh were present in more than 50% of 394 measurements. Mean
concentrations of the solvents present were below 20 ppm, except for white spirts, whieh
ocurred at 66 ppm. Arthmetic mean solvent vapour concentrations measured durig dif-
ferent work tasks ranged from 0.4 ppm in spray painting to 2.1 ppm durig cleaning of a paint-
ing machine, with individual values vaiyng from 0.1 to 7.4 ppm. Formaldehyde, derived from
the amino resin binder, was the object of 161 short-term measurements (15-30 min) coverig
different work tasks. The arithmetic mean of the concentrations varied from 0.9 to 1.5 ppm
(1.1-1.8 mg/m3), with individual values ranging from 0.1 to 6.1 ppm (1.2-7.5 mg/m3; Pria et
aL., 1986).
The 8-h TW A exposure to formaldehyde of 38 employees in a Swedish light furniture
factoiy applying acid-hardening clear varnishes and paints was found to average 0.4 mg/m3
(range, 0.1-1.3) with a mean exposure to peak values (15 min) of 0.7 mg/m3. Mean expsure
to solvents was low. The dust concentration was low - usually less than one-tenth of the
Swedish threshold limit value of 5 mg/m3 (Alexandersson & Hedenstierna, 1988).
ln a study of a US woo furniture company producing stereo equipment cabinets, the
solvent expsure of 27 employees in spray painting and finish wiping operations was mea-
sured. ln sprayig jobs that involved the use of an aciylic base coat, an oil-based glaze or
stain and cellulose nitrate lacquers, total expsure to paint mist (8-h 1W A) varied from 0.1
to 2.5 mg/m3 (geometric means). Combined expsure to solvents (CEl) varied from 0.05 to
0.11 in base coat operations (solvents measured: methyl ethyl ketone, ispropyl acetate, xy_
lene, isopropanol, methyl isbutyl ketone, toluene and isbutyl isbutyte), from 0.06 to 0.10
in glaze operations (toluene, xylene, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether and petroleum distil-
lates) and from 0.08 to 0.24 in lacquer operations (isopropanol, ethanol, isophorone, isbutyl
acetate, n-butanol, toluene, xylene, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone,
isobutyl isobutyate, isopropyl acetate and petroleum distilat es). The overalliow air con-
centrations of paint mist and organic solvents were attributed to adequate ventilation in
paint boths and goo workig practices (O'Brien & Hurley, 1981).
Expsure to organic solve nt vapours was also measured in 16 small-scle industries in
Japan, where sythetic urushI lacquer was applied to wooen tableware (bwls), vases and
altars, and in two furniture factories. Work involved mainly brush painting, screen painting
and hand-sprayig operations. Toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene and n-hexane were the re-
corded solvents. Average mixed solvent personal expsure (CEl) was always low (below
0.44), except in the case of an automated spray operation (1.4; Ikeda et al., 1985).
The average 4-h expsure to toluene of 20 workers employed in painting and hand-fin-
ishing in an Italian art furniture factoiy was 27-182 mg/m3. Toluene was the pricipal solvent
found in the work envionment; other major solvents found were acetone, isbutanol, etha-
nol and ethyl acetate (Apostoli et aL., 1982).
ln the Finnish plywoo industiy, solvent concentrations in workroom air were recorded
durig coating operations involvig polyurethane and alkyd paints. The followig ranges in
ppm (mg/m3) were obtained from eight to 12 measurements: (i) polyurethane paint: methyl
isobutyl ketone, 2-28 (8.2-115); butylacetate, 8-50 (38-238); xylene, 10-25 (43-108); and cy-
clohexane, 1-28 (3.4-95); (ü) alkyd paint: toluene, 2-3 (7.5-11.3); xylene, 7-12 (30.4-52); is-
butanol, 7-11 (21-33); and triethylbenzene, 1-9 (5-; Kauppinen, 1986).
ln a US plant where paint was stripped from woo and metal, breathing wne 1W A
concentrations of dichloromethane for three operators ranged from 633 to 1017 mg/m3 in
seven samples (Chrostek, 1980).
(e) Painting in the metal industry

Protection from corrosion is the priaiy aim of metal painting. Mild steel is thus al-
most always subjected to the application of a prier coat containing corrosion inhibitors snch
as iron and lead oxides or of zinc powder, further covered with a decorative paint. Alumini-
um may be covered with a zinc chromate-based prier before a decrative coat is applied.
Durig the preparation of metal parts, painters may be expsed to cleaning and de-
greasing agents, such as solvents, alkalis and acids, and to abrasive dusts, such as ciystalline
silca generated durig blast cleaning. Depending on the industiy, metal painters may be
exposed to a variety of dusts, solvents, fumes and gases resulting from operations such as
mixg paints, maintaining equipment, applyig filers, sealers or putty, or background metal
welding or assembling operations. Most coatings used in the metal industiy are solvent-
based, and spray painting is the main method of application, leading to potential expsures to
paint mist and solvents. Two-mponent paints, such as those based on epoxy and polyure-
thane resins, play a major role, implyig potential expsure to reactive substances such as
isanates and epoxides. Ai-diyg or bakig after application results in the evolution of
solvents and, possibly, thermal degradation products of resins (peterson, 1984).
(i) Exsure to organc solvents
Expsure of metal spray painters to a variety of solvents has been measured by the US
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in a number of industries. The results
are summaried in Thble 18. Except in railroad car painting, overall expsure levels were
found to be low. Toluene, xylene and petroleum distilates were among the most common
solvents. Analyses of bulk air samples indicated no detectable benzene (O'Brien & Hurley,
1981).
ln Finland, solvent concentrations were measured in the breathig zone of 40 car paint-
ers at six garages (54 I-h samples). Mean concentrations and the upper limits of various
solvents were as follows (ppm) (mg/mg3): toluene, 30.6 (249) (115 (940)); xylene, 5.8 (36) (25
(156)); butylacetate, 6.8 (128) (32 (608)); white spirts, 4.9 (150); methyl isobutyl ketone, 1.7
(39) (7 (160)); ispropanol, 2.9 (85) (7 (20)); ethyl acetate, 2.6 (14) (9 (50)); acetone, 3.1 (25) (7
(60)); and ethanol, 2.9 (27) (6 (51)) (Husman, 1980).
A large study of Swedish car refinishing workshops showed that painters spent only
15% of their time actually spray painting, the rest being ocupied with griding, filing, mask-
ing and assembling activities (60%) and colour mixg, degreasing and cleaning activities
(25%). The highest overall solve nt expsure was observed durig spray painting, with a com-
bined expsure of 0.3 (CEl; 106 samples). Toluene, xylene and ethyl acetate were present in
all samples, at average levels of 39, 14 and 11 mg/m3, respectively. Ethanol, butanol and
butyl acetate were observed at veiy low levels in nearly half the samples. Other solvents
encountered frequently in other activities, although at low levels, included styene and white
spirts. A reconstitution of workig conditions in 1955 indicated that expsure levels to sol-
vents were higher than in 1975, which was considered to be representative of the 196s and
1970s. ln particular, when benzene was used as a solvent in 1975-77, the combined expsure
(CEl) reached 0.8 (Elofsson et aL., 1980).
Breathing wne samples were taken durig short-term spray painting operations in a
small autoboy repair shop in the USA Elevated levels of total hydrocrbns (up to 140
ppm) were measured in witer when the spraybth fan was turned off to conserve heat.
Under these conditions, high concentrations of toluene (590 ppm; 2224 mg/m3) were seen
durig lacquer spray painting and of xylene (230 ppm; 100 mg/m3) and benzene (11 ppm; 35
mg/m3) durig enamel spray painting. Summer conditions, when the fan was on, resulted in
maxal concentrations of 330 ppm total hydrocrbns, 56 ppm (211 mg/m3) toluene, 44 ppm
(191 mg/m3) xylene and 3.7 ppm (12 mg/m3) benzene. Other major solvents measured were
acetone, cellosolve acetate, methyl isobutyl ketone, n-hexane, methyl cellosolve acetate, tri-
methylbenzene, ethylbenzene and n-butyl acetate (Jayjock & Levi, 1984).
Table 18. Painters' time-weighted average exposure levels (personal breathing-zoDe

samples) iD various metal spray-painting operatioDsa
Operation Sampling No. of Combined Main solvents measured Concentration

time samples expureb,c (mg/m3)C
Light aircraft finishing, 25-41 min 3 0.9 :f 1.5 2-Butanone 42:f 2.1
pnmer spraying Toluene
60:f 1.2
Ethanol 26:f 1.6
Isopropanol 19 :f 1.6
Light aircraft finishing, 27-62 min 7 0.15:f 1.3 Ethylacetate 77 :f 1.3
topcoat spraying Ethoxyethylacetate 44 :f 1.4
Aliphatic hydrocrbons 34 :f 1.2
Ligh t aircraft finishing, 19-35 min 6 0.13 :f 2.5 Ethylacetate 52 :f 2.5
stripping operations Ethoxyethylaceta te 30:f 2.7
Car refinishing 15-45 min 7 0.09 :f 1.5 Toluene 39 :f 1.6
Xylene 10 :f 1.0
Petroleum distilates 21-63
Other solven ts 0: 10
Railroad car 15-60 min 14 1.3 :f 1.4 Toluene 188 :f 1.5
Xylene 14 :f 2.6
Other aromatic com- 217 :f 1.4
pounds
Heavy equipment 60 min 12 0.01-0.05 Refined solvents 21-96
Other solvents -C5
Metal fumiture, solvent 8 h 5 pain- 0.10-0.46 Toluene 12-61
and water-bome paints ters Xylene 7-48
n-Butyl acetate 22-109
Diisobutyl ketone 0:1-23
2-Ethoxyethyl acetate 1-14
Aliphatic hydrocrbons 33-180
Metal fumiture, high- 8h 6 pain- 0.07-0.31 Xylene 6-55
solids paints ters Aromatic distilates 5-60
Other solvents 0:10
Appliance finishing 8h 4 pain- 0.38-0.79 Toluene 88-204
ters Xylene 112-225
tlrom O'Bnen & Hurley (1981)

hCumulative expoure index (see p. 366), base on US Ocupational Safety and Health Administration per-
missible expure levels
CGeometric means :l geometric standard deviation, unless otherwse stated
ln J apan, the full-shift TW A concentrations of the followig solvents measured for 13

car repair painters (ppm (mg/m3); mean :i standard devition) were: xylene, 8:i 8 (35 :i 35);
toluene, 19:i 13 (72:f 49); isobutanol, 5:i 5 (15:i 15); and ethyl acetate, 6:f 4 (22:i 14).
The overall combined expsure (CEl) was 0.38 :i 0.25. Short-term samples taken durig
painting showed a higher combined expsure for ten of 14 workers, toluene being the major
solvent encountered (Ikeuchi et al., 1982). ln another Japanese study of car refinishing
painters, high toluene concentrations were observed durig painting in side-wall ventilated
boths (410-6 ppm; 1542488 mg/m3), compared with those in downdraft ventilated
boths (28-87 ppm; 106328 mg/m3). Short actual painting periods resulted in full-shift
TW A concentrations of organic solvents (toluene, xylene, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate and
butyl acetate) below the expsure limits. The average hippuric acid concentration in the
urie of painters (0.33 mg/ml) was slightly higher than that in controls (0.19 mg/ml; Matsuna-
ga et al., 1983).
Expsure to toluene was investigated in 19401 in 106 painters in a large US airlane

factoiy. Eight-hour 1W A levels of toluene ranged from 100 to 1100 ppm (377-4147 mg/m3);
approxiately 60% of workers were expsed to 20 ppm (754 mg/m3) or more. Toluene was a
major constituent of zinc chromate priers, lacquers, cellulose nitrate dope (lacquer) and
brush wash (Greenburg et aL., 1942).
An industrial hygiene evaluation was conducted at a commercial airline maintenance
facility in the USA. Employees workig in and around jet aircraft durig the paint stripping
process were expsed to levels of dichloromethane in the breathing zone that ranged from 79
to 950 mg/m3 with a mean of 393 mg/m3. Durig application of the prie coat, expsure to
solvents was as follows (mg/m3; mean and range): toluene, 112 (51-179); methyl ethyl ke-
tone, 39 (8-77); butyl acetate, 72 (29-130); n-butanol, 25 (9-47); ispropanol, 51 (undetect-
able to 132); and cyclohexanone 10 (undetectable to 23). Durig application of the top coat,
expsure to the solvents was: ethyl acetate, 333 (undetectable to 857); methyl ethyl ketone,
69 (undetectable to 219); methyl isbutyl ketone, 44 (nondetectable to 117); butyl acetate, 80
(undetectable to 210); xylene, 21 (undetectable to 49) and cellosolve acetate, 18 (undetect-
able to 46; Okawa & Keith, 1977).
Another study involved workers spray painting large commercial aircrat. Industril
hygiene measurements indicated short-term persnal expsures as follows (mg/m3; mean
and range): toluene, 583 (1401230); methyl ethyl ketone, 1436 (2403250); ethyl acetate,
1231 (1603520); naphtha, 44 (20120); butyl acetate, 64 (20150); xylene, 318 (601330); cel.
losolve acetate, 4843 (670-25170); and dichloromethane, 654 (undetectable to 28). Long-
term expsures to the solvents were: ethyl acetate, 26 (10-1100); methyl ethyl ketone, 197
(20); toluene, 162 (30-50); butyl acetate, 11 (undetectable to 50); naphtha, 10 (unde-
tectable to 160); xylene, 69 (10-270); cellosolve acetate, 64 (70-2490); and dichloromethane,
100 (undetectable to 760; Herv & Thoburn, 1975).
Airne concentrations (CEl) of solvent mixures for jobs as paint mixer and spray
pain ter ranged from 0.03 to 0.32 at a US plant manufacturig school and general purpse
buses. The solvents found at the plant were petroleum naphtha, toluene, xylene, benzene,
methyl ethyl ketone and n-hexane (Zey & Aw, 1984).
UK shipyard painters workig in ships' accmmodation and bilges were expsed to var-
ious mean 1W A levels of organic solvents, depending on their job: 125 mg/m3 for three
painters using a chloriated rubber paint with white spirts as solvent, 215 mg/m3 for a worker
using paint stripper with dichloromethane as the main solvent and 577 mg/m3 for four men
using white interior paint with white spirts as the main solvent. Other paint solvents used
frequently in dockyards are methyl-n-butyl ketone, n-butanol, trichloroethylene, xylene
and cellosolve (Cherr et al., 1985).
ln Poland, phenol and hippuric acids were measured in 51 urie samples from shipyard
painters workig in small spaces of superstructures and in large holds. The average values of
phenol in urie were 12.4-6.4 mg/l compared to 7.9 mg/Ion average for a control group.
Uriary phenol was attributed to benzene: the benzene concentration in air ranged from
undetectable to 11 ppm (35 mg/m3). The average concentrations of hippuric acids in urie
(sum of hippuric and methylhippuric acids) were 1812-550 mg/l compared to 790 mg/l in a
control group. Concentrations of toluene and xylene in air were 7-88 ppm (263J2 mg/m3)
and 23-538 ppm (1002335 mg/m3), respectively (Mikulski et al., 1972). Elevated values of
hippuric (up to 6700 mg/l) and methylhippuric acids (up to 7100 mg/l) were also measured in
the urie of shipyard workers in Japan (Ogata et al., 1971).
ln a factoiy producing dump-truck boies and earth-movig machinery in the UK,
full-shift personal expsure levels to xylene and white spirts (two samples) were measured
as 52 and 65 ppm (226 and 282 mg/m3) xylene and 7 and 12 ppm white spirts. Mter ventila-
tion was properly adjusted, these levels dropped to 9 and 7 ppm (39 and 30 mg/m3) xylene and
.( 5 ppm white spirts (Bradley & Bodsworth, 1983). At a US plant where truck boies and
refuse handling equipment were manufactured, breathing wne concentrations of xylene
durig spray painting operations (eight samples vaiyg from 1 to 3 h) ranged from 5 to 140
ppm (22-68 mg/m3; Vandervort & Cromer, 1975). Low expsure levels of toluene (3-18
mg/m3) and isobutyl acetate (2-4 mg/m3) were observed for Swedish spray painters in a
plant manufacturig fireplaces (Hellquist et al., 1983).
(ii) Exsure to pant mis, dusts an specifie metal

Expsures of metal spray painters to pait mists, Iead and chromium have been mea-
sured by the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in a variety of indus-
tries. The results are summaried in Thle 19.. High concentrations of paint mist have been
recorded in several operations, often Iinked with the painting of enclosed spaces and internaI
cavities, faulty ventilation and work practices. Substantial but short-term lead expsure was
encountered in situations where Iead-bsed pigments were used, such as for painting trans-
porttion and heavy equipment. Elevated but brief expsures to chromium were noted dur-
ing the sprayig of aircrt with prier. No antimony, arsenic, cadmium or mercuiy was en-
countered in these studies. Veiy Iow levels of tin (2-7 J.g/m3) were.recrded durig the spray
painting of dibutyltin dilaurate containing enamel on light aircrt (O'Brien & Hurley, 1981).
. ln a large study.of Swedish car refinishing workshops, averages of 7 mg/m3 mist, 100
J.g/m3Iead and 26 lJg/m3 chromium were meaured durig sprayig activities; durig grid-
ing activities, the correspnding values were 3 mg/m3, 20 J.g/m3 and 6 J.g/m3. The conditions
Table 19. Painters' exposure (personal breathing-zone samples) to paint mists, lead
and chromium in vanous metal spray-painting operations a
Operation Sampling No. of Expure levelb

conditions samples
Paint mist Lead Total
1m3)
(mg
(Jig/m3) (J.g/m3)
light aircraft finishing, primer 25-41 min 3 23.3 :i 1.6 ND 1600 :f 1.6
spraying
light aircraft finishing, topcoat 27-62 min 6 23.3 :i 1.7 ND
spraying
light aircraft finishing, stripping 19-35 min 6 14.1 :i 2.0 ND-500
operations
Car refinishing 15-45 min 7 8.7 :: 1.6 52 :: 1.5
Car refinishing 8h 7 5.0 30
Railroad car 15-60 min 13 43.3 :i 1.4 211 :i 1.7 220:i 2.2
Heavy equipment 60 min 3 2.0-36.5 230-1300 31-230
Metal fumiture 8h 6 painters 3.7-27.6 ND-1050c
Metal fumiture, high-solids 8h 6 painters 0.5 -6.2 5-26 5-9
paints
Small appliance parts, powder 8h 3 1.3 :: 1.1
coating, e1ectrostatic spraying
Appliance finishing 8h 4 painters 21.7-54.5 c( 6-20
tlrom O'Brien & Hurley (1981)

hGeometric means :i geometric standard deviation, unless otheiwse indicated
COnly 2.5-h samples taken one aftemoon showed detectable levels (30-1050)
were thought to be representative of those in the 196s and 1970s. Simulation of work condi-
tions in 1955 showed low concentrations of lead durig the use of all colours except red, when
the Swedish expsure limit was exceeded by 70-fold. The actual expsure of painters was
believed to be reduced by the use of individual protective equipment (Elofsson et al., 1980).
Breathing-zone samples were taken durig short-term spray painting operations in a small
auto-boy repair workshop in the USA. Only one of eigIit samples, corresponding to a red
paint formula, contained significant levels of chromium (490 J.g/m3) and lead (210 J.g/m3); in
all other measurements, the levels of chromium, lead and cadmium were below the detec-
tion limit. The concentration of total dust collected durig the sanding or griding of plastic
body filer was 5-40 mg/m3 and that of respirable dust, 0.3-1.2 mg/m3 (Jayjock & Levi,
1984). ln a factoiy producing dump-truck boies and earth-movig machinery in the UK,
full-shift personal exposure levels to total paint solids (two samples) were measured as 11.6
and 15.9 mg/m3. After ventiation was properly adjusted, these levels dropped to 1.4 and 5.2
mg/m3. The major pigments used were titanium dioxide and iron oxide (Bradley & Bods-
worth, 1983). At a US plant where truck boies and refuse handling equipment were made,
breathing zone concentrations of solid contaminants measured durig various spray painting
operations (seven samples vaiyg from 1 to 3 h) were 4.8-7 mg/m3 for total pariculates,
20-300 ,.g/m3Iead and 10- ,.g/m3 chromium (Vandervort & Cromer, 1975). Low overall
expsure levels were found for Swedish spray painters workig in a plant manufacturig fire-
places, with a total dust level of 1.7 mg/m3, chromium oxide, 5-8 ,.g/m3 and zinc oxde, 2030
,.g/m3 (Hellquist et al., 1983).
At a US plant where school and general purpse buses were manufactured, employees
workig in and around the paint both were reported to be expsed to hexavalent chromium
and lead. The concentrations of hexavalent chromium in five personal air samples were
0.03-0.45 mg/m3, with a mean of 0.23 mg/m3; airrne lead concentrations (eight personal
samples) ranged from below the laboratoiy limit of detection (3 ,.g/filter) to 2.01 mg/m3, with
a mean of 0.78 mg/m3 (Zey & Aw, 1984).
A US manufacturer of large-scle weapon, electronic and aero-mechanical systems
reported expsure of workers to hexavalent chromium while sprayig aircraft wheels with
yellow lacquer pri ers containing zinc chromate. ln 12 personal breathing wne samples,
the level of chromium(VI) ranged from 13.3 to 290 J.g/m3 with a mean of 60.7 ,.g/m3 (Ko-
minsky et al., 1978).
ln a US plant in which bridge girders were sprayed with lead silcohromate paint, per-
sonal air levels of lead and chromium (as Cr) in five samples were 0.01-0.25 mg/m3 (mean,
0.08) and 0.01-0.04 mg/m3 (mean, 0.02), respectively (Rosensteel, 1974). Substantial exp-
sure to airorne lead was demonstrated for US workers involved in scraping old lead-based
paint from the metallc structure of a bridge and priing it (24-1017 ,.g/m3); recoating with
lead-based paint implied lower expsure levels (6-30 ,.g/m3). Bloo lead levels in these
workers were 30-96 ,.gllOO ml, with 58% above 60 ,.g/lOO ml (Lndrigan et al., 1982). ln the
Netherlands, workers involved in flame-torch cutting of a steel structure coated with lead-
based paints were shown to be expsed to 2-38 mg/m3 airme lead (Spee & Zwenni, 1987).
Bloo lead levels have also been measured in workers in various ocupations in three
Finnish shipyards. Painters were among the most heavily expsed: mean bloo levels in a
total of 77 painters in the three shipyards were 2028 ,.gllOO ml (fola & Karskela, 1976).
(ii) Other exsures

Use of polyurethane tye paints can result in expsure to düsoanate monomers and
their oligomers. ln Sweden, 43 car repair painters were expsed to a 1W A of 115 J.g/m3
hexamethylene düsocanate (HI)-biuret oligomer, with a range of 10-385 ,.g/m3. Veiy
high expsure peaks (up to 13 50 ,.g/m3)were measured. The concentration ofHDI was 1.0
,.g/m3 (Alexandersson et al., 1987). ln Finland, average HDI and HDI-biuret oligomer lev-
els in four car paint shops durig spray painting (ten 5-10-min personal samples, outside
respirator) were 49 (:: 22 SD) and 144 (:: 1130) ,.g/m3, respectively. The proper use of a
respirator with combined charcoal and particle fiters was shown to reduce expsure levels to
below detection limits (Rosenberg & Thomi, 1984). ln a US car repainting shop, three short-
term air samples (5-13 min) taken in the breathing wne durig spray painting operations
showed HDI levels of -: 130 ,.g/m3. Similar measurements taken durig various light air-
PAI MAFACTURE AN PAIG 385
craft finishing operations (7-21 min, eight samples) indicated RDI levels below approxi-
mately 70 J.g/m3, except for one operation with a level_of 250 J.g/m3 (O'Brien & Hurley,
1981).
Ambient levels of HDI durig the spray application of an enamel top coat at a US air-
line maintenance facilty were .: 0.043.20 mg/m3, with a mean of 1.1 mg/m3 (Okawa &
Keith, 1977).
Epoxy paints are usually applied as reactive mixures of epoxy resins and curig agents,
leading to potential expsure to compounds containing the epoxide group. Total epoxide
concentrations have been measured in area samples of aerosols collected durig three paint-
ing operations involvig the use of a bisphenol-A diglycidyl ether tye of epoxy resin. ln a
faciity producig miltaiy aircraft, the use of an epoxy prier did not result in detectable
epoxide levels, and the authors surmised that the epoxy-amine curig reaction had probably
. consumed most of the epoxide group. Epoxide levels of 2-12 J.Eq/m3 epode functional
group were recorded durig the painting of a tank with col-tar epoxy coatings and the paint-
ing of a metal ceiling using an epoxy architectural coating (Herrck et al., 1988). ln a US
company that finished structural steel members and other fabricated steel products, the
products are blasted with steel shot or sand and spray-painted with two-mponent epoxy
paints or oil-based paints. Personal air levels of epichlorohydri were reported to range
from 2.4 to 138.9 mg/m3, with a mean 1W A of 64.9 mg/m3. Bisphenol A glycidyl ethers were
also detected in the workers' breathing zone at levels which ranged from below the limit of
detection (0.6 J.g) to 28.6 J.g/m3, with a mean of 9.8 J.g/m3 (Chrostek & Levie, 1981).
The major thermal degradation components of epoxy powder paints were identified as
phenol, cresols, bisphenol-A, pyrdine, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine and formaldehyde; bisphe-
nol- A glycidyl ether was not observed. Levels in the work envionment of painters were not
measured (peltonen, 1986; Peltonen et al., 1986). Diethylene trimine, which is a component
of curig agents of epoxy paints, was measured in three samples collected from the breathing
zone of a pain ter durig spray painting of paper machine cylinders and pulp tanks at a con-
centration of 0.02-0.07 mg/m3 (Bäck & Saarien, 1986).
Operators workig in eight plants where coal-tar enamel protective coating was
applied to pipelines with heat were expsed to high levels of coal-tar pitch volatiles (see
IARC, 1985b) at up to 24 mg/m3 ofbenzene-soluble matter (full-shift samples). The overall
respirable concentration ofbenzo( a )pyrene in the plants averaged 133 J.g/m3 (Lrson, 1978).
3. Biological Data Relevant to the Evaluation of

earcinogenic Risk to Humans
3.1 Carcinogenicity studies in animaIs
No data were available to the Workig Group.

3.2 Other relevant data in humans
(a) To.xic effects
(i) Skin and eys

Workers in the paint manufacturig industiy (Piriä, 1947; Ulfvarson, 1977) and paint-
ers (Pirä, 1947; Högberg & Wahlberg, 1980; Winchester & Madjar, 1986) are at a consider-
able risk of developing an ocupational dermatosis. ln one study of Swedish paint industiy
workers, the prevalence of ocupational dermatoses was about 40%, 26% of which were on
the hands and arms (Ulfvarson, 1977). Arong Swedish hou
se painters, the prevalence of
ocupational ski disease was 4-6%, mainly affecting the hands. More than half of the der-
matoses were nonallergic contact eczemas, probably mostly induced by organic solvents,
mainly in atopie subjects. AIlergic contact eczemas involved hypersensitivity towards chro-
mium, nickel, epoxy resin components and formaldehyde. Several cases were se
en of allergy
to chloracetamide, which was widely used as a biocide in water-based paints and glues. Sen-
sitivity to turpentine, which was formerly prevalent among painters, is now rare (Högberg &
Wahlberg, 1980).
The wide variety of ski sensitizing agents in paints include some of the monomer resi-
dues from resins (e.g., phenol/formaldehyde resins, carbamide resin, melamine resin, epoxy
compounds, aciylates). ln addition, natural resins, such as colophony, may con
tain sensitiz-
ing agents. Some hardeners, such as acid anhydrides and para-toluenesulfonic acid, may
cause sensitiztion, as may some metals used as pigments and driers in paints, e.g., cobalt and
zirconium. Chromate sensitivity is rare in the painting trades, due to the low solubility of the
salts used. Of other additives, several biocides (e.g., formaldehyde, chlorophenols and is-
thiazolinones) may have this effect. Of the solvents, only turpentine and dipentene (limo-
nene) are known to be sensitizers (Fregert, 1981; Hansen et al., 1987).
Some organic solvents (e.g. sorne ketones and esters) are irtants, as are sorne resin
monomers (e.g., butyl aciylate) and additives (e.g., amines, ammonia and organic peroxides;
Hansen et al., 1987).
Corneal changes have been described in workers expsed to spray paints containing
xylene (Matthäus, 196). Changes in the lens of the eye have ~een recorded in car painters
. 0
exposed to a mixure of solvents (Rait ta et al., 1976; Elofsson et al., 1980). However, no ocu-
lar effect was noted in industril spray painters ocsionally expsed to toluene at up to 4125
mg/m3 (Greenburg et aL., 1942). Water-based paints may contain triethylamine (Hansen et
al., 1987), WhlCh can cause corneal oedema (Akesson et al., 1985, 1986).
(ü) Respiratory tract

Complaints of irtation in the upper airays were reported among paint factory work-
ers (Winchester & Madjar, 1986) and among painters ocupationally expsed to white spirts
and other solvents (Cohen, 1974; Seppäläinen & Lindström, 1982; Lindström & Wickström,
1983; Pham et aL., 1985; White & Baker, 1988). Hypsmia has sometimes been assoiated
with expsure of painters to solvents (Lindström & Wickström, 1983). Histological changes
of the nasal mucosa were reported among industril spray painters (Hellquist et al., 1983).
Sorne painters suffer from lower airay syptoms (Schwartz & Baker, 1988; White &
Baker, 1988), and there is a high prevalence of chronic phlegm bronchitis among spray paint-
ers (White & Baker, 1988) and lacquerers (Sabroe & Olsen, 1979). An obstructive ventilato-
iy pattern was recorded after testing lung function in people who abused spray paint by inha-
lation (Reyes de la Rocha et al., 1987). A decrease in expiratoiy flow rates was noted in a few
workers in a priting paint factoiy, probably due to irtant effects, but not among car paint-
ers (Bevig et al., 1984a). Other studies of painters have also indicated bronchial obstruction
(pham et aL., 1985; Schwartz & Baker, 1988; White & Baker, 1988), and small airays disease
has been noted in car painters expsed to isanates (Alexandersson et al., 1987). ln con-
trast, no disturbance of lung function was reported among house painters using solvent-
based (Bane et al., 1977; Askergren et al., 1988) and water-based (Askergren et al., 1988)
paints. Danish painters were reported to have a high rate of disabilty pensions due to respi-
ratoiy disease (Mikelsen, 1980).
Painting may also entail expsure to compounds that cause allergic reactions in the air-
ways. Isoanates can cause both asthma and pneumonitis in painters (Nielsen et aL., 1985;
Hagmar et al., 1987). Expsure in the painting trade to isanates and polyisocanates may
induce antiboy formation (Welinder et al., 1988). Acid anhydrides (e.g., trielltic anhy-
dride, phthalic anhydride and its derivatives, and maleic anhydride) caused sensitiztion in
workers producing alkyd binders (Wemfors et al., 1986; Hagmar et al., 1987; Nielsen et al.,
1988). Moreover, paints sometimes con tain asthma-inducing amines (Hagmar et al., 1987).
Expsure to aluminium dust and iron oxide durig paint production may cause fibrosis,
and expsure to iron oxide can cause pneumocniosis (Maintz & Werner, 1988).
(ii) Nervous system

The neurotoxic effects of expsures to solvents have been reviewed (World Health Or-
ganiztion, 1985; Cranmer & Golberg, 1986; National Institute for Occpational Safety and
Health, 1987). Such effects have been determined by means of questionnaires about subjec-
tive syptoms, neuropsychological testing and neurophysiological examination of central
and peripheral nervous system function (Ible 20), as well as in epidemiological studies of
neuropsychiatric diseases.
Subjective syptoms, e.g., a feeling of intoxication, fatigue, por concentration, emo-
tional instabilty, short-term memoiy problems and headache, have been recorded in a se-
ries of cross-sectional studies of workers in the paint manufacturig industiy, of house paint-
ers, of car and industiy painters and of shipyard painters. Sorne of the syptoms are short or
mid-term, others are persistent. However, no such syptom was recorded in house painters
using mainly water-based paints (Askergren et al., 1988). Neuropsychological tests have doc-
umented impairent of psychomotor pedormance, memoiy and other intellectual func-
tions, as well as changes of moo (Ible 20).
Electroencephalographic changes and a slight decrease in cerebral bloo flow were re-
corded in paintindustiy workers (0rbaek et al., 1985). Electroencephalographic abnormali-
ties have also been seen in car and industiy painters (Seppäläinen et al., 1978; Elofsson et al.,
1980). Other studies of solvent-expsed painters have failed to identif such effects
(Seppäläinen & Lindström, 1982; Triebig et al., 1988), and no effect on auditoiy-provoked
Table 20. Symptoms and neurobehavioural effects in studies or workers in the paint-
ing tradea
Population Symptoms Pschomotor Short-tenn Other Moo Reference

pedormance memory intellectual
functions
Paint industry + + + Anhelm Oisn

workers (1982)
++ (+ ) ++ 0rbaek et al. (1985)
(+ ) (+ ) Winchester & Madjar
(1986)
House painters (+ ) + + + Hane et al. (1977)
+ ++ + Undstrõm &
Wickstrõm (1983)
(+ +) (-) (-) (-) (-) Fidler et al. (1987)
+ Triebig et al. (1988)
++ (+ +) (+ +) (+ +) ++ Baker et al. (1988)
++ (+ ) (+ +) Mikkelsen et al. (1988)
Car/industry + + + + Hãnninen et al.
painters (1976)
+ Husman (1980)
+ + + + + Elofssn et al. (1980)
+ + Struwe et al. (1980)
(-) (+ ) (-) Maizlish et al. (1985)
Shipyard painters + (+ ) Cheny et aL. (1985)
(+ ) + Valciukas et al. (1985)
a+, expd group differed statistically significantly from a control group; + +, there was a dos-response
relationship; -, there was no statistically significant difference; (), the Working Group considered that the
evidence was IimIted because the effect was weak or inconsistent and/or the duration and/or intensity of the
expure was low.
potential was seen in painters expsed to water-based paints (Askergren et al., 1988). ln one
group of house painters (Mikelsen et al., 1988) and in a study of car and industrial painters
(Elofsson et aL., 1980), signs of slight atrophy were found by computed brain tomography, but
another study showed no such effect (friebig et al., 1988).
Occsional cases of clinical polyneuropathy have been descbed in spray painters ex-
posed to methyl-n-butyl ketone (Mallov, 1976). ln a few cross-sectional studies of car and
industiy painters (Elofsson et al., 1980; Husman, 1980; Maizlish et al., 1985), signs of slight
neurological impairent were observed durig physical examinations. N europhysiological
studies of house painters (Askergren et al., 1988) and of car and industril painters (Seppäläi-
nen et aL., 1978) have indicated slight toxic effects on the peripheral nervous system, but oth-
er studies have not (Seppäläinen & Lindström, 1982; Cherr et al., 1985; 0rbaek et al., 1985;
Triebig et al., 1988). Formerly, painters expsed to lead sometimes showed clinical effects on
the peripheral nervous system, including paisy (mainly affecting the extensor muscles of the
forearm) anddrop (affecting the wrt; Rosen, 1953). No effect on the peripheral nervous
system was observed in painters who used mainly water-based paints (Askergren et al., 1988).
ln a cohort of Danish painters, statistically significant two- to three-fold increases in
the relative rik of being granted a disability pension due to neuropsychiatric disease was
found (Mikelsen, 1980). Similarly increased riks were observed in case-cntrol studies of
applicants for disabilty pensions due to neuropyschiatric disease and for nursing home ac-
commodation due to encephalopathy, in which the ocupation of 'painter or other solvent-
expsed trade' was used as an indicator of expsure (Axelson et al., 1976; Olsen & Sabroe,
1980; Lindström et al., 1984; Rasmussen et al., 1985). Signiicant increases in risk were not,
however, seen in other case-cntrol studies, using subjects granted a disability pension (van
Vliet et al., 1987), subjects who had consulted general practitioners because of minor psy-
chiatric ilness (Cherr & Waldron, 1984) and deaths from presenile dementia (O'Flynn et
al.,1987). (The Workig Group noted that the confidence intervals were wide and that the
results of the latter studies could thus be considered non-positive rather than negative.)
Painters were overrepresented among cases of psychomotor epilepsy (Littori et al., 1988).
(Te Workig Group noted that reasons for the variable outcome include differences
in expsures, i.e., identity of chemicals, intensity and duration. AIso, selection bias may have
ocurred; and the examination methods varied, some possibly being inuenced by recent
rather than chronic expsures. Finally, the control groups used may have not been appropri-
ate, so that the effects of confounders cannot be ruled out.)
(iv) Kidneys
At the beginning of the centuiy, it was claimed that expsure of painters to turpentine
caused glomerulonephritis; this assoiation was not firly established (Chapman, 1941), al-
vents caused clinical disease of the glomeruli
though the suspicion that a toxic effect of sol
remained. Goopasture's sydrome has been assoiated with exposure to paint solvents
(Klavis & Drommer, 1970; Beire & Brennan, 1972).
Case studies of glomerulonephritis indicated a possible assoiation with expsure to
various solvents, including those in paints (Zimmerman et al., 1975; Ehrenreich et al., 1977;
Lagrue et al., 1977; Ravnskovet al., 1979; Finn et al., 1980), although one study that showed a
relative risk (RR) of 1.1 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.4-3.1) did not (van der Laan, 1980).
Most studies on kidney disease in the painting trade have concentrated on solvents.
Several solvents are nephrotoxic (Luweiys et aL., 1985). ln a study of industrial spray paint-
ers expsed to toluene-cntaining paints, no indication of kidney disease was observed
(Greenburg et aL., 1942). Later cross-sectional studies using more sophisticated methods
revealed only minor effects. Among paint industiy workers who were expsed to toluene
and xylene, slight haematuria and albuminuria were observed but no effect on concentrating
abilty or glomerular fitration rate (Askergren, 1981; Askergren et al., 1981a,b,c). These re-
sults were interpreted as being a minor effect on the glomeruli. ln another study of painters
expsed to toluene and xylene, indications of veiy slight tubular effects were reported (Fran-
chini et al., 1983). ln a third study of car pa inters exposed to low levels of white spirts and
toluene, no such effect was observed (Luweiys et al., 1985); however, a minor increase in
uriaiy albumin excretion was reported among house painters using mainly water-based
paints (Askergren et al., 1988).
Kidney disease may be caused by expsure to lead in paints (Skedvig, 1987; see also
IARC, 1980a).
(v) Liver an gasrointestinal tract

Slight effects on serum liver enzyes were noted in early studies of groups of industril
spray painters (Greenburg et al., 1942). ln other studies of paint industiyworkers (Lundberg
& Håkansson, 1985), of car painters (Kurppa & Husman, 1982), of house painters (Rane et
aL., 1977) and of subjects with suspected organic solvent poisning (e.g., car painters; Miling
Pedersen & Melchior Rasmussen, 1982), no consistent change in levels of serum liver en-
zyes was observed.
Lead may cause colic ('painter's colic'), and solvents and arsenic have also been claimed
to cause gastrointestinal syptoms among painters and varnishers (Rosen, 1953).
(vi) Blood and haematoPOietic system

Results obtained from haematological studies of workers in the painting trade vary. ln
painters who used gasoline as a solvent, a reduction in bloo haemoglobin level was ob-
served. Typicallevels of aromatic hydrocrbns (one-fifth to one-tenth of the total hydro-
carbn content) were 30080 ppm (Sterner, 1941). Similarly, in later studies of car spray
painters expsed mainly to xylene at rather low levels (Angerer & Wulf, 1985) and of house
painters who had been expsed to various solvents (Bane et al., 1977), slight decreases in
haemoglobin levels were reported. ln contrast, in one study of car and industrial spray paint-
ers, increased levels of haemoglobin were reported (Elofsson et al., 1980).
ln early studies of car spray painters, a slight decrease in white cell counts was observed,
with relative lymphocosis (Lind, 1939). This was probably due to a myelotoxic effect of
benzene which was a contaminant of toluene and xylene before 1950. However, in one
later study of patients with suspected solvent poisning (mostly hou
se, industrial and car
painters), a slight decrease in white cell counts was reported (Miling Pedersen & Melchior
Rasmussen, 1982), and in a study of car spray painters, lymphocosis was observed (Angerer .
& Wulf, 1985). ln contrast, another study of house painters showed no change in white cell
counts (Elofsson et al., 1980).
ln more recent studies of paint industiy workers (Bevig et al., 1984b; Lam et al., 1985;
0rbaek et al., 1985) and car painters (Bevig et al., 1983), slight decreases in thromboe
counts were observed; in paint industiy workers, the fatty acid composition of platelet mem-
brane was altered (Bevig et al., 1988). ln a further study of patients with chronic poisning
suspected to be induced by solvents (e.g., car painting), no change in thromboe counts was
reported (Miling Pedersen & Melchior Rasmussen, 1982).
ln painters, lead affects the formation of haemoglobin and red cells in bone marrow
and causes haemolysis in peripheral bloo (Skedvig, 1987).
(vi) Other organ

Sorne indication has been found that solvents affec muscles (raised serum creatine ki-
nase levels), as seen durig short-term expsure of volunteers to white spirts (Miling Ped-
ersen & Cohr, 1984), in workers (e.g., house painters; Miling Pedersen & Melchior Rasmus-
sen, 1982) and in patients with poisning suspected to be due to solvents (mostly house, in-
dustrial and car painters; Miling Pedersen et al., 1980). ln the latter study, an increase in the
activity of lactic dehydrogenase was observed in muscle biopsy speciens.
Case histories have been reported of subjects who suffered myocrdial inarction after
expsure to dichloromethane in paint removers (Stewart & Hake, 1976). However, cohort
studies of paint industiy workers have not indicated an increased risk for cardiovascular dis-
ease (Morgan et al., 1981, 1985; Lundberg, 1986).
(vi)Mortality from conditions other tha cancer

Many of the papers mentioned below are disussed in greater detail in section 3.3. Only
statistically signifcat results are given here.
ln one study of US paint industiy workers, no increase in the total deaths from diseases
of the nervous system was observed over that expected (Morgan et al., 1981), and in a further
studya significant decrease was observed (Matanoski et al., 1986). ln a study of Swedish
painters, there was increased mortlity from suicide (Engholm & Englund, 1982; Engholm et
al., 1987).
A cohort of Swedish painters showed an increase in mortlity from chronic obstructive

respir tory disease (Engholm & Englund, 1982), but no such increase was se en in studies of
US painters (Matanoski et al., 1986), of US automobile painters (Chiazze et al., 1980) or of US
aeroplane spray painters (Dalager et al., 1980) or in two studies of workers in the paint indus-
tiy (Morgan et al., 1981; Lundberg, 1986).
ln two further studies of paint industiy workers, no increase in the total number of
deaths from diseases of the genitouriary system was observed (Morgan et al., 1981; Lund-
berg, 1986), although in one of the studies three deaths from inectious uriaiy tract disease
were observed among cleaners in paint manufacture who had been heaviy expsed to sol-
vents, while only 0.2 were expected (Lundberg, 1986).
ln two studies of paint industiy workers, no increase in the total number of deaths from
diseases of the gastrointestinal tract was observed (Morgan et al., 1981; Lundberg, 1986). ln
another study of US painters, a significant decrease in the number of deaths from gastroin-
testinal disease was observed (Matanoski et al., 1986). Increased mortlity from diseases of
the oesophagus and stomach has been reported in painters (Engholm & Englund, 1982).
There was an indication of an increased rate of liver cirhosis in one study (Lundberg, 1986),
and, in automobile (Chiazze et al., 1980) and aeroplane (Dalager et al., 1980) spray painters,
proportionate mortality from liver cirhosis also appeared to be increased. Similar findings
were reported in Swedish house painters (Engholm et al., 1987). Danish hou se painters did
not display an increase in the incidence of cihosis (Mikelsen, 1980). (Te Workig Group
noted that, in interpreting effects on the liver and gastrointestinal tract, the possibilty that
workers in the painting trade have a higher alcohol consumption than the general population
must be considered.)
ln one study of paint industiy workers, no increase in the total number of deaths from
diseases of the bloo or bloo-forming organs was found (Morgan et al., 1981).
Studies of paint industiy workers have not indicated an increased risk for cardiovascu-
lar disease (Chiazze et al., 1980; Morgan et aL., 1981; Engholm & Englund, 1982; Morgan et
al., 1985; Lundberg, 1986; Matanoski et al., 1986). ln one study of Danish painters (Mikel-
sen, 1980), deaths from diseases of the circulatoiy system were increased 30% as compared
to the general population, but not as compared to a control group ofbricklayers. Spray paint-
ers in automobile factories showed increased proportionate mortlity from hypertensive
heart disease (Chiazze et al., 1980).
An increased number of deaths from cerebrovascular disease was observed in paint fac-
toiy workers (Morgan et al., 1981, 1985). Data on cerebrovascular mortality among aero-
plane painters are in accrdance with these results but are not significant (Dalager et al.,
1980). ln a study of US painters, a significant decrease in the number of deaths from cerebro-
vascular disease was observed (Matanoski et al., 1986).
(The Workig Group noted that cohorts of workers in the painting trades may be sub-
ject to selection, which may bias the results of mortality studies. AIso, in mortlity studies,
the ocupational and disease categories used are broad, decreasing the specificity of the ob-
servations. )
(b) Effects on fertility and on pregnancy outcome

(i) Fertility
McDowall (1985) analysed a 10% sample of 601526 birhs within marrage registered in
England and Wales in 198082 for which the ocupation of the father was recorded on the
birh certificate. The standardized fertilty ratio for men in each of 350 ocupational units,
defined by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, was calculated, takig the value
for all ocupational groups combined to be 100. Thble 21 summaries the findings in the five
occupational groups in which paternal expsure to paint is likely: artists and commercial ar-
tists; coach painters; other spray painters; painters and decorators not elsewhere classified,
and french polishers; and painters, assemblers and related ocupations. Men with ocupa-
tions classified as 'other spray painters' and 'painters and decorators, and french polishers'
had significantly more children than expected on the basis of national rates (standardized
fertilty ratios, 129 and 141, respectively, based on 694 and 2871 birhs).
Rachootin and Olsen (1983) carred out a case-cntrol study of 1069 inertile couples
and 4305 fertile control couples attending Odense University Hospital, Denmark, in
1977-80. The RRs associated with ocupational expsure to 'lacquer, paint or glue' were 1.2
(95% Ci, 0.9-1.7) for men with sperm abnormalities, 1.1 (0.7-1.7) for women with hormonal
disturbances, 1.4 (0.8-2.6) for women with idiopathic inertilty and 1.1 (0.7- 1.8) for men with
idiopathie inertilty.
Bjerrehuus and DetIefsen (1986) reported on a postal survey of 3251 male painters in
Copenhagen, Denmark, and 1397 construction labourers. Approxiately half responded,
and 18% of the painters reported failure to conceive after two years of trils, compared with
10% of the construction workers. Telephone intervew with a sample of the painters who had
not responded to the postal questionnaire yielded a similar inertilty rate.
Table 21. Standardized fertilty ratios, sex ratio, percentage of births with birthweights of less than 2500 g, stilbirths, perin.
atal mortality and infant mortality, according to father's occupation, in occupational units in which exposure to paint is likely;
England and Wales, 1981-82a
Occupational title (Offce No. of Standardized Sex ratio Births with Stilbirths Perinatal mor- Infant morta-
of Population Census and birthsb fertilty ratio (M:F births) birthweight tali ty lity ~
Suiveys, 1970) .c 2500 g (%)
SMR No. SMR No. SMR No.
e~
Arists; commercial artists 373 105 0.884 4.8 75 19 65 20 72 19 ~
Coach painters 20 89 1. 00 10.0 73 1 56 1 119 2 q
c:
Other spray painters 694 129* 1. 224 * 8.1 112 52 120 71 111 62 ~
tI
Painters and decorators not 2871 141* 1.049 6.6 99 191 99 242 98 224
elsewhere speified; french
polishers ~
Painters, assmblers and 341 100 1.018 7.9 131 30 131 38 144* 38
related ocupations
AlI ocupations 601 526 100 1.061 6.6 100 100 100
~
Z
0
IZrom McDowa11 (1985); SMR, standardizd mortality ratio
b10% sample, excpt for 'aIl occupations'
*Differs significantly from a11 occupations (p .c 0.05)
W
\C
W
(ii) Perinatal toxicity

Olsen and Rachootin (1983) reported in a letter to the Editor data on 2259 couples who
had had a healthy child in 1978-79 at the Odense University Hospital, Denmark. Occupa-
tional expsure to various substances was assessed prior to deliveiy. Expsure to 'lacquer,
paint or glue' was reported by 217 mothers and 1512 of their spouses. For maternai exp-
sures, mean birh weights were 64 g less than the average; the authors reported that, after
adjustment for maternai age, smokig and drikig habits and time to conception, birh
weights were 51 g less than the average (p = 0.12). For paternal expsures, the adjusted birh
weight of the babies was 14 g above average (p = 0.56).
Heidam (1984a,b) carred out a postal survey of the reproductive histoiy of women liv-
ing in Funen county, Denmark. Female painters were recruited from the locl diviions of
the trade union, and 76 of 81 (94%) to whom questionnaires were sent replied; among these,
38 pregnancies were reported (0.5 per woman), of which five (13% ) were reported to be spon-
taneous abortions. A 91% response rate was obtained from a reference group of 1571
employed women; among these, 843 pregnancies were reported (0.5 per woman), of which 84
(10%) were reported to be spontaneous abortions. The corresponding RR was 2.9 (95% CI,
1.0-8.8) for painters after controlling for gravidity, pregnancy order and age. When, how-
ever, the analysis was done using separate data on birhs and spntaneous abortions regis-
tered in hospital, the corresponding RR was 1.1 (0.4-2.9). The authors suggested that there
may have been some reporting bias among the painters.
McDowall (1985) also presented data relevant to periatal toxicity, including the sex
ratio of offsprig, percentage of low birh weights and standardized mortlity ratios (SMRs)
for stilbirhs and periatal and inant deaths, for birhs in England and Wales in 198082
(Tble 21). 'Other spray painters' had an elevated ratio of male:female birhs; but in each of
the four other ocupational units with expsure to paint, the sex ratio was below average.
The inant mortlity rate for the offsprig of 'painters, assemblers and related ocupations'
was higher than that of all ocupations. Workers in this group would generally be classified in
soial class IV in which the inant mortlity rate is 115.
Daniell and Vaughan (1988) used records of live birhs in Washington State, USA, from
198083 to compare the outcome of pregnancy in various ocupational groups. Among the
1299live birhs for which the ocupation of father of the child was descnbed as 'painter', the
sex distnbution and Apgar scre at 1 min and 5 min were similar to that round in the 2529live
birhs for whom the ocupation or the father was descbed as 'electrician' and in 1469 'gener-
al controls'. The RR for low birh weight ( -: 250 g) among the offsprig of painters was 1.1
(95% CI, 0.7-1.5) compared to 'electricins' and 1.4 (0.9-2.1) when compared to 'general
controls' .
(ii) Ma/tonnions
McDowall (1985) also feported on malformations in England and Wales in 198082,
accrding to maternaI and paternal ocupation (Tble 22). Overall, there was no excess of
malformations, except in the offsprig of men in ocpations classified as 'painters, assem-
biefs and related ocpations'. When specific malformtions were considered, there was an
excess of polydactyly in the children of men and women with ocpations classified as 'paint-
Table 22.. Standardized malformation ratios for specitied malformations according to occupation, England and Wales, 1980-82b
Malformation Arists; commercial artists Coach painters Other spray pa inters Painters and decorators Painters, assmblers and
not elsewhere specified; related occupations
Father
Ratio No.
Mother
Ratio No.
Father
Ratio No,
Mother
Ratio No.
Father
Ratio No,
Mother
Ratio No.
french polishers
Father
Ratio No,
Mother
Ratio No.
Father
Ratio No.
-
Mother
Ratio No.
Ali malformations 91 46 100 14 102 3 - 0 97 97 100 4 89* 369 100 4 241 * 117 100 140
Anencephalus 381 3 - 0 - 0 - 0 120 2 - 0 58 4 - 0 126 1 187 5
Spina bifida - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 64 - 0 99 19 495 7 177 12
~
3 1 314*
Spina bifida and/or anencephalus 102 3 - 0 - 0 - 0 82 5 - 0 84 2 372 1 275* 8 187* 17
Cleft palate and/or c1eft lip 93 - 0 - - - 77 20 - 0 163 111 10
~
3 0 0 111 7 0 5 c:
Hiatus hemia and/or diaphrag- - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 10 - 0 101 3 - 0 - 0 94 1
~
matic hemia
'facheo-oesophageal fistula, oe- - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 138 1 - 0 99 3 - 0 - 0 92 1
~
c:
sophageal atresia and stenosis ~
Rectal and anal atresia and sle- - 0 559 1 - 0 - 0 80 1 - 0 97 5 - 0 166 1 55 1 tI
nosis
Malformations of the heart and 156 - 0 550 - 0 80 - 0 79 20 - 0 166 58
tory sytem
circula
5 1 5 5 5
~
Hyppadias, epispadias 54 2 288 3 - 0 - 0 119 9 - 0 78 24 - 0 194 7 83 9
Polydactyly 49 1 - 0 - 0 - 0 164 7 - 0 176* 31 1081 * 2 392 8 144 9
Syndactyly
Reduction deformities -
105 2
0
-
-
0
0
-
-
0
0
-
-
0
0
57
47
2
1
-
-
0
0
150
82
22
7 -
763 1
0
459*
399*
8
4
213*
138
10
4
;
0
Exomphalos, omphalocele - 0 692 1 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 39 2 - 0 357 2 223 4
Down's sydrome 90 2 170 1 - 0 - 0 35 1 505 1 60 8 - 0 123 2 72 3
Ilor fathers, standardized malformation ratios are calculated, taking a1l ocupations as 100. For mothers, standardizd propottonae mortlity ratios are caJculated, taking a1l malforma-
tions ¡n each occupational group as 100.
bfrom McDowa1l (1985)
*Differs significantly from a1l occupations (p .: 0.05)
W
i)
ers and decorators not elsewhere specified, and french polishers' and in children of men
whose ocupations were described as 'painters, assemblers and related ocupations'. Syn-
dactly was in excess in the offsprig of men and women whose ocupation was 'painters,
assemblers and related ocupations'. Reduction deformities were also in excess for paternal
expsure but not for maternai expsure. Spina bifida and/or anencephalus were in excess in
the offsprig of men and women descnbed as 'painters, assemblers, and related ocupa-
tions'.
Olsen (1983) reported data from the Register for Congenital Malformations in the
county of Funen, Denmark, and took details of parental ocupation from birh certificates.
The authors reported a relative prevalence ratio of 4.9 (95% CI, 1.4-17.1) for congenital mal-
formations of the central nervous system in the group in which the children's fathers were
entered as painters in comparison with all other ocupations; the ratio for mothers in this
categoiy was O.
(c) Genetic and related effects
Haglund et al. (1980) studied chromosomal aberrations and sister chromatid exchanges
in the lymphoces of 17 male paint industiy workers (expsed to organic solvents) who were
presumed to have the highest expsure among a group of 47 paint industiy workers
employed in seven different factories in southern Sweden. For each expsed person, a con-
trol was chosen, matched by sex, age, place of residence (rural/urban) and smokig habits.
Most of the controls were also factoiy workers (storeroom personnel, paint griders, electri-
cians, drivers, carpenters), but presumably unexpsed. For analysis of both chromosomal
aberrations and sister chromatid exchange, lymphoces were cultured for 72 h; 2025 meta-
phases were studied for sister chromatid exchange (17 subjects) and 100 for chromosomal
aberrations (five subjects with the highest combined expsure). No difference was seen in
either parameter; a significant difference in the frequency of sister chromatid exchange was
observed between smokers and nonsmokers (0.202 and 0.175, respectively;p = 0.02). (Te
Workig Group noted the small number of workers studied for chromosomal aberrations. J
Sister chromatid exchange was studied in the peripherallymphoces of 106 members
of the International Brotherhoo of Painters and AIlied Tradesmen in two major US cities
(Kelseyet al., 1988). Intensity and duration of chronic expsure to solvents were estimated
from intervewer-administered questionnaire data. Eight men reported no ocupational
histoiy of solvent expsure; 13 alled tradesmen (including diy-wall tapers and paperhang-
ers) reported minimal, indirect expsure to solvents and had no histoiy of direct application
of solvent-based materils. Cumulative expsure (CEl) to solvents was estimated for the
workig lifetimes of 85 painters. Fifty cells from each of 91 individuals were scred for sister
chromatid exchange; for the remaining 15 persons, a mean of 21.2 cells per individual was
examined. Cultures were incubated for 72 h. There was no elevation in the frequency of
sister chromatid exchange attnbutable to cumulative duration of expsure to solvents or to
intensity of expsure over the year prior to bloo sampling. Smokig was assoted with a
sus 5.73 in nonsmok-
significant elevation in the level of sister chromatid exchange (6.75 ver
ers).
3.3 Epidemiological studies or carcinogenicity in humans
(a) Occupationa mortality an morbidity statistics

Detailed data from some of the studies descbed below are given in Thble 23.
(i) National studies

The ocupations recorded on a 10% sample of death certificates in England and Wales
were used to calculate SMRs for deaths ocurrg around the time of the 1951 Census (Of-
fice of Population Censuses and Surveys, 1958), of the 1961 Census (Adelstein, 1972; Office
of Population Censuses and Surveys, 1972), of the 1971 Census (Office of Population Cen-
suses and Surveys, 1979) and of the 1981 Census (Office of Population Censuses and Surveys,
1986). The SMRs for various cancer sites among paiters and decorators are listed in Thble
23. SMRs for all cancers were consistently above the average and those for lung cancer con-
sistently 40% above the national average: 149 (90 deaths) in 1949-53, 143 (1502 deaths) in
1959-63, 139 (847 deaths) in 1970-72 and 142 (803 deaths) in 1979-80, 1982-83. The propor-
tion of current smokers among painters and decorators was reported to be slightly higher
than that in the total population (smokig ratio, 110, based on a sample of 756 men, includ-
ing 153 painters and decorators; Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, 1979).
Guralnick (1963) divided specific causes of death in the USA in 1950 by ocupation and
industiy as reported on death certificates and compared them with the expected causes of
deaths of all workig men as reported in the census from the same year. There were 6145
deaths among white male painters and plasterers in the age group 20, with a SMR of 114;
selected SMRs are: all cancers, 126 (1016 cases); buccl cavity and phary, 137 (41); oesoph-
agus, 109 (25); stomach, 127 (130); lung, 155 (248); kidney, 120 (24); bladder, 146 (38); brain,
134 (39); and leukaemia, 117 (41) (see Thble 23). Proportionate mortality ratios (PMRs) were
used to test for significance; only that for lung cancer was significant.
Dunn and Weir (1965) established in 1954 a fixed cohort of 68 153 workig men engaged
in ocupations suspected of engenderig a risk for lung cancer and followed them for mortal-
ity through to 1962 for this report. ln this group, 12 572 men were painters and decorators.
Information on smokig and ocupation was gathered for this population until1957. The
number of deaths in the eight -year follow-up was compared with that among men in Califor-
nia, USA, 1959-61. Painters and decrators had an SMR of 129 (91 observed) for lung can-
cer; adjustment for smokig resulted in a decrease in the SMR to 114. The SMR for all other
cancers was 94 (153 observed). (Te Workig Group noted that, since other cancers were
treated as a group, it is impossible to determine the nsk for those at specific sites.)
Howe and Lidsay (1983) followed a cohort comprising 415 201 Canadian men with
known ocupational histories in 1965-9, which represented 10% of the Canadian labour
force. Cancer mortlity in this cohort was monitored by record linkage with a Canadian mor-
tality data base containing all deaths registered in Canada for the years 1965-73. The only
significantly elevated SMR (285; based on five observed cases) was found for cancer of the
buccl cavity and phary, except Hp, in the ocupational group of construction and mainte-
nance painters, paperhangers and glaziers as compared to the mortlity of the entire cohort.
Table 23. Cancer mortality or incidence in studies of national statistics and of large occupational cohorts of painting trades
1Y of neoplasm National statistics w

\0
Occupational cohorts 00
UK, 1949-53 UK, 1959-63 UK, 1970-72 UK, 1979-80, USA, 1950 (Gu- Sweden, 1958- Denmark, USA, 1975-79
(OPCS, 1958); (OPCS, 1972); (OPCS, 1979); 1972-83 (OPCS,
'other', painters painters and dec-
ralnick, 1963); 71 (Englund, 1970-79 (Olsen (Matanoski et al"
pain ters and dec- 1986); painters, painters and plas- 1980; Engholm
and decorators; & Jensen, 1986); mixed
orators; males, orators; males, decorators and terers; white & Englund, 1987); painters pain ters
males, 20-64 15-64 15-64 french polishers; males, 20-64 1982); painters' (construction)
males, 20-64 union
SMRa No, SMRa No, SMRa No, SMRa No, SMRb No, SIRe No, SPIRd No, SMRb No,
AIl malignant neoplasms 124 2092** 122 123
2361 ** 1382** 124 1781 ** 126 1016** 109 NA
Buccal and pharyx 647* 110 927**
114 16' 78 12 138 10 145 40* 137 41 NA 61 5 NA
Oesophagus 84 31 115 53 130 47 106 57 109 25 215 17 148 4 NA
Stomach (195 24j**
122 360** 120 383** 118 113
174* 132 127 130* (106 80j 94 11 136
Colon 106 120 50*
101 123 98 78 88 74
Rectum 107 103 103 100 101 57 128 82
112
112
77
47
NA
NA
NA
NA
111
NA
93 ~
Liver and gall-bladder 65 11 100 26 103 9f NA NA 200 Ý a:
60 5h
128 120 156 20f
0
Laryx 91
107 2h Z
21 58 14 127 16 141 21 200 28** 177 14 NA NA 0
Nasal cavity
Lung
40
149
2 120
143
6 54 2 172 5 NA NA i25 1 NA 0
909 ** 1502** 139 847** 142 803** 155
'i~
248 ** 128 81 * 149 79** 118 326 **
(127 124j**
Prostate 105 39 102 43 97 27 109 38 82 28 NA 48 8 98 84
::
CI
Kidney 86 25 95 39 104 27 NA
Bladder 109 58
120 24 NA 61 4 141 27 ~
Non-Hodgkin's Iypho- 109 23
118
95
79
38
152
101
66** 116 48 146 38* NA 112 24 126 40 0
26 NA NA NA
ma
Hodgkin's disease
56 3 NA E
113 35 90 37 52 10 144 21 129 22 NA a:
Multiple myeloma NA 106 19 82 11 NA NA NA
106 3 NA tI
NA NA
Leukaemia 111 50 98 65 125 43 81 33 117 41 173 13; 75 5 116 37
~
"SMR, standardized mortality ratio; expcted numbers based on national rates for working men
bJpected numbers based on national rates for white males
'SIR, standardized incidence ratio; expcted numbers based on national rates; in square brackets, SMR
ifPIR, standardized proportional incidence ratio; expcted numbers based on the proportions of cancers in ail persons registered in the Danish Pension Fund
'Phary
ILiver
KIntrahepatic bile ducts
"Gall-bladder
iLymphatic leukaemia
*Significant at the p .: 0.05 level
* *Significant at the p .: O,011evel

NA, not available; OPCS, Office of Population Censuses and Surveys
ln cohort studies and national statisties, inormation on smokig habits is not usually
available. A review addressing the effect of smokig as a confounding variable in studies of
ocupational groups (Simonato et al., 1988) indicates that smokig has a limited effect on the
assoiation between lung cancer and ocupational expsures: the estimates might be in-
creased by 2025%. The estima tes in the studies described above were usuaUy increased to a
greater extent.
(ü) Other studies

As part of the US Third National Cancer Survey, both ocupation and industiy were
identified for each subject based on main lifetime employment, recent employment and oth-
er jobs held (Wiliams et al., 1977). Intervews were obtained for a total of 7518 men and
women, representing a 57% response rate. The RRs for cancers at particular sites were esti-
mated for specific ocupations. Painting (which included painters, construction workers, pa-
per-hangers, and pattern and model makers) was the main lifetime ocupation for 27 men
and was assoiated with an excess RR for lung cancer: 4.2, based on 12 cases (p c: 0.01).
There were two cases of leukaemia (RR, 4.0).
ln a study carred out in California, USA, using the death certificat es of about 20 ()
white men durig the period 1959-61 (Petersen & Milham, 1980), the cause of death and
usual ocupation as reported on the death certificate were used to calculate proportionate
mortality ratios (PMRs), standardized for age and year of death. The total number of deaths
from all causes among painters was 3558. An elevated PMR for lung cancer was reported
among painters, but figures were not available to the Workig Group.
ln a similar study, Milham (1983) analysed the death records of 429926 men and 25 06
women durig the period 195079 in Washington State, USA. The PMR for cancers of the
lung, bronchus and trachea was significantly elevated among painters (mainly construction
and maintenance painters): PMR, 121, p c: 0.01 for all ages, 251 observed; PMR, 112, not
significant for ages 20, 103 observed; and among auto painters and boy/fender repair-
men: PMR, 184, p c: 0.01 for ages 20, 290bserved; PMR, 148, P c: 0.05 for all ages, 39
observed. The PMR for gastric cancer was also elevated among painters and boy/fender
repairen. Among paperhangers and decorators (painters), the PMR for lung cancer was
elevated (139; 21 observed), but not significantly for ages 20; it was significant for aU ages
(pMR, 140; p c: 0.05; 50 observed). ln persons with this ocupation, cancers of the bladder
and other uriaiy organs (pMR, 179, P c: 0.05 for all ages, Il observed; PMR, 186, not signifi-
cant for ages 20, two observed) and reticulosarcoma ocurred in excess.
Dubrow and Wegman (1984)examined cancer mortlity patterns by ocupation for
white males over 20 years old in Massachusetts for 1971-73. Using age-standardized mortl-
ity ratios, 397 ocupational categories defined from inormation on death certificat es were
assessed for their assoation with increased risk for 62 malignancies. Increased riks (at p c:
0.05) were apparent for stomach cancer (23 deaths; SMR, 158) in construction and mainte-
nance painters; for cancer of the trachea, bronchus and lung in grouped painters (110 deaths;
SMR, 131) and in shipyard painters (nine deaths; SMR, 261); and for laiygeal cancer (ten
deaths; SMR, 205), ski neoplasms except malignant melanoma (four deaths; SMR, 492) and
prostatic cancer (36 deaths; SMR, 146) in grouped painters. Grouped painters aged 55-74
years had a statistically significant increase in risk for buccl cavity and phary (14 deaths;
SMR, 222); a nonsignificant excess of lymphomas was seen for men in the age group 20
years (eight deaths; SMR, 192).
Pearce and Howard (1986) compared cancer deaths among males aged 15-6 years in
New Zealand in 1974-78, for whom ocupation had been listed on the death certificate, with
a 10% sample of census data. The RR for leukaemia was 2.3 in assoiation with the ocupa-
tion of painting (eight cases; 95% CI, 1.0-.6). When adjusted for soial class, the RR fell to
2.0 (95% CI, 0.863.9).
(b) Cohort studies or studies within a cohort
(i) Painters
Chiazze et al. (1980) studied workers in ten automobile assembly plants in five large
companies in the USA. The plants were selected because of large numbers of employees,
similar spray-painting operations, geographic dispersion and adequate records. The study
was based on 4760 deaths among active and retired workers from 1970 or 1972 through 1976.
A total of 4215 decedents were eligible for study, and employee work records were reviewed;
Id not be obtained. The analysis was restricted to white males, who
for 253, work histories cou
comprised about 80% of the decedents; 226 were spray painters. There was no significant
excess proportion of deaths from any cause among spray painters, using either externallocl
deaths or internai non-spray painters deaths. Lung cancer (21 deaths), which was the focus
of the study, ocurred more frequently among spray painters (pMR, 141) than in the locl
populations but not more frequently than among other automobile assembly workers (pMR,
108). PMRs greater than unity were noted also for leukaemias and lymphomas and for tu-
mours of the brain, prostate, buccl cavity and phary. A nested case-cntrol study covered
263 automotive workers who had died from lung cancer; they were matched by age within two
years and by plant of employment with 10(H controls who had died of either cardiovascular
disease or accidents. Spray painting was assoiated with a nonsignificant RR of 1.4 for lung
cancer, and there was no indication of a dose-response relationship in assoiation with exp-
sure. The RR for those who had firt been expsed at least 15 years prior to death was 1.0.
The authors noted that individuals who had worked for only a few years may not have been
included among the deaths if they had not been identified by an insu
rance claim in the com-
pany beneficiaiy file.
Englund (1980) and Engholm and Englund (1982) studied a cohort of 30 580 members
of the Swedish painters' union from 196 to 1974 for mortlity and to 1971 for cancer morbid-
ity by matching with national registers. The loss to follow-up was 1%. The SMR for all
causes among painters was 102 (2740 cases), and the SIR for cancer was 109 (p = 0.01; 647
cases). Excesses were seen for cancers of the oesophagus (17 cases; SIR, 215 (95% CI,
124-340)), liver and bile ducts (12 cases; SIR, 20 (103-349)), lung (81 cases; SIR, 128
(106152)) and lary (14 cases; 177 (97-297)) and for lymphatic leukaemia (13 cases; 173
(92-296)). ln a study based on population-based registries, about 38 00 painters in the 196
census were linked to the national cancer registiy, 19673. Among the 20 cancers in
painters, excesses were seen for cancers of the oesophagus (38 cases; SIR, 148) and of the
intrahepatic bile duct (eight cases; SIR, 172). There was also a two-fold excess of pleural
tumours based on six cases. The SIR for all cancers was shown to increase with increasing
number of years since entiy into the union (Engholm & Englund, 1982). The authors sug-
gested in an abstractthat smokig habits were no different among painters than among other
groups (Engholm et al., 1987).
Dalager et al. (1980) examined the risks for cancer among spray painters employed in
the aircrat maintenance industiy, where there was expsure to zinc chromate priers.
Deaths among painters were compared with those expected among US white males using
PMRs. The PMRs for all cancers (136, 50 cases) and for lung cancer (184, 21 cases) were
significantly raised. The PMRs for cancers at several other sites were increased but not sig-
nificantly so. The PMR for respiratoiy cancers increased with duration of employment.
ln a study of 26 male painters belonging to two painters' unions in the Copenhagen
area, Mikelsen (1980) found no increased risk for all cancers combined when the number of
cases (82) was compared with those among men in a bricklayers' union (RR, 1.1; 95% CI,
0.8- 1.6) or with those among all Copenhagen men (RR, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.8-1.3). Results were
not reported for specific sites.
Whorton et al. (1983) followed up a group compriing 6424 union members residing in
the San Francisc/Oakland Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, representing six ocupa-
tions: asbestos workers, bakers, painters, plasterers, plumbers and roofers. Individuals were
considered to be members of the cohort if they appeared on union records in July 1976 and
1977. Incident cases of cancer were identified by computer linkage of union rosters to the
California Tumor Registiy, and the registiy's age-, sex- and year-specific incidence rates
were used to calculate expected numbers of cancer cases and SIRs. An increased incidence
of cancer of the trachea, bronchus, lung and pleura was seen among painters (15 cases; SIR,
199 (95% CI, 112-330D. Relative riks in excess of unity were also observed for leukaemia
and for cancers of the prostate and bladder. The authors pointed out that about 15% of all
cohort members were of unknown vital status but were assumed to be alive.
ln a cohort mortality study of US paint applicators, priariy in new constructions and
maintenance, the records of a large international union of painters and alled tradesmen
were used (Matanoski et al., 1986). The cohort consisted of 57 175 men who had been born
prior to 1940, had had at least one year of union membership, had been members of the union
in 1975-79 in four states in different geographical areas, and had died in 1975-79. A total of
1271 (2.2%) individuals were lost to follow-up. AItogether, 5313 deaths ocurred (SMR, 88,
based on US white male rates). Death certificates were available for all but 288 (5.4%);
SMRs were not significantly elevated for cancers at individual sites. Since there was no di-
rect information on individual worker's trades, data from locl union chapters were used to
define the usual trade of their members; 58% of the cohort belonged to mIxed painting 10-
cals. Using the US white male population for comparison, significant excess mortlity ratios
. were se en in locl chapters for painters for all malignant neoplasms (SMR, 110; 95% CI,
103-117), stomach cancer (136; 101-180) and lung cancer (118; 106132), and nonsignificant
ratios for cancers of the large intestine (111; 90136), liver (156; 95-241), bladder (126;
90172) and kidney (141; 93-205) and for leukaemia (116; 82-160) (see also Thble 23). When
the risks of men in locl mixed painting chapters were compared with those of men in special-
ty locls, the mixed painters had significantly higher mortlity from all causes, from malig-
nant neoplasms, from lung cancer, from bladder cancer and from leukaemia. (Te Workig
Group noted that the fact that all painters had to have been active dues-payig members at
some time durig the follow-up period would tend to have enhance the 'healthy worker'
effect in this population.)
A nested case-cntrol study was conducted of lung cancer incidence in the New York
unions included in the study descnbed above (Stockwell & Matanoski 1985). The 124 male
lung cancer cases were identified through the New York State Cancer Registiy, and 371 con-
trois without cancer were selected randomly from the union membership and stratified by
birh date and geographicalloction of the unions. Responses to questionnaires on work
histoiy, work envionment and life-style factors were received from 69 (66%) of the cases
and 182 (59%) of the controls; of these, 65 (94%) and 55 (33%) were completed bya proxy for
cases and controls, respectively. Painting as the reported usual trade was assoted with a
en for work in alled trades: paint-
high risk (RR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.5-5.2); high riks were also se
er as a union speciality (RR, 3.2; 95% CI, 1.4-7.1) and ever havig worked as a pain
ter (RR,
2.6; 95% CI, 1.3-4.9). ln the 57 cases for which the inormation was available, 53 men were
reported to have used spackling compounds (probably containing asbestos), compared with
112 of 161 controls (RR for spackling, 5.2; 95% CI, 1.9-14.5). The authors attempted to ad-
just for seve rai variables, including asbestos expsure (on the basis of use of spackling COff-
pounds). The risk for lung cancer among painters who never wore a respirator remained
high (5.4; 95% CI, 1.0-29.3). (Te Workig Group noted that a high proportion of cases re-
ported using spackling compounds and questioned the accuracy of inormation obtained
from a proxy regarding use of painting mate rils and of respira tors. )
Ail 93 810 incident cases of cancer recorded in 1970-79 at the Danish Cancer Registiy
were linked with inormation on longest employment held submitted by the Supplementaiy
Pension Fund (Olsen & Jensen, 1987). The standardized proportionate incidence ratios
(SPIRs) for cancer were reported for each cancer site in each industiy and ocupation on the
basis of the expcted proportion of that cancer in all industries. Painters in the construction
industiy had an increased proportion of lung cancers compared to people in other ocupa-
tions (SPIR, 149; 95% CI, 119-185; based on 79 cases). Workers in the paint, varnish and
lacquer manufacturig industries had an increased proportion of cancers of the nasal cavity
and sinus, with a SPIR of 620 (95% CI, 155-2480; based on two cases). ln a follow-up study of
cases registered through 1984 (Olsen, 1988), the SPIR was reduced to 401 (67-1324) based on
two cases of sinonasal cancer. Car painters had a SPIR of 1403 (198-9958) for nasal cavity
and sinus cancers based on one case. Several other proportions were above one for these
three groups, but the excesses were not significant (Olsen & Jensen, 1987).
(n) Paint manufacturers

Bertzzi et al. (1981) followed a small cohort of 427 workers employed in paint man-
ufacturig in ltaly. The workers had to have been employed for at least six months at any
time from 1946 through 1977 to be eligible for inclusion and were followed for 1954-78. The
follow-up was 97.7% complete. There was a significant excess of all cancers in this popula-
tion (18 cases; SMR, 184; 95% Ci, 112-285) when national rates were used as the comparison.
Lung cancers ocurred at significant excess when either national (eight cases; SMR, 334;
10634) or locl rates (227; 15633) were used as a standard, and the rik increased with
length of expsure and with latency. These workers were expsed to asbestos as well as to
chromate pigments.
A similar study of a larger cohort of 16 243 US male workers in the paint and coating
manufacturig industiy was reported by Morgan et al. (1981). These men had been employed
for one year or more after Januaiy 1946 in 12 large and 20 medium to small companies and
were followed through 31 December 1976. Only plants that retained persnnel records for
at least 15 years were eligible for the study, and out of 47 eligible plants the 32largest were
finally studied. The overall follow-up rate of the cohort was about 94%. Death certificates
could not be obtained for 8.2% decedents. There were 2633 deaths in all (SMR, 86). The
cohort was divided into seven subgroups on the basis of their expsures as determined from
individual job histories; individuals could appear in multiple expsure groups. Deaths from
cancers of the colon and rectum ocrred at higher rates in the total population than ex-
pected on the basis of numbers among US white males (colon: 65 cases; SMR, 138 (95% CI,
107-176l;rectum: 26 cases; SMR, 139 (91-20)). The rik for respiratoiy cancers, which was a
major focus of the study, was not excessive in this population (SMR, 98; 160 cases); inorma-
tion on smokig habits was not available. Deaths from cancer of the liver and biliaiy passage
ocurred more frequently than expected in the subgroups of workers potentially expsed to
pigments (seven cases; SMR, 273 (108-555)) and lacquer (five cases; SMR, 255 (81-583)).
The SMR for leukaemia was 212 (eight cases (92-418)) in the subgroup of workers expsed to
lacquer. A further report on this study (Morgan et al., 1985) provided little additional inor-
mation.
A small cohort of 416 men who had worked for five years or more in the Swedish paint
manufacturig industiy during the period 1955-75 were followed for mortlity in the years
1961-81 (Lundberg, 1986). Reference numbers were taken from national statistics. Subjects
were categoried into lower and higher expsure levels accrding to duration and intensity of
expsure.Overall mortality was low (96 cases; SMR, 88), as was mortlity from all cancers
(22 cases; SMR, 84;95% CI, 52-127) and from lung cancer (three cases; SMR, 63; 95% CI,
12-184). The SMR for multiple myeloma was 549 (three cases; 95% CI, 113-160) and that
for cancer of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues 212 (five cases; 95% CI, 68-96). The
three cases of multiple myeloma ocurred in workers in the higher expsure category.
(c) Case-control studies
(i) Caners al multiple sites

Cancer cases recrded at a cancer centre in New York State, USA in 19565 were
compared with all patients with non-neoplastic lesions in regard to ocupations related to
inhalation of combustion products or chemicals and to personal characteritics (Vadana et
al., 1976; Decoufé et al., 1977; Houten et al., 1977). The inormation was obtained through
an invervewat the time of admission for all patients. Each of the 11591 white male subjects
was included for analysis for each ocupation held; specific ocupations were compared with
those of an unexpsed clerical group. Painters were analysed as a subgroup of people with
chemical expsures and as asubgroup of those with metal-related ocupations. Cancer sites
for which RRs were increased were: lung (42 cases; RR, 1.7;p = 0.02), stomach (eight cases;
2.4;p = 0.05), oesophagus (seven cases; 3.0;p = 0.03), prostate (nine cases; 1.9), bladder (16
cases; 1.6), kidney (four cases; 2.6) and melanoma (two cases; 3.2). The highest RR was seen
in the age group below 60 years for stomach cancer (12.6); for oesophageal cancer, the rik
was greater for the age group above 60 years (3.8). These two ratios were even higher among
painters with five or more years of expsure (16.6 and 6.9, respectively). For lung and pros-
tate cancer, no such dose-response relationship was observed. The elevated lung cancer risk
among painters was no longer significant after adjustment for smokig and age (RR, 1.7).
The author noted that the risk for stomach cancer was elevated in more than half of the ocu-
pations, which might be explained by the eastern European origin of the workers. No ad
just-
ment was made for alcohol drikig (see also Thbles 24 and 25).
Coggon et al. (1986,b) identified all cases of cancer in three English counties where
chemical, metal and vehicle production industries were situated, using hospital and cancer
registration records for the period 1975-80. Males aged 18-54 were included in the study.
Occupational and smokig histories were obtained either by mailed questionnaires (re-
sponse rate, 52.1 % ) or from inormation in hospital records or on death certificates. A total
of 2942 cancer cases were identified, and cases of cancer at 15 specific sites were compared
with those at all other sites with regard to ocupation. Data were corrected for age, resi-
dence, source of histoiy and smokig. Laiygeal cancer was more likely to be assoiated with
painting and decorating (RR, 3.4; 95% CI, 1.3-9.0; six cases) than with other ocupations;
bronchial cancer was also associated with painting, the RR being 1.3 (20 cases; see also Thble
24). A borderline significant assoiation was seen for cancer of the stomach (RR, 2.3; 95%
CI, 1.0-5.0); other sites for which the RR was above unity were oral cavity (RR, 1.9; five
cases), ski (RR, 1.4; four cases), testes (RR, 1.9; nine cases) and malignant melanoma (RR,
1.6; four cases). The authors commented that five patients with testicular cancer had worked
as paint sprayers, which results in a RR of 4.9 (95% CI, 1.3-18.2). A nonsignificant RR of 0.7
was found for bladder cancer (see also Thble 25).
ln the same area of the UK, Magnani et al. (1987) examined ocupations assoated with
cancer at five sites - oesophagus, pancreas, melanoma, kidney and brain. Deaths from these
cancers in men aged 18-54 for the period 1959-63 and 1965-79 were matched by year of
death, age at death and residence to those among four con trois who had died from other
causes. Occupation and industiy were identified from death certificates. No significant rik
for any of the cancers was assoiated with expsure to painting and decorating; however, the
RR for oesophageal cancer was 2.0 (95% CI, 0.8-.9) and that for brain cancer, 1.4 (95% CI,
0.7-2.8). The investigators also descnbed expsures for each ocupation, summed these
across ocupations, and examined the riks of these substances as they relate to the cancers.
ln this analysis, paints were assoted with onlya small increase in RR for three cancers -
oesophageal and brain cancers and melanoma; none of the assiations is significant. The
authors noted that only the most recent full-time job was recorded on the death certificate.
No adjustment was made for smokig or alcohol drikig.
Table 24. Case-control and other studies or lung cancer among persons exposed in paint manufacture and painting
Reference Loation, 1) of controls Source Exposure No. of cases RR 95% CI Commen ts
time (no. of painters)
Case-control studies
Wyder & USA, NG rU nclear J Intervew 857 (200 fume- NG NG
Graham (1951) expsed; 11
Breslow et al. USA, Hospital Intervew Construction and

painters)
518 (22) 1.9 0.93-3.8 Not adjusted
l
(1954) 1949-52 maintenance paint-
ers for :;5 years ~
c:
Menck & USA, Estimated popula- Death certificates, 2161 (45) SMR, NG Significant; adjusted
Hendersn 1968- 70 tion by industry hospital records
Painter at diagnosis
158 for age
~
(1976) q
c:
Milne et al. USA, Deaths from other Death certificates, Painter 925 men (24) 1.8 NG Significant (p .: ~
(1983) 1958-62 causes (excpt occupation 0.01); adjusted for m
pancreas, bladder, age
nasl, kidney, hae-
matopoietic)
~
Paint manufacture (3) 0.7 NG Not significant
Kjuus et al. Norway, Hospital Intervew and Painting and paper- 176 men (5) 1.7 0.4-7.3 Occupation is longest
(1986) 1979-83 worksite records hanging job held; considered ~
exposed if :; 3 years; 0
Paints , glues, lac- 17 1.2 0.6-2.6 adjusted for smoking
quer
Lerchen et al. USA, Population and ros- Intervew Ever construction 333 men (9) 2.7 0.8-8.9 Adjusted for age, eth-
(1987) 1980-82 ters of elderly painters nid ty and smoking
Asbestos 40 1.1 0.7-1. 7
~
~
Table 24 (contd)
Reference Lotion, 1Y of controls Source Expoure No. of cases RR 95% CI Comments

time (no. of pa inters)
Siemiatycki Canada, Other cancers Intervew Listed as white 857 males Adjusted for age, so-
et al. (1987a) 1979-85 spirits, but in ex- oat-cell 1.1 0.8-1.4 cio-economic status,
pod group con- 159 (36) ethnicity, cigarette
struction is 21 % of squamous-cell 1.2 1.0-1.5 smoking, blue/white
totaL, mostly paint- 359 (92) collar; 90% CI
ers adenocrcinoma 1.0 0.7-1.3
162 (37)
other tys 0.8 0.6- 1.1
177 (32) ~
Long duration, 44 1.7 1.2-2.3 ~
high expure 0
Construction work- Z
1.4 NG 0
ers 0
Levin et al. China, Population Intervew Ever pain ter 733 men (15) 1.4 0.5-3.5 Questionable trend;
(1988) 1984-85 adjusted for age and ~
smoking ::
en
Ronco et al. Italy, Deaths without Intervew Pain ter 164 men (5) 1.3 0.43-4.1 Adjusted for age, ~
(1988) 1976-80 smoking-related smoking and other 0
disese employment in sus- E
pect high-risk occu- a:
pations tT
Multiite case-control studies tj
Viadana et al. USA, Noncancer admis- Intervew at ad- Painter (42) 1.7 NG Significant; adjusted
(1976); De- 1956-65 sions mission for age; non-signifi-
couflé et al. cant when adjusted
(1977); Houten for smoking and age
et al. (1977)
Coggon et al. UK, Other cancers Intervew Painter 738 men (20) 1.3 NG Adjusted for age,
(1986a) 1975-80 smoking, residence,
respondent
RR, relative risk; CI, confidence interval; NG, not given; SMR, standardized mortality ratio
Table 25. Case-control studies of lower urinary tract cancer among persons exposed in paint manufacture and painting
Reference Loation, lype of con- Source Expoure No. of cases RR 95% CI Comments
time troIs (no. of paint-
ers)a
Wynder et al. USA, Hospital, with- Intervew Ever pain ter 300 (18) No adjustment for
(2.2) (1.0-4.5)
(1963) 1957-61 out smoking- smoking
related disease
Cole et al. USA, General popu- Interview Painter 461 (28 men) 1.2 0.71-1.9 Adjusted for age
(1972) 1967-68 lation and smoking
Howe et al. Canada, Neighbour- Intervew Commercial painting 1.0 0.6-2.3 Unadjusted. After
480 men ():24)
(1980) 1974-76 hoo correction for ex- ~
Ever spray painting 1.8 0.7-46 posure to other sus-
():16 )
pect 'high-risk' in-
dustry, RR for ~
spray pain ter, 1.0
c:
Silverman et USA, Population Inteiview Ever pain ter 303 men (15) 1.0 0.5-2.2 Unadjusted
~
al. (1983) 1977-78 Car pain ter
(3) 0.5 0.1-2.1 q
Paint manufacture c:
(1) 0.2 0-2.2 ::
Schoenberg et USA, Population Intervew Ever painter 658 men (34) 1.4 0.85-2.3 Adjusted for age,
tr
al. (1984) 1978-79 Paint expure 1.6 1.2-2.1
(111 ) smoking and other
employment ~
Vineis & Mag- Italy, Hospital; other Inteiview Painter in building industiy 512 men (12) 1.0 0.40-2.2 Adjusted for age
nani (1985) 1978-83 urological and 2.0 0.60-7.0 and smoking
Car painter ):5 years (7)
surgical Carpntiy painter (1) 0.6 0.04-8.4 ~
Spray painter in different (2) 1.2 0.20-5.8 Z
industries 0
Morrson et al. USA, UI( Population Inteiview Paint and paint manufacture USA, 430 (35) 1.5 0.9-2.4 Adjusted for age
(1985) Japan, UI( 399 (23) 0.7 0.5-1.2 and smoking; 90%
1976-78 Japan, 226 (5) 0.7 0.3-1.7 CI
Claude et al. FRG, NG Hospital uro- Inteiview Ever pain ter 531 men (15) 1.3 0.59-2.7 ltend, p = 0.04
(1988) logical and Lacquer and paint (78) 1.5 1.1-2.2 for exposure to
homes for el- Spray paints (52) 2.9 1.7-4.9 spray paints
derly
Jensen et al. Denmark, Population Inteiview Different painting industries 371 (13) 2.5 1.1-5.7 Adjusted for age,
(1987) 1979-81 Painter 10 years 1.4 1.0-1.9 sex and smoking ~
..
Table 2S (contd)
~
Referencè Lotion, 1Ype of con- Source Exure No. of cases RR 95% CI Comments
time troIs (no. of paint-
ers )a
Iscovich et al. Argentina, Neighbour- Interview Ever pain ter 117 (3) 0.55 (0.12-2.5) Adjusted for age
(1987) 1983-85 hoo and hos- and tobacco smoke,
pital poling the two
control groups
Schiffers et al. Belgium, Population Intervew Pain ter in high-risk ocupa- 74 (NG) NG NG No increased risk
(1987) 1984-85 tion reported
Risch et al. Canada, Population Intervew Expod to paints in full- 781 (204 men, 1.1 0.77-1.6 Adjusted for smok-
(1988) 1979-82 time job at least 6 months, 14 women) 3.9 0.9-26.7 ing
8-28 years before diagnosis ~
Commercial painting (49 men) 0.90 0.39-21 ~
Spray painting (67 men) 0.91 0.48-1.7 0
Z
, Siemiatycki et Canada, Other cancers Intervew üsted as white spirits, but in 486 (91) 1.0 0.8- 1.2 Adjusted for age, 0
al. (1987a) 1979-85 expd group construction soioeconomic sta- 0
is 21 % of total, mostly paint- tus, ethnicity, ciga-
ers rette smoking, ~
blue/white collar
::
v.
work; 90% CI ~
Multiite studies
0
Coggon et al. UK, Intervew Painter
E
Other cancers 179 (10) 0.7 NG Adjusted for age, ~
(1986b) 1975-80 smoking, residence, tr
respondent; blad- ~
der and renai pel-
vis; men aged
18-54 only
Viadana et al. USA, Noncancer ad- Intervew Pain ter (16) 1.6 NG Not significant
(1976); De- 1956-65 missions at admis-
couflê et al. sion
(1977); Hou-
ten et al.
(1977)
a¡f only discordant pairs noted, no. of painters ~ number of discordant pairs given
RR, relative risk; CI, confidence interval; NG, not given
(Te Workig Group noted that the populations studied by Coggon et al. (1986,b) and
Magnani et al. (1987) may overlap and that only deaths in relatively young men were consid-
ered.)
(ü) Cancer of the fung
These studies are summaried in Thble 24.
ln an early descriptive study, Wynder and Graham (1951) studied a total sample of 857
incident cases of lung carcinoma diagnosed in one hospital in St Louis, MO, USA, over an
unspecified period. Of 20 who were 'believed or known to have been expsed to irtative
dusts and/or fumes', 11 were painters. (Te Workig Group found it diffieult to clari the
inormation on the comparin groups.)
Breslowet al. (1954) identified 518 cases of lung cancer in 11 Californian hospitals dur-
ing the period 1949-52. Controls were selected from patients admitted to the same hospital
for a condition other than cancer or a chest disease, and matched for age, sex and race. De-
tailed ocupational and smokig histories were obtained by intervew. The authors reported
that 22 cases had been employed as construction or maintenance painters for at least five
years, as had 12 controls (RR, 1.9; 95% CI, 0.93-3.8). Smokig was not controlled for, al-
though smokig histories had been recorded.
Menck and Henderson (1976) identified deaths from lung cancer for the years 1968-70
(2161 cases) and incident cases oflung cancerfor the years 1972-73 (1777 cases) from the Los
Angeles County Cancer Surveilance Program. Both were classified by ocupation and in-
dustiy on the basis of either death certificates or hospital records. Of the 3938 subjects, 689
had no reported ocupation and 1222 no reported industry of employment. Employment of
the population aged 20-6 was estimated from a sample of the population in the 1970 census,
and the rik of lung cancer for each ocupation was compared to the risk in the total popula-
tion. The SMR for lung cancer in painters was significantly elevated (45 deaths; SMR, 158;
p -: 0.01; see also Thble 24).
Milne et al. (1983) compared the ocupation and industry of 925 (747 male and 178 fe-
male) cases of lung cancer in AIameda County, California, USA, 1958-62, with those of peo-
ple who had died of other cancers. Usual ocupation and industiy as stated on the death
certificate were coed using the US census classification. When ocupations were examined
separately, male painters had a significantly increased risk for lung cancer (24 cases) when
compared either with all cancer deaths (RR, 1.7; p -: 0.05) or with those dyg of cancers
other than of the pancreas, nasal sinus, kidney, bladder, bone and haematopoietic organs
(RR, 1.8;p -: 0.01). There was no increased risk assoiated with employment in the paint
manufacturig industiy (RR, 0.7; three cases; see also Thble 24).
A study of 176 male incident lung cancer cases, under 80 years of age, admitted in
1979-83 to two hospitals in two neighbourig counties in Norway was conducted by Kjuus et
al. (1986). Controis were matched on age through admission lists or from the same depart-
ment records; persons with physical or mental handicaps, general por health or an admis-
sion diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonaiy disease were excluded from the control
group. Occupational histories were determined by interview and work site records then
coed by job title and separated into three groups accrding to potential expsure to lung
carcinogens, whieh included painting and paints. Three years was considered to be the mini-
mal exposure classified as positive, and ocupation was classified as the longest job held; ex-
posures were included only up to 1970. Within the group, the RR for painting and paper-
hanging was 1.7 (95% CI, 0.4-7.3; five cases), adjusted for smoking. The RR for lung cancer
associated with expsure to paints, glues and lacquer was 1.2 (95% CI, 0.6-2.6; 17 cases),
adjusted for smokig, in comparison with all other subjects.
Occupational histories obtained by intervew were compared in a case-cntrol studyof
506lung cancer patients (333 men and 173 women) diagnosed in 198082, accrding to the
population-based New Mexico Thmor Registiy, and 771 controls selected through random
telephone numbers or from rosters of elderly (Lerchen et al., 1987). Next-of-ki provided
the inormation for half of cases and 2% of controls. Jobs held by individuals from age 12
years were classified accrding to an a-priori list of potentially hazrdous ocupations. Con-
struction workers and painters were included in high-rik ocupations; employment for one
year or more was classified as ever havig been employed in an industiy. The RR for lung
cancer in men assoiated with employment as a construction painter was 2.7 (nine cases; 95%
CI, 0.8-8.9) compared to never havig been employed in that ocupation and adjusted for
age, ethnicity and smokig.
ln the study of Siemiatycki et al. (1987a,b), described in detail in the monograph on
some petroleum solvents (p. 70), construction workers expsed to white spirts, many of
whom were painters, were described as having an excess risk for lung cancer (RR, 1.4 (num-
bers not given D.
ln a cancer registry-based case-control study, Levi et al. (1988) identified 833 male
lung cancer cases diagnosed between Februaiy 1984 and February 1985 in Shanghai, China,
and 760 randomly selected male con trois from the general urban Shanghai population, fre-
quency matched within five-year age strata. Personal intervews to obtain ocupational and
smoking histories were obtained for 733 cases and 760 controls. More than 60 industries and
occupations were examined; everversus never havig worked as a painterwas assoiated with
a RR, adjusted for age and smokig, of 1.4 (95% CI, 0.5-3.5). The RR varied accrding to
duration of employment as a pain ter as follows: ~ 10 years, 1.9 (seven cases); 10-19 years, 2.8
(two cases); 20-29 years, 2.2 (five cases); :;30 years, 0.3 (one case; questionable trend). The
authors cited multiple comparisons and the use of broad ocupational groups as limitations
of the study.
Ronco et al. (1988) reported a population-based case-cntrol study from two areas in
northern Italy which included 164 male lung cancer cases identified from death records dur-
ing 1976-80 and 492 controls who had died of conditions other than chronic lung disease or
smokig-related cancers. Information on smokig and ocupation was obtained through in-
tervews of next-of-ki. Many expsures suspected of increasing the rik for lung cancer
were evaluated, and individuals who had not held any job in any industiy that was assoiated
with exposure to a known or suspected lung carcinogen were classified asnonexpsed. The
RR for painters, adjusted for age, smokig and employment in other studied expsures, was
1.3 (five cases; 95% CI, 0.43-4.1).
Malker et al. (1985) examined the rik for pleural mesothelioma in relation to ocupa-
tional expsures, including painting. The investigators used the Swedish population-based
registries to link incident cancer cases durig 1961-79 with 196 census data on ocupation
and industiy. AItogether, 318 cases of pleural mesothelioma ocurred. Standardized inci-
dence ratios (SIR) were calculated for ocpations and industrial categories. For workers in
the construction industiy as a whole, a significant SIR of 1.6 was seen based on 63 cases;
painting as a specific industiy comported a higher significant SIR (2.9, based on 13 cases);
painters and paperhangers as a specific craft showed an SIR of 2.0 (based on 12 cases), which
was significant. (Te Workig Group noted that painters in the construction industiy are
probably expsed to asbestos.)
(ii) Cancer of the lar
A case-cntrol study of incident laiygeal cancer was carred out by Brown et aL. (1988)
in Texas. Cases consisted of aU diagnoses of priaiy laiyngeal cancer among white males
aged 30-79 selected from 56 participating hospitals, comprising 220 livig cases and 83 dead
cases identified durig the period 1975-80. Controls consisted of an equal number of white
males without respiratoiy cancer selected from various sources and frequency matched on
age, vital statu s, ethnicity and county of residence. Occupational expsures were examined,
controlling for cigarette smokig and alcohol consumption. The RR for painters was ele-
vated (11 cases; RR, 2.3; 95% CI, 0.84-6.3), and a significantly elevated risk was found for
workers reportedly expsed to paint (32 cases; RR, 1.8; 1.0-3.2). No clear pattern was evi-
dent by duration of expsure.
(iv) Cancer of the urinar tract
These studies are summaried in Thble 25.
Wynder et al. (1963) examined ocupational and other rik factors assoiated with blad-
der cancer in 300 male patients from seven New York hospitals in 1957-61. Controls con-
sisted of an equal number of male hospital patients who did not have myocrdial inarction or
cancers of the respiratoiy system or upper alimentaiy tract and were matched by age and
time of admission. Intervews were conducted directly with the patients. The investigators
reported 18 painters among cases and 12 among controls. (Te Workig Group calculated
the RR to be 2.2 (95% CI, 1.0-.5) for the group that had ever worked as a pain
ter; no adjust-
ment was made for cigarette smokig.)
Cole et al. (1972) conducted a case-cntrol study of transitional- or squamous-cell car-
cinoma of the lower uriaiy tract in eastern Massachusetts using newly diagnosed cases aged
2089 durig an 18-month period ending 30 June 196 (Cole et al., 1971). Out of 668 cases
ascertined, a random sample of 510 was selected for intervew; a usable ocupational histoiy
was obtained for 461. Con trois were selected from the general population of the same area
and matched on age and sex. Certin ocupations (including painting) were classified as 'sus-
pect'; and each of these groups was compared to non
suspect industries. The RR for lower
uriaiy tract cancer in male painters, adjusted for age and smokig, was 1.2 (28 cases; 95%
CI, 0.71-1.9).
Howe et al. (1980) conducted a case-cntrol study of bladder cancer in three areas of
Canada; they identified 821 cases through provicial cancer registries in 1974-76 and
matched them by age, sex and neighbourhoo to 821 controls. Personal intervews were ob-
tained for 632 cases (480 men and 152 women; 77%) and an equal number of controls.
Among men, workig as a pain ter was not assoiated with a risk: the RR for commercial
painting was 1.0 (24 cases in disrdant pairs; 95% CI, 0.6-2.3); that for spray painting was 1.8
(16 cases in discrdant pair; 0.7-4.6), which was reduced to 1.0 after correction for expsure
in other suspect 'high-rik' industries.
As part of the US National Bladder Cancer Study, Silverman et al. (1983) conducted a
population-based case-cntrol study ofbladder cancer in the Detroit, MI, USA, area. They
identified 420 male cases diagnosed with transitional- or squamous-cell carcinoma of the
lower uriaiy tract aged 21-84 between 1977-78; intervew was obtained for 339 (81 %), but
the analysis was restricted to 303 white males. Con trois were 296 white males stratified for
age who were selected from a random digit-dialling survey for those under age 65 and froID a
random sample of the Health Care Financing Administration lists for those over 65. Em-
ployment was measured as 'ever' or 'usuaI' ocupation or industiy; 'usually unexpsed' were
those not employed in the industiy of interest. The findings suggest no increased risk for
bladder cancer for painters in general (15 cases; RR, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.5-2.2), for painters in the
automobile industiy (three cases; 0.5; 0.1-2.1) or for paint manufacturers (one case; 0.2;
0-2.2).
A similar case-cntrol study of bladder cancer in 658 white male incident cases aged
21-84 durig 1978-79 and of 1258 population controls was conducted in New Jersey, USA, by
Schoenberg et al. (1984). Controls were selected as by Silverman et al. (1983). The RR for
bladder cancer in men ever employed as painters, adjusted for age, was 1.4 (34 cases; 95% CI,
0.85-2.3). Wh en ocupations were classified by materils used, paint expsure was asso-
ciated with a rik for bladder cancer (111 cases; RR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.2-2.1). The rik was higher
for those first expsed under age 41 and did not increase with duration of expsure.
A case-cntrol study of bladder cancer in Italy (Vmeis & Magnani, 1985) involved 512
male cases aged under 75 between 1978-83 and 596 hospital controls. The controls were
matched by age and were subjects with benign urological conditions or surgical conditions.
Occupational and smokig histories were obtained by intervew. No increased rik was seen
for painters in the building industiy (RR, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.402.2; 12 cases), painters in carpen-
tiy (RR, 0.6; 0.04-8.4; one case) or spray painters (RR, 1.2; 0.205.8; two cases), but the RR
for car painters was 2.0 (95% CI, 0.607.0; seven caes).
Morrson et al. (1985) examined 15 ocupations and the rik for lower uriaiy tract can-
cer in Nagoya, Japan (1976-78), Manchester, UK (1976-78), and Boston, USA (1976-77),
using incident male cases aged 21-89 and population-base controls. They identified 741
cases in Boston, 577 in Manchester and 348 in Nagoya. Intervews were obtained for 81 % of
the cases in Boston, 96% in Manchester and 84% in Nagoya; the correspnding figures for
the con trois were 80%, 90% and 80%. The analysis was limited to 430 cases and 397 controls
in Boston, 399 cases and 493 controls in Manchester and 226 cases and 443 controls in Na-
goya, for whom smokig histories were known. Ocupational expsure to paint or paint
manufacture was assoiated with a risk of bladder cancer only in the Boston population (35
cases; RR, 1.5; 90% CI, 0.9-2.4). Th ratio was controlled for age and smokig histoiy. (Te
Workig Group noted that no specifie inormation was available on how the controls were
selected. )
Two publications from the Federal Republic of Germany (Claude et al., 1986, 1988) re-
ported two hospital-based case-cntrol studies of tumours of the lower uriaiy tract. A total
of 340 men and 91 women with such cancer between 1977-82 were matched by age and sex ta
either hospital patients priariy from urology wards or, for those over 65, to people in
homes for the elderly. Subjects were intervewed about ocupations, specifie expsures and
life-style factors. There was no reported excess risk for the ocupational categoiy of paint-
ing, but the RRs assoiated with specific expsures suggested a rik of painting in men. Spray
painting was associated with an increased risk for cancer of the lower uriaiy tract (RR, 4.7;
95% CI, 2.1-10.4; 28 cases in discrdant pairs), as was expsure to lacquer (RR, 1.6; 95% CI,
0.98-2.5; 45 cases in discrdant pairs; Claude et al., 1986). ln order to examine ocupational
risks more extensively, an additional191 male cases were included, to make a total of 531
(Claude et al., 1988). Painting as an ocupation was assoiated with an increased riskforblad-
der cancer (RR, 1.3; 95% Ci, 0.59-2.7; 15 cases). An examination of the specific expsures
indicated significant excess risks for cancer of the lower uriaiy tract for any expsure to
spray paints (RR, 2.9; 95% Ci, 1.7-4.9; 52 cases), to lacquer and paints (RR, 1.5; 95% CI,
1.1-2.2; 78 cases) or to chromium/chromate (RR, 2.2; 95% Ci, 1.4-3.5). After correction for
smoking, a significant trend of increased risk with increasing duration of expsure for indi-
viduals exposed to spray paints and chromium/chromate could be seen. (Te Workig
Group questioned the choice of controls and considered that there may have been overlap
between the expsure categories.)
Jensen et al. (1987) carred out a case-cntrol study of bladder cancer in Denmark and
interviewed 371 patients with invasive and non invasive lesions diagnosed durig 1979-81.
The ocupations of cases were compared with those of 771 controls selected from residents
in the same area. Detailed ocupational histories were taken, which inc1uded industry, tye
and place of work and duration; the information was coed accrding to industiy. Signifi-
cantly more cases than controls were employed in furniture lacquerig and painting, indus-
trial painting, sign-post painting, painting firs or car painting (13 cases; RR, 2.5; 95% CI,
1.1-5.7). Employment as a painter for ten years gave a RR of 1.4 (95% CI, 1.0-1.9).
Iscvich et al. (1987) pedormed a case-cntrol study of 117 bladder cancer cases diag-
nosed in Argentina in 1983-85 and individually matched on age and sex to one neighbour-
hoo and one hospital control. Hospital controls were selected from the same hospital as the
case; about 12% of patients had diseases known to be assoated with tobacc smokig.
N eighbourhoo con trois were selected from among persons living in the same street block as
the cases. A detailed questionnaire, containing inormation on smokig, demographic, so-
cioeconomic and medical variables and ocupational histoiy for the three ocupations of
long est duration as well as the most recent one was administered. No increased risk for
bladder cancer was observed among painters (three cases; RR, 0.55; (95% CI,
0.12-2.5)).
A pilot case-control study of bladder cancer in Belgium in 198485 (Schifflers et al.,
1987) inc1uded 74 cases and 203 population controls selected from electoral rolls and
matched for age and sex. While cases were interviewed by the investigators, most of the
controls were intervewed by others. A group of 16 jobs, including painting, were defined as
hazardous and assoiated with a high rik for bladder cancer, but expsure to painting as a
specifc job did not show a significant excess.
A case-cntrol study from Denmark (Jensen et al., 1988) concentrated on cancers of
the renal pelvi and ureter. The 96 cases, aged below 80, were identified from 27 hospitals in
1979-82, and three hospital controls were matched to each case on hospital, age and sex.
trois. Ques-
Patients with uriaiy tract and smokig-related diseaes were not eligible as con
tionnaire data on smokig and on ocupation and ocupational expsures were obtained. An
elevated risk for upper uriaiy tract cancer was assoiated with ocupational expsure as
ter or paint manufacturer (RR, 1.8, adjusted for sex and lifetime tobacc consumption;
pain
95% CI, 0.7-4.6; ten cases).

A case-cntrol study of bladder cancer was carred out durig the period 1979-82 in
Alberta and in Toronto, Ontario (Rish et al., 1988). Cases aged 35-79 were identified
through a cancer institute, from a provice-wide tumour registiy in AIbert, and through
review of hospital records in Ontario. Intervews were carred out with 835 (67%) of the
cases (826 histologically veriied) and 792 (53%) of the controls about jobs in 26 industries
that had previously been examined in studies of bladder cancer, and on ocupational exp-
sures to fumes, dust, smoke and chemicals. The analysis was carred out on the 781 matched
sets for whieh adequate inormation was available. Ocupational expsure to paints in a full-
time job for at least six months, eight to 28 years before diagnosis was not assoiated with an
increased risk for bladder cancer in men (age-adjusted RR, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.77-1.6; 20 cases)
but it was for women (RR, 3.9; 0.9-26.7; 14 cases). Little difference in risk was seen between
commercial (RR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.39-2.1; 49 cases) and spray (RR, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.48-1.7; 67
cases) painting in men. The authors noted the problems assoiated with the veiy low re-
sponse rate, the inclusion of cases with borderline malignancies and the potential for recall
bias.
ln the study of Siemiatycki et al. (1987a,b) (see p. 70), an increased rik for bladder can-
cer was seen among people expsed to white spirts, 21% of whom worked in construction
trades, mostly compriing painting.
(v) Cancer o/the biliar tract
Cases of bilaiy tract cancers were identified from the National Swedish Cancer Regis-
tiy for the period 1961-79, and the ocupations of the patients identified from the 196 cen-
sus of ocupations (Malker et al.,1986). SIRs were calculated using the incidence rates for
the total population and data from the 196 census with regard to ocupation and industril
employment, adjusted by region as well as by age and sex. There were 1304 cases of gall-
bladder cancer and 764 cases of other biliaiy tract cancers in men, and 947 and 346 cases,
respectively, in women. Significant SIRs of 1.3 (32 cases) and 1.4 (19 cases) for male painters
and paperhangers were reported for gall bladder and other bilaiy cancers, respectively.
(vi) Cancer o/the panreas
Norell et al. (1986) reported on both a case-cntrol study of pancreatic cancer and a
retrospective cohort study of workers based on registiy data in Sweden durig 1961-79. In-
formation on ocupation was obtained through questionnaires. The case-cntrol study in-
PAI MAFACfURE AN PAIG 415
cluded 99 cases of pancreatic cancer (aged 4079) and 163 hospital controls of the same age
and sex with inguinal hernia and 138 population controls of the same age, sex and residence.
A significant excess rik was seen for expsure to paint thinners (ten cases; RR ver
sus popula-
tion controls, 2.5; 90% CI, 1.1-5.9; RR versu hospita controls, 1.4; 90% CI, 0.7-2.9). ln the
cohort study, a 20% excess of pancreatic cancer was seen in workers (aged 20) in paint and
varnish factories (90% CI, 0.7-1.9) and a 30% excess for floor polishing (90% CI, 0.6-2.3).
(vi) HaemaojXietic neoplas
Studies on leukaemia are summaried in Thble 26.
ln a case-cntrol study of leukaemia in three geographical areas of the USAin 1959-62,
inormation was collected on ocupations and other subjects by personal intervew (Viadana
& Bross, 1972). The controls were a random sample from households in the area matched
for age and sex. The analysis was limited to 1345 adult leukaemia cases and 1237 adult con-
trois in whites. No assotion was seen between any ocupation and leukaemia in women.
The rik for leukaemia in men appeared to be aSSted with work in the construction indus-
tiy, and speciically with painting. The rik for painters ver
sus nonpainters was 2.8 (1.4-.0);
that in comparin with clerks was 3.1.
Timonen and Ilvonen (1978) intervewed 45 adults in northern Finland with acute leu-
kaemia or chronic myeloid leukaemia between 1973-77 and a control group of 45 patients
from the same hospital about use of drugs and chemicals, including paint. Four cases and
four controls had been expsed to paint containing benzene derivatives and lead.
Flodin et aL. (1986) pedormed a case-cntrol study on acute myeloid leukaemia on 59
cases aged 2070 years in 1977-82 from five hospitals in Sweden. Livig patients and controls
replied to a questionnaire about solvent expsure. Two series of controls were used: 236
matched for sex, age and residence, and 118 selected randomly from the same general popu-
lation. For 'solvents, all kids', there were II cases expsed and 58 controls (crude rate ratio,
1.2); no case but five controls were classed as 'painters'.
A population-based case-cntrol study of 125 adult leukaemia cases and an equal num-
ber of con trois matched for age, sex and residence was pedormed in Sweden in 198083
(Lindquist et al., 1987). Information on ocupation was obtained by a standardized question-
naire. 'Painters' included spray painters, car painters, machine painters, boat painters, as-
phalt painters and building painters. Thireen cases and one control had been painters (RR,
13.0; 95% CI, 2.0-554). The median duration of expsure for painters was 16 years. After
exclusion of case-cntrol pair with a 'pain ter', 26 patients and seven controls had worked in
ocupations which also involved expsure to paint and/or solvents and/or glues (RR, 3.7;
95% CI, 1.6-10.1).
Linet et al. (1988) linked recrds for Swedish men by major industiy and ocupational
categories from the 196 census to cancer registiy data for 1961-79 to calculate SIRs for leu-
kaemia subtyes. Expected numbers were based on a 19-year follow-up, takig accunt of
age, region and birh cohort. Among men classified as painters or paperhangers, SIRs were
1.1, 1.0, 1.1 and 0.8 for acute lymphocic, chronic lymphocic, acute nonlymphocic and
chronic myelocic leukaemia, respectively (based on three, 41,33 and 14 cases, respective-
Iy).
.t
~
0\
Table 26. Case-control and other studies of leukaemia among persons exposed in paint manufacture and painting
Reference Loation, time 1Y of Source Exposure No. of cases RR 95% CI Comments
controls (no. of painters)a
Viadana & USA, 1959-62 Population Intervew Pain ter 845 men (31) 2.8 (1.4-6.0) ln comparison
Bross (1972) with non-
painters
3.1 NA ln comparison
with clerks
TImonen & Finland, Hospital Intervew Paint containing ben- 45 adults (4) 1.0 - ~
Ilvonen (1978) 1973-77 zene derivatives and lead s:
0
Flodin et al. Sweden, Population Interview Painter 59 adults Z
1977-82 0
(1986) 0
lindquist et al. Sweden, Population Intervew Painter 125 adults (13) 13 2.0-554 Adjusted for
(1987) 1980-83 Other professions ex- 3.7 1.6-10.1 other exposures ~
pod to paint and/or ::
CI
solvents and/or glues ..
Daily expure to organ- 3.0 1.1-9.2 0
ic solvents (white spirits)
and gasoline E
Organic solvent 2.0 s:
(significant) tI
Petroleum products 1.4 (significan t) t¡
linet et al. Sweden, Record 1960 Cen- (91)
(1988) 1961-79 linkage reg- sus record Acute lymphoc-
istiy to cen- ic (3) SIR, 1.1
sus (cohort) Chronic lympho-
cyic (41) SIR, 1.0
Acute nonlym-
phocic (33) SIR, 1.1
Chronic myelo-
cyic (14) SIR, 0.8
A total of 25 cases of Hodgki's disease in men aged 205 was studied in 1978-79 using
two controls selected from the Swedish population registiy (Olsson & Brandt, 1980). Sub-
jects were asked about ocupations, and ocupational expsure was defined as handling or-
ganic solvents eveiy workig day for at least one year within the closest ten-year period.
There was a significant assoiation between Hodgki's disease and expsure to solvents (12
cases; RR, 6.6; 95% CI, 1.8-23.8). Three of the 12 cases and only one of six controls expsed
to solvents were painters (RR, 1.7; (0.09-54.6)); the RR for painters among all subjects was
6.7 (0.56177.0). (See also the monograph on some petroleum solvents.)
Vianna and Polan (1979) studied mortlity in 19509 from reticulum-cell sarcoma,
lymphosarcoma and Hodgki's disease among 14 ocupational groups considered to be ex-
posed to benzene and/or col-tar fractions in New York State. The expsed populations
were estimated from census data, and deaths were obtained from health department re-
cords; mortlity, adjusted for age, was presented separately for each cancer site and com-
pared with rates for the state. Among 21 951 painters, the SMR for retieulum-cll sarcoma
was 110 (based on nine cases), that for lymphosarcoma, 97 (15 cases) and that for Hodgki's
disease, 135 (21 cases).
Friedman (1986) carred out a case-cntrol study of multiple myeloma among members
of the Kaiser Foundation Health Plan in California, USA, and identified 327 cases durig the
period 1969-82. These were matched by sex, age, race, date of enrollment and residence
with 327 controls on the rolls at the time of case diagnosis. Information on ocupation was
obtained from medical recrds. Painters as an ocupational group ocurred more frequently
among cases (6) than controls (2). (Te Workig Group noted that it was not stated how
frequently inormation on ocupation was available.)
Morrs et al. (1986) conducted a multicentre population-based case-cntrol study in
the USA of 698 newly diagnosed cases of multiple myeloma aged under 80 durig 1977-81
and 1683 neighbourhoo controls matched by age, sex and race. ln personal intervews with
subjects themselves or with next-of-ki, expsures were ascertined through a question
about any expsure to toxic substances. A toxicologist grouped expsures into 20 categories,
including 'paints, paint-related products and/or other organic solvents" which resulted in a
RR adjusted for age, sex, race and study centre of 1.6 (51cases expsed to paints and/or sol-
vents; 95% CI, 1.1-2.4); of these cases, 40 had been expsed to paints and paint-related prod-
ucts. This risk showed little variation accrding to time since first expsure. When only cases
who had been intervewed themselves were included, the adjusted RR for paints and/or sol-
vents was 1.8 (39 cases; 95% CI, 1.2-2.7). (Te Workig Group noted that there may have
been bias in the reporting of expsure.)
A case-cntrol study of multiple myeloma in six areas of England and Wales was car-
ried out by Cuzick and De Stavola (1988). A total of 399 cases identified at major regional
centres between 1978 and 1984 and 399 age- and sex-matched hospital controls were inter-
viewed about their past ocpation and expsure to chemicals and radiation, as well as prior
and family histoiy of disease and immuniztions. The rik of multiple myeloma in painters
including spray painters, was 1.9 (15 expsed cases; (95% Ci, 0.76-.7)).
Olsson and Brandt (1988) reported a case-cntrol study of 167 male cases of non-
Hodgki's lymphoma aged 2081 se en in the oncology department of the University Hospital
of Lund, Sweden, in 1978-81. Expsure was assessed by intervew by one of the authors using
a standardized questionnaire, as in the study of Olsson and Brandt (1980; see p. 417). Two
control groups comprising a totalof 130 men who had been intervewed for two other case-
control studies were used to estimate the exsure frequency. The RR for 'organic solvents'
was 3.3 (63 expsed cases; 95% CI, 1.9-5.8). The rik for supradiaphragmatic lymphoma was
higher (RR, 3.4; 95% CI, 2.3-5.2) than that for lymphomas loclized below the diaphragm
(RR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.0-2.0). The risk increased with duration of solvent expsure. Occupa-
tional expsure to solvents was assoiated with employment in machine shops, chemical in-
dustiy, painting, priting, woo industiy and many other tyes of work; 14% of this popula-
tion were painters.
(vi)Cancer of the prostate
ln a cancer registiy-based case-cntrol study in Missouri USA, conducted by Brown-
son et al. (1988), 1239 cases of histologically confired prostatic cancer in white males diag-
nosed between July 1984 and June 1986 were compared to 3717 white male cancer controls
diagnosed in the same time period and frequency-matched byage. Information on ocupa-
tion, collected routinely using a standardized protocl in all hospitals, was coed at the Reg-
istiy as usual ocupation and industiy using the 1980 US census coes. When compared to
workers in 'low-rik' industries (wholesale and retail trade, finance, insurance, real estate,
business servces and professional servces), an elevated age-adjusted RR for prostatic can-
cer was apparent for men whose usual industiy was coed as manufacturig of paints and
varnishes (five cases; RR, 5.7; 95% CI, 1.4-24.3). However, in the analysis of usual ocupa-
tion, no rik for expsure to paint was seen. The authors recognized several study limita-
tions, including the use of crude ocupational inormation, multiple comparins, and use of
cancer patients as controls.
(ix) Cancer of the testis
Swerdlow and Skeet (1988) identified 2250 cases of testicular cancer from the South
Thames Cancer Registiy, UK, for the period 1958-77. The proportion of painters and dec-
rators. among cases was compared with that among controls with cancers other than those of
the genital system or at an unspeciied site and among controls with cancers sampled such
that no site represented more than 15% of the.cancers in an age group. Occpation was
identified from the recrds for 75% of cases and 73% of controls. The rik for testicular
cancer among painters and decrators was about half that in the comparin group of profes-
sional, technical workers and artists (R, 0.45; 15 cases), forboth seminoma (RR, 0.44) and
teratoma (RR, 0.55).
the naal cavty
(x) Caner of
Hemberg et al. (1983) conducted acase-cntrol study of nasal and sinonasal cancers
among cases collected from the cancer registers in Finand and Sweden and froID hospitals in
Denmark in 1977-80. The 167 caes in live patients who agreed to intervew were matched by
age, sex and country to controls with colon and recl cacer. Many of the patients in the
subgroup with lesions in the maxaiy sinus were not intervewed. Exsures were coed by
an industrial hygienist on the basis of intensity, duration and time. Smokig histories were
evaluated for the period ten years prior to diagnosis, and smokers were found to be more
frequent among cases (54.5%) than among con trois (45.5%); the investigators indicated only
that snuff use was not an important rik factor. Expsure to paints and lacquers reportedly
showed a strong association with nasal cacer, but the investigators indicated that exposure
to wood dust was generally a confounding factor. Two cases and no control had been exposed
only to lacquers and paints, and both cases had had other potentially carcinogenic exposures.
(d) Cancer in children in relation to parental exsure

Fabia and Thuy (1974) analysed data on paternal ocupation for 386 children aged less
than five years who had died from malignant disease in the provice of Québec, Canada, in
1965-70, and for the 772 control children whose birh registrations immediately preceded
and followed those birhs. Father's ocupation at the time of birh, as reported on the birh
certificate, was recorded; no specific ocupation was given for 30 cases or 56 controls. For ten
cases and 11 controls, the paternal ocupation at birh was described as painter, dyer and
cleaner, excluding other hydrocrbon-related ocupations (RR, 2.0; 95% CI, 0.86-4.7) (the
Workig Group calculated that the RR among those whose father was a painter was 1.2
(eight cases; 95% CI,0.42-3.6)). Among the 218 children with leukaemia, five of the fathers
were in this occupational group; among the 101 children with central nervous system tu-
mours and the 25 with Wilms' tumour, one (1%) and none (0), respectively, of the fathers
were in this ocupational group.
Hakulinen et al. (1976) carred out a case-cntrol study of all1409 children under 15
years of age with cancer reported to the Finnish Cancer Registiy durig the period 1959-68.
After excluding twis and cases for which the father's ocupation was unobtainable, 852
cases were available for analysis. The child born immediately before the case in the same
maternity welfare district was chosen as a control. Father's ocupation recorded at the time
of conception was compared for cases and controls. Father's ocupation described as 'paint-
er, dyer, priter' was recorded for 12 cases and 15 controls; leukaemia and lymphomas oc-
curred in one case and six controls, brain tumours in five cases and three con trois and other
tumours in six cases and six controls.
Kwa and Fine (1980) carred out a case-control study of 692 children born in Massachu-
setts, USA, who died before the age of 15 durig 1947-57 and 1963-67. Controls were chosen
from among the children whose birh registration immediatelypreceded and followed that of
the case subject, giving a total of 1384 controls. Father's ocupation at the time ofbirh regis-
tration was described as 'pain ter, cleaner, dyer' for 10 cases and 24 controls, comprising
seven leukaemias or lymphomas, one neurological cancer and one uriaiy-tract cancer.
Zacket al. (1980) interviewed the parents of 296 children with cancer attending the Tex-
as Children's Hospital Research Hematology Clinic in Houston, TX, USA, from March 1976
to December 1977. Controls were chosen from among relatives of cases, from among chil-
dren in the neighbourhoos where the cases lived and from among children who did not have
cancer attending the same clinic (33% had haemostatic defects, 24% various anaemias and
23% nonhaematological disorders). Job histoiy from the year before the birh of the child
until one year before cancer diagnosis was assessed by personal or telephone intervew of a
parent. The fathers of none of the cases were descbed as 'painter, dyer or cleaner'; the
corresponding figures for fathers of controls were one for relatives, two for neighbours and
one for children attending the same clinic. fle Workig Group noted that the selection
criteria were given for neither cases nor controls and that it was unclear whether inormation
on expsures was obtained from mothers, from fathers or from both.)
Hemminki et al. (1981) descbed the paternal ocupations of 2320 children aged 0-14
with cancer reported to the Finnish Cancer Registiy in 1959-75, many of whom had been
trois were chosen from among children
included in the study of Hakulinen et al. (1976). Con
whose birh had been registered immediately before and immediately after that of the index
child. Parental ocupation was taken as that in the maternity welfare clinic records at the
time of pregnancy. The overall RR for a father's ocupation as painter was 1.4 ((95% CI,
0.67-2.9); based on 40 disrdant pairs); the odds ratio for leukaemia was 1.5 ((0.22-10.3);
based on 12 disrdant pair) and that for brain tumours was 2.6 ((0.70-9.6); based on 14 dis-
cordant pairs). The excess ofbrain tumours was most marked for the more recent study peri-
od, 1969-75, in which a significantly elevated RR of 5.0, based on seven discrdant pairs, was
reported. Maternai ocupation was recorded for 2659 children, but no data on mother's ex-
posure to paint was presented. The authors noted that for the earlier period (1959-68) only
63% of the cases had been included in the analysis; but for 1969-75, 86% of cases were in-
cluded.
ers et al., 1981), cases ofbrain tumours in children under ten
ln a case-cntrol study (pet
years of age at diagnosis in 1972-77 were identified from the Los Angeles County Cancer
Surveilance Program. Controls were matched to each case by sex, race and year of birh;
matching for social class was attempted by tiyg to locte the control from among friends of
the case or from the same neighbourhoo. Mothers of 98 cases (84% of those available) and
of 92 controls were intervewed by telephone, and the 92 matched pairs were analysed. Infor-
mation included workig and expsure histories of the mother and father before the preg-
nancy, durig the three triesters of pregnancy, durig nursing and at the time of diagnosis.
The authors noted the possibilty ofbiased reporting and recording of expsures. Seven fa-
thers of cases were reported to have had expsure to paints at any time from one year before
conception up to the time of diagnosis; the father of one control had been similarlyexpsed.
(Te Workig Group noted that this study addressed any expsure to paints and not only
ocupational expsures.)
Sanders et al. (1981) studied 6920 children under the age of 15 years who had died of
malignant disease in England and Wales in 1959-63 and 1970-72. Father's ocupation re-
ported on the child's death certifcate was compared with that recorded on the death certifi-
cate for a total of 16764 childhoo deaths that had ocurred durig the same periods. The
PMRs for father's ocupation descnbed as 'painter or decorator' were 97 (based on 93 cases
of cancer) in 1959-63 and 74 (based on 34 cases) in 1970-72. (Te Workig Group noted that
data on specific cancer sites were not given.)
Associations between paternal ocupation and childhoo leukaemia and brain tumours
were investigated in a case-cntrol study in Maiyland, USA (Gold et al., 1982). Patients un-
der the age of 20 with leukaemia (1969-74) or brain tumours (1965-74) were ascertined in
the Baltimore Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area from death certificates and recrds
from 21 of 23 Baltimore hospitals. Two control groups consisted of children with no malig-
nant disease, selected from birh certificates at the Marland State Health Department, and
of children with malignancies otherthan leukaemia orbrain cancer. Inormation on ocupa-
tional expsures ofboth parents before the birh of the child and between birh and diagnosis
was collected by intervewig the mother. A total of 43 children had leukaemia and 70 had
brain tumours. Paternal ocupational categoiy 'paiter' was reported for one case of leukae-
mia, compared with three normal controls and none of the cancer controls, and no case of
brain tumour, compared with one case in normal controls and none in cancer controls.
Wilkis and Sinks (1984) carred out a case-cntrol study of 62 children with Wilms'
tumour identified between 1950 and 1981 at the Columbus (Ohio) Children's Hospital Th-
mor Registiy for whom paternal ocupation was available from the childs birh certificate.
Tho groups of controls were chosen from birh certificates, the firt matched individually for
sex, race and year of birh, and the secnd for sex, race, year of birh and mother's county of
residence at the time of the child's birh. Three of the fathers of cases were reported to be
painters compared to one and none in the two sets of controls.
Van Steensel-Moll et al. (1985) carred out a case-cntrol study of 713 children under
15 years of age with leukaemia diagnosed between Januaiy 1973 and Januaiy 1980 in the
Netherlands. Controls were chosen from census records, matched by region, sex and age (to
within two months). Information on ocupational and other expsures of both parents dur-
ing pregnancy was obtained by postal survey; the respnse rate was 88% for parents of cases
and 66% for those of controls. The analysis was restricted to 519 patients with acute lympho-
cyic leukaemia and 5f controls. Twenty-five mothers of children with leukaemia and 11
mothers of controls reported havig had ocupational expsure to 'paint, petroleum prod-
ucts or other chemicals' durig pregnancy (RR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.2-4.6). These expsures were
reported by 140 fathers of children with leukaemia and 113 fathers of controls (1.2; 0.8- 1. 7).
The RR for paternal ocupation descnbed as 'painter, cleaner or dyer' was 1.6 (0.5-5.0) for
expsures durig pregnancy ( eight cases) and 1.3 (0.4-.0) for such expsures one year be-
fore the diagnosis of leukaemia (eight cases).
Lowengart et al. (1987) reported a case-cntrol studyof 123 children aged ten years or
under with leukaemia identified in the Los Angeles County Surveilance Program in
198084, representing 57% of eligible cases. Con troIs were selected from among friends of
cases or by random~igit dialling. Intervews were carred out by telephone and included
questions on expsure to paints or pigments before, durigand after pregnancy and on expe-
riences the children had had from birh to the reference date. The specific tyes of expsure
included in the general categoiy 'paints or pigments' were spray paints, other paints, dyes or
pigments, priting inks and lacquers or stains. Excess riks were observed for expsure of
fathers to spray paints durig the pregnancy (RR, 2.2; (95% CI, 0.91-5.3)) and after the preg-
nancy (2.0; 0.96.4) and for expsure to dyes and pigments durig the pregnancy (3.0;
(0.41-2.2)) and after the pregnancy (4.5; 0.93-42.8). The RR assoiatedwith 'spray paints' or
'dyes or pigments' was higher (RR, 2.5) if the father's expsure had been frequent (~50
times per year) than if it had been less frequent ( cC 50 times per year; RR, 1.8) after the birh
of the child. Data on maternai ocupational expsure were not presented. Use of paints or
lacquers in the home by the mother and/or father durig the pregnancy and lactation gave a
RR of 1.4 (0.79-2.6). (Te Workig Group noted that the expsure categories overlapped.)
Johnson et aL. (1987) analysed paternal ocupational expsures recorded on the birh
certificate of 499 children aged 0-14 who had died of an intracranial or spinal cord tumour in
Texas in 195079. Children who had been born outside Texas were excluded. Controls were
chosen from a 1% sample of live birhs in Texas durig the same period. Maternai ocupa-
tion could not be assessed. A RR of 1.0 (95% CI, 0.3-3.3) was reported for paternal ocupa-
tion described as a painter.
4. Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation
4.1 Exposures
Approxiately 20 00 workers worldwide are employed in paint manufacture. The

total number of painters is probably several milions, a major group being construction paint-
ers. Other industries in which large numbers of painters are employed include manufacture
of transportation equipment and metal products, automotive and other refinishing opera-
tions and furniture manufacture.
Thousands of chemical compounds are used in paint products as pigments, extenders,
binders, solvents and additives. Painters are commonly expsed by inhalation to solvents and
other volatile paint components; inhalation of less volatile and nonvolatie components is
common durig spray painting. Dermal contact is the other major source of expsure. Paint-
ers may be expsed to other chemical agents that they or their coworkers use.
Painters are commonly expsed to solvents, the main on
es being petroleum solvents,
toluene, xylene, ketones, alcohols, esters and glycol ethers. Chloriated hydrocrbns are
used in paint strippers and less frequently in paint formulations. Benzene was used as a paint
solvent in the past but is currently found in only small amounts in sorne petroleum solvent-
based paints. Titanium dioxide and chromium and iron compounds are used widely as paint
pigments, while lead was used commonly in the pasto Asbestos has been used as a paint filler
and may ocur in spackling and taping compounds; painters in the construction industry and
shipyards may also be expsed to asbestos. Expsure to silca may ocur durig the prepara-
tion of sudaces in construction and metal painting.
Workers in paint manufacture are potentially expsed to the chemicals that are found
in paint products, although the patterns and levels of expsure to individual agents may dif-
fer from those of painters. Construction painters may be expsed to dusts and pyrolysis prod-
ucts durig the preparation of sudaces and to solvents in paints, although water-based
paints have become widely used recently. ln metal and automobile painting, metal-based
antirst paints and solvent-based paints are often applied by sprayig; in addition, newer
resin systems, such as epoxy and polyurethane, are commonly used. ln contrast to other
painting trades, furniture finishing involves the use of more varnishes, which have evolved
from cellulose-based to sythetic resin varnishes, including amino resins which may release
formaldehyde.
4.2 "uman carcinogenicity data

The reports most relevant for assessing the risk for cancer assoiated with ocupational
expsures in paint manufacture and painting are threè large cohort studies of painters and
collections of national statisties on cancer incidence and mortlity in whieh data on cancer at
many sites were presented for painters. These show a consistent excess of aIl cancers, at
about 20% above the national average, and a consistent excess of lung cancers, at about 40%
above the national average. The available evidence on the prevalence of smokig in paint-
ers, although limited, indicates that an excess risk for lung cancer of this magnitude cannot
be explained by smokig alone. The riks for cancers of the oesophagus, stomach and blad-
der were raised in many of the studies, but the excesses were generally smaller and more
varible than those for lung cancer. Some of the studies also reported excess risks for leu-
kaemia and for cancers of the buccl cavity and larynx.
tes of
Several other small cohort and census-based studies in painters provided estima
rik for cancer at one or several sites. The rik for lung cancer was reported to be raised in
eight, that for stomach cancer in two, that for bladder cancer in two, that for leukaemia in
four, that for malignancies of the lymphatic system in three, that for buccl cancer in three,
that for laiygeal cancer in one, that for ski cancer in one, and that for prostatic cancer in
three. ln many studies, risks for cancer were reported only for sites for whieh the result was
statistically significant.
ln the three cohort studies of workers involved in the manufacture of paint, two of
whieh were small, there was little to suggest an excess rik of lung cancer or of cancer at any
other anatomical site.
Eleven case-cntrol and related studies of lung cancer could be evaluated. Ail of the
studies showed an increased risk for lung cancer among painters. The five studies in which
smokig was taken into accunt showed an increase of 30% or more in rik for lung cancer.
Two studies suggested increased riks amongpainters for laiygeal cancer, and one indicated
an increased risk for mesothelioma.
Cancer of the uriaiy tract has been examined in relation to expsure to paint in 15
case-cntrol and related studies. Eight showed an excess rik for bladder cancer in all paint-
ers. ln certin studies, specific aspects of expsure to paint were examined: car painters were
addressed in two studies, one indicating an excess rik; spray painters were evaluated in three
studies, two of which showed an excess rik; and expsure to lacquer and chromium was asso-
cIted with a risk in one study.
ln a study of ocupational histories of patients with oesophagea and stomach cancers,
high riks were seen for painters. A further study also identified a rik for stomach cancer
and another a risk for oesophageal cancer. One study of cancer of the gall-bladder and of the
bilia tract showed assoiations with the ocupation of painting. A study of pancreatic can-
cer reported a high rik for expsure to paint thinners.
Five studies of leukaemia mentioned painters. Two studies showed excess risks. Two
small studies of Hodgki's disease and three studies of multiple myeloma showed increased
riks in assoiation with the ocupation of painter or with any expsure to paints, paint-re-
lated products or organicsolvents.
A single study of prostatic cancer showed a significant excess rik for manufacturers of
paints and varnishes, and one study reported a high risk for testicular cancer among spray
painters.
Twelve studies of childhoo cancer mentioned paternal expsure to paint and related
substances; four of these also presented data on maternai expsure. Three studies showed
an excess of childhoo leukaemia in assoiation with paternal expsure and one in asso-
ation with maternai expsure. Two studies showed an excess risk for brain tumours in the
children of male painters. One small study of children with Wilms' tumour showed an excess
in those whose fathers were painters. Ail of these excesses are based on small numbers of
children whose parents had been expsed, even in the larger studies. ln the other studies, no
association was seen between parental expsure to paint and childhoo cancers. The tye
and timing of expsure varied among these studies.
4.3 Other relevant data
Painters may suffer from allergic and nonallergic contact dermatitis, chronic bronchitis
and asthma, and adverse effects on the nervous system. There is also sorne indication of
adverse effects in the liver, kidney, bloo and bloo-forming organs. Many of these effects
are also seen in paint production workers.
Of three studies on the fertilty of painters, two showed no adverse effect and the third
a possible excess frequency of inertilty in men. One study reported an excess frequency of
spontaneous aoortion in female painters, based on self-reported data. Studies of birh
weight, periatal mortity rates and congenital malformations in the offsprig of male
painters generally showed no adverse effects; few data on female painters were available.
No increase in the frequency of sister chromatid exchange in peripherallymphoces
was found in one study of paiters or in one study of paint manufacturig workers.
4.4 Evaluation 1
There issuffcìent evidence for the carcinogenicity of ocupational expsure as a painter.

There is inaequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of ocupational expsure in paint
manufacture.
Ove rail evaluation
O~upational expsure as a painter is carcìnogenic (Group 1).
'For definitions of the italiciz terms, se Preamble, pp. 27-30.

Occupational exposure in paint manufacture is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity

(Group 3).
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IAC (1976c)IARC Monogrphon the Evaluaion ofCarinogenic Ri ofChemicaI to Man, Vol. 11,
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!AC (1977a)IARC Monograph on the Evaluaion of the Carinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man, Vol. 15,
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Industrial Chernicals, Lyon, pp. 155-175
!AC (1977b) IARC Monograph on the Evaluation of Carinogenic Risk of Chernicals to Man, Vol. 14,
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!AC (1978a)IARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChemicals to Man, Vol. 16,
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!AC (1978b )IARC Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChernicals to Man, Vol. 16,
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!AC (1978c)IARC Monographon the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChemicals toHuman, Vol.
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!AC (1979a) lARC Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk of Chernicals to Human,
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!AC (1979b) lARC Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk of Chernicals to Human,
VoL. 19, Sorne Monorners, Plastics and Synthetic Elastorners, and Acrolein, Lyon, pp. 341-366
!AC (1979c)IARC Monographson the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChemicals toHuman, Vol.
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!AC (1979d) lARC Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Human,
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!AC (197ge) lARC Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChemicals to Human,
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IARC (1979g) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChernicals to Human,
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IARC (1979h) IARC Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChernicals to Humans,
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IARC(1979i)lARC Monographson the the Carcinogenic RiskofChernicals toHuman, Vol.
Evaluation of
20, Sorne Halogenated Hydrocarns, Lyon, pp. 545-572

IARC(1979j)lARC Monographson the Evaluation of the Carinogenic RiskofChemicals toHuman, Vol.
20, Sorne Halogenated Hydrocarons, Lyon, pp. 303-325, 349-367

!AC (1979k) lARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChernicals to Hurnan,
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IAC (1980a) lARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk ofChemicals to Human,
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IAC (1980b) lARC Monograph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Hurnans,
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!AC (198Oc )IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the CarinogenicRisk ofChemicals to Human, VoL.
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IAC (1982a) lARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk ofChernicals to Humans,
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29, Some lndustrial Chemicals and Dytuff, Lyon, pp. 269-294
IAC (1982d) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluaion of the Carinogenic Ri of ChemicaI ta Huma,
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IAC (1982e) IARC Monogr on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Ri of Chemicals to Huma,
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IAC (1982t) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Ris of Chemicals to Human,
VoL. 28, The Rubber lndustry, Lyon
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IAC (1983b) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluaion of the Carinogenic Ri of Chemica/s ta Huma,
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IAC (1985c) IARC Monograph on the Evaluaion of the Carinogenic Risk of Chemicals ta Human,
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VoL. 36, Allyl Compounds, Aldehydes, Epoxides and Peroxides, Lyon, pp. 245-263
IAC (1986a) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Rik of Chemicals ta Human,
Vol. 39, Some Chemicals Used in Plastics and Elastomers, Lyon, pp. 113-131
IAC (1986b)IARC Monographon the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk of Chemicals ta Human,
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41, Some Halogenated Hydroarns and Pesticide Exsure, Lyon, pp. 43-85
IAC (1986) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Ris of Chemicals ta Huma,
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IAC (1986e) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluaion of the Carinogenic Ris ofChemicals ta Human,
Vol. 41, Some Halogenated Hydroarns and Pesticide Exsure, Lyon, pp. 229-235
IAC (1987a) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Ris of Chemicals ta Human,
Vol. 42, Silica and Some Silicates, Lyon, pp. 39-143
IAC (1987b) IARC Monogrph on the Evaluaion of Carinogenic Ris to Huma, Suppl. 7, Overal
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IAC (1987c)IARC Monogrphon the Evaluaion of the Carinogenic Risk ofChemicals to Huma, Vol.
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IAC (1987e)lARC Monogrph on the Evaluaion ofCarinogenic Risks to Human, Suppl. 7, Overal
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IAC (1987f) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluaion of Carinogenic Riks to Huma, Suppl. 7, Overall
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IAC (1987h) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of Carinogenic Risks to Human, Suppl. 7, Overal
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IAC (1987i) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluaion of Carinogenic Risks to Human, Suppl. 7, Overal
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IAC (1987j) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of Carinogenic Ris to Human, Suppl. 7, Overall
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IAC (1987k) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluation ofCarinogenic Risks to Human, Suppl. 7, Overall
120122
IAC(19871)lARC Monographon the Evaluation of the Carinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Human, Vol.
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IAC (1987m) lARC Monograph on the Evaluation ofCarinogenic Risks to Huma, Suppl. 7, Overall
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IAC (1987n) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of Cainogenic Risks to Human, Suppl. 7, Overall
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IAC (1987o)lARC Monogrphon the Evaluation ofCarinogenic Ris to Human, Suppl. 7, Overall
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IAC (1987p) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluation of Carinogenic Risks to Human, SuppI. 7, Overall
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IAC (1987q) lARC Monogrph on the Evaluation ofCarinogenic Ris to Human, Suppl. 7, Overall
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434 !AC MONOGRAPHS VOLUME 47
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OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES lN

PAINT MANUFACTURE AND PAINTING

1. Historical Perspectives and Description of Painting 'fades

1.1 Description of paint products

(ii) Earh pigmnts

(b) Binders (resins)

(ii) Synthetic resins

cluding nitrocellulose, polyisoanates, urea-formaldehyde resins, silcones, melamine-

The compatibility of alkyd resins with nitrocellulose extends up to 55% nitrocellulose

tyes: water-based, solvent-based thermoplastic (lacquer tyes), solvent-based thermoset-

AIthough thermoplastic acrylic emulsions have been commercially available since

(c) Solvents (see also the monographs on solvents, pp. 43 et seq.)

Plasticizers that are generally added in quantities of up to about 2% include dibutyl-,

(iv) Biocides (fngicides, preservatives and lmildewcides ')

(v) Antiskinnng agents

(vi) Miscellanous additives

1.2 History of the manufacture of paints and related products

(a) History ofpaint manufacture

(b) History of lacquer manfacture

(c) History ofvamsh manfacture

1.3 Construction painting and paint products used

(a) Exenor house paints

Table 1. Examples of formulations of white bouse paints

1Y of paint and ingredients Weight (%)

tlrom Fisher (1987)

(b) Interior pants

(c) Masonr pants

Table 2. Examples of formulations of grey concrete ßoor

1Y of paint and ingredients Weight (%)b

aprom Singer (1957)

1.4 Sunace coating in the wood industry and products used

Table 3. Formulation o( a (umiture coating (rom the 1950sa

1J of product and ingredients Weight (%)b

Phenolic resin-based fumiture vamish

lialculated by the Working Group

(e.g., potassium permanganate, potassium bichromate, pigments such as Venetian Brown,

1.5 Painting in the metal industry and paint products used

(a) Metal primers. finish coats an corrosion inhbition pants

(b) Marne pants

Table 4. Examples of formulations of metal paints

1Y of paint and ingredients Weight (%)

Red lead-iron oxide primer (from 1950s)a

Epoxy resin (1400 D) 60

Water-based white epoxy enamel (from 1970s)c

aprom Singer (1957); weight calculated by the Working Group

Table 5. Formulation of an automobile paint from the 1970s"

iy of paint and ingredients Weight (%)

Methyl methaciylate (93%)

(d) Aluminium pants

(e) Coi! coatingy

1.6 Other painting trades and paint products

(a) Traffc paints

reflecting paints (Lowell, 1984).

Conventional alkyd formulations (including both straight alkyd and alkyd/chloriated

(b) Fíre-retardant pants

(c) Aerosol colours

(d) Paint and vamsh strippers

2. Prouction and Use of Paint Products

(a) Production processes