Asian Journal of Political Science

ISSN: 0218-5377 (Print) 1750-7812 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rasi20

Developing human resource in research and

development: international experiences and
implications for Vietnam

Tran Minh Tuan & Nguyen Xuan Dung

To cite this article: Tran Minh Tuan & Nguyen Xuan Dung (2020): Developing human resource in
research and development: international experiences and implications for Vietnam, Asian Journal of
Political Science, DOI: 10.1080/02185377.2020.1712217

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02185377.2020.1712217

Published online: 27 Jan 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 22

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rasi20
ASIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
https://doi.org/10.1080/02185377.2020.1712217

Developing human resource in research and development:

international experiences and implications for Vietnam
Tran Minh Tuana and Nguyen Xuan Dungb
a
Faculty of Economics, Graduate Academy of Social Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam; bVietnam Institute of
Economics, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Human resource is the key driving force of research and Human resource; science and
development of a nation. Japan and Korea are two examples of technology; research and
how appropriate strategies in developing human resources have development; Japan; Korea;
been transferred into remarkable achievements in R&D. In recent Vietnam
years, Vietnam has observed significant shift in investment for
R&D. Thus, the lessons of Japan and Korea could provide Vietnam
with valuable strategies for further development in human
resources in R&D, particularly in vision of R&D development,
policy flexibility, increased investment on R&D development and
human resources, key R&D organization formation and increased
international cooperation in S&T.

Introduction
Shifts in growth models, science and technology–based economy restructuring, high-
quality human resources and modern business management and eco-friendly business
are global trends. Vietnam is following these trends under the strong impacts of globa-
lization and the 4.0 industrial revolution. Science and technology is the driving force of
development in most countries. Central to science and technology development is
human resources. This article focuses on the experiences of Japan and Korea in develop-
ing human resources in science and technology (S&T), especially human resources in
research and development (R&D). An overview of R&D manpower in Vietnam was
also given to draw out new directions for the development of human resources in
R&D in Vietnam.
According to the Frascati Manual by OECD, human resource in R&D consists of people
who are directly involved or support R&D activities (OECD, 2015). Human resource in
R&D is divided into three groups:

. Group 1: Researchers/Scientists/Engineers. They are professionals with a bachelor

degree or above, sometimes without an official degree, who do scientific work or
similar. They participate in creating new knowledge, products, processes, methods or
systems.

CONTACT Tran Minh Tuan [email protected]

© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 T. M. TUAN AND N. X. DUNG

. Group 2: Technicians or equivalent, including people who have experience and knowl-
edge in science and technology. They participate in R&D by applying scientific theories
and methods under the supervision of researchers/scientists/engineers.
. Group 3: Supporters, including people with or without skills and admins in R&D pro-
jects. This group also includes human resource, finance and administration in R&D
organizations.

The relationship between human resource in S&T and R&D

According to UNESCO, human resource in S&T is the total volume of skilled human
resources or the volume of skilled human resources who are currently working or actively
participating in the S&T activities of an organization and are paid by the organization (UIS,
2001). The ‘total volume of skilled human resources’ should be considered a measure that
indicates the total number of professionals trained to become scientists and engineers,
regardless of their current working status. In other words, this measure reflects the potential
human resource in S&T of a nation. The total volume of skilled human resources is an indi-
cator of human resource in S&T. Conversely, the ‘total volume of skilled human resources
who are currently working’ reflects the number of professionals who are currently working
according to their ability. They might not work in an S&T field but they are participating in
economic activities of a nation. The total volume of skilled human resources who are cur-
rently working is an indicator of human resource in R&D.
UNESCO pointed out that human resource in S&T was not the sum of the number of
professionals, but it took into account factors like full-time equivalent. OECD and
UNCESCO’s recommendations have been applied in many countries. OECD countries
like Thailand, China and Japan calculate human resource in R&D through headcounts
and FTE.
Meanwhile, data on human resource in S&T in Vietnam only reflect the total number of
skilled human resource who are currently working in the field. In Vietnam, human
resources in S&T are divided into five groups: researchers in universities and research
institutes; technicians (i.e. technical staff, engineers, head engineers) in business enter-
prises; ordinary people who have interest in science and whose S&T innovative ideas
can be applied into daily life; managers (including corporate leaders) participating or
directing research used in policy making; Vietnamese intellectuals living abroad and
foreign specialists working in Vietnam. The total number of skilled human resources
who are currently working in R&D represents a small percentage of the total volume of
human resources in S&T in Vietnam.

Developing human resources in R&D: experiences of some countries and

the situation of Vietnam
Japan
After two decades of slowing down, the Japanese economy is regaining its vitality through
policies that boost investment in S&T. As a part of the Abenomics program, Japan set the
vision of strengthening R&D, improving medical technology and services, heightening the
position of Japanese universities and reaching out globally to share knowledge and talents.
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 3

In June 2013, with an aim to make Japan the most creative, innovative and friendly
nation, the Japanese government has set five goals to achieve until 2030: (i) a green
energy system, (ii) an active population with an aging but well-cared population, (iii) a
good infrastructure for the next generation, (iv) economic benefits through regional
and global cooperation and (v) full recovery from the 2011 earthquake in the east of
Japan. The government also aimed to increase R&D investment to at least 4% of GDP,
with state funding in R&D reached at least 1% of GDP.
S&T research is one of the important pillars of the Japanese economy. The significant rise
of state funding on research shows the role of R&D in resolving issues in urban develop-
ment, environmental pollution and economic crisis in Japan. In August 2014, the Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)—the state body in charge of
coordinating and funding technological innovations in Japan—suggested a fund of 11.1
billion USD for S&T in the financial year of 2015, marking an increase of 18% in comparison
with that for 2014. At the same time, MEXT sets the aim of spending 2.4 billion USD on
supporting scientific research of individuals, universities and research centres.
Japan was soon to recognize that in the age of globalization and international inte-
gration, S&T development should be closely attached to international cooperation. As
expenditures for basic research and R&D research increase, international cooperation in
S&T is the only way to ensure the research budget. As a result, Japan has come up with
innovative strategies for international cooperation in S&T, such as (i) consider inter-
national cooperation in S&T a key, long-term policy; (ii) value predictions of S&T devel-
opment in the future, especially the rise of new technology; (iii) carry out country-specific
cooperation plans.
In cooperating with Asian countries, Japan has strengthened its S&T connection with
China, Korea and India, using resources and advantages of both sides to conduct large-
scale research projects, exchange and cooperate in key S&T areas and facilitate univer-
sity-level education and research cooperation. To enhance the key position of Japan in
S&T, the Japanese government also revised a legislative framework in S&T cooperation
with Asian countries: develop an S&T information and research exchange network in
the region, encourage training for young researchers and promote the spread of S&T
information from Japan to other Asian countries.
In 2007, MEXT established the World Premier International Research Center Initiative,
with five centres (now nine) to attract scientists from all parts of the world to Japan.
Among them is Kavli Institute of Physical and Mathematical Universe, which runs on a
self-funding basis to promote revolutionary and creative research. MEXT also ran a pro-
gramme promoting research universities, selecting two to four top universities in S&T to
fund 2–4 million USD each year in 10 years. Under these programmes, lecturers at selected
schools received salary equal to researchers at institutes in Europe. Selected universities
were Tokyo University, Kyoto University, Osaka University, and private universities
like Keio University and Waseda University. Thanks to this programme, the number of
international researchers and international programmes in these universities quickly
increased.
To support international collaboration projects, in September 2014, MEXT continued
to select 37 universities in Japan to become super-global universities. Each school was
sponsored 100–400 million USD per year for developing human resource, hiring inter-
national scholars and renovating school infrastructure. Along with that, MEXT started
4 T. M. TUAN AND N. X. DUNG

exchange programs like the Research Program in Japan and Japan-Asia Young Scholar
Exchange Program, as well as collaborative research programmes with East Asian and
Southeast Asian countries. In the last few years, Japan has received 30,000 researchers
from all over the world, and about 150,000 Japanese researchers have gone overseas for
exchange and training.
The Japanese government has taken multiple steps to reduce brain drain. In October
2017, amendments of the Japan’s Foreign Exchange and Foreign Trade Act were
implemented, allowing the government to apply stricter control of important technology
related to national security (Tasuku & Kotaro, 2017). This Act requires foreign investors to
sell their stakes in a Japanese company if an acquisition or merger might involve leaks of
key technology. The Act paves the way for the prevention of significant consequences of
technology stealing, but it does not prevent brain drain.
Another solution proposed by the Abe government is developing 82 regional urban
centres. Funds are provided to regional cities based on their economic development
plans and initiatives. The programme is supposed to draw talents from the surrounding
areas to regional cities instead of attracting them to Tokyo. However, the programme pro-
duces mixed results. For example, in the Kanto region with regional cities like Tokyo,
Kanagawa, Saitama and Chiba, the number of people moving in minus the number of
people moving out was 151,696 in 2008. After Abe’s program, this number reduced to
62,809 in 2011. However, in 2017, it increased to 119,779 (Johnston, 2019).
As Japan plays a key role in global S&T, the Japanese government continues to issue
policies that maintain and encourage S&T achievements.

South Korea
The process of developing S&T in Korea is the process of accepting and taking advantage
of foreign technologies to develop Korea’s own technologies. Fast economic growth also
provided the Korean government the financial assurance for strategic S&T plans. With
a clear strategy for R&D, Korea has made breakthroughs in technological innovation—
the key to export competitiveness and economic growth in the past decades.
In December 1997, the Korean government issued the ‘5-year plan for science and tech-
nology innovation’, in which the state assured a yearly 5%-of-state-budget for R&D to
thoroughly improve S&T capability of Korea. In the following year, the ‘Long-term
science and technology development plan until 2025’ stressed the target to be the world
number 12 in S&T competitive capacity in 2005, number 10 in 2015 and number 7 in
2025, becoming a S&T hub for Asia-Pacific region and raising to the world number 1
in certain areas that Korea has the edge.
It should be noted that the emphasis on S&T in Korea only came after two events: (i) its
magical economic growth and (ii) the terrifying consequences of the Asian financial crisis
in 1998 to Korea. After the Asian financial crisis, the Korean government immediately
revised its S&T legislative framework and issued the ‘Special law on Science and technol-
ogy innovation’. As a result, R&D management in Korea shifted from a dispersed manage-
ment model to a centralized management model. R&D investment also shifted from a
large-scale investment to in-depth investment, focusing on improving research quality.
More importantly, research is forced to serve industrialization; thus, government
funding was reduced while corporate funding became more common.
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 5

The Korean government puts priority in developing the most updated technologies;
thus, their focus is on designing research programmes to heighten national S&T capacity,
including R&D investment projects in both public and private sectors and training pro-
grammes for high-quality human resources in R&D. Policies on developing high-tech
industries are flexible, focusing on scientific and technological R&D system and R&D part-
ners (i.e. private companies, public companies, research laboratories in universities and
research institutes, etc.).
The legislative framework was also redeveloped to facilitate innovations in S&T man-
agement. The Korean government issued a number of new laws on S&T, including Law on
Science and Technology Renovation, Law on Technology Development, Law on Technol-
ogy Investment, Basic Law on Science and Technology, etc. At the same time, the Korean
government also developed a comprehensive legal system, focusing on building laws for
specific fields. It is noteworthy that Korean legal documents are not only up-to-date but
also results of scientific and technological researches that have predictive power of
future potential and needs of high-tech industries. As such, these policies tend to have
a long life, creating a relatively stable legal environment for the aforementioned institutes
to cooperate on developing strategic industries, such as building the vision of high-tech
industry, developing the general plan and policies for strategic technological programmes,
coordinating investment, programmes and research projects, developing specialists and
key technological organizations, etc.
Korean development of human resources in R&D before 2000 can be divided into four
stages: resource maintenance for developing the light industry in the 1960s, scientist/tech-
nician training for heavy chemistry industry in the 1970s, high-tech industry and prep-
aration for a new industrial revolution in the 1980s and S&T training for core
technology development in the 1990s.
In the new century, as Korean companies had successfully caught foreign rivals in big
industrials and were facing the catch-up effect, the Korean government was forced to
increase R&D budget and expanding universities to increase human resource develop-
ment. In 2000–2004, the Korean government issued the fundamental law on S&T, the fun-
damental plan on S&T and policies supporting students and women in S&T. Since 2004 to
present, policies on human resource in S&T in Korea experience a significant change, from
developing in quantity to developing in quality.
Through multiple fundamental plans for human resource in S&T (phase 1, phase 2 and
phase 3), the Korean government has adapted its policies to fit changes in the labour
market. The phase 1 fundamental plan on human resource in S&T (2006–2008)
focused on improving the quality of S&T university through innovative management,
core R&D staff training, demand-based personnel allocation and welfare improvement
for S&T staff. The phase 2 fundamental plan on human resource in S&T (2011–2015)
expanded its scope to all levels of the public education system, from primary schools to
universities. Under the presidency of Lee Myung-bak, the Ministry of Science and Tech-
nology was merged into the Ministry of Education. The relationship between education
and R&D as well as enhancement of the R&D capacity of private corporates were also
emphasized. One of the strategies to facilitate international cooperation in S&T in this
period was increasing national competency through expanding Korean R&D centres in
other countries, strengthening strategic cooperation in S&T, actively participating in
global and regional research and training networks, attracting foreign talents to Korean
6 T. M. TUAN AND N. X. DUNG

key S&T projects, increasing budget for international cooperation in S&T and creating a
strong connection between S&T and national economy and international trade. The phase
3 fundamental plan on human resource in S&T (2016–2020) focused on increasing human
resource in S&T and supporting their career development. A plan has been proposed to
attract foreign scholars and female scientists to increase the effectiveness of R&D invest-
ment (Table 1).
Along with the changes in state vision of S&T human resource development were
changes in state policies to attract talents and prevent brain drain. In the 1960s, policies
were directed at providing financial support for Korean scientists and engineers who
want to return to Korea, such as travelling and temporary living expenses for returning
intellectuals or strings-attached financial aid for students studying abroad. However, the
effects of these policies were short lived, forcing the government to apply stricter criteria
to students learning overseas.
The 1990s observed the shift in the Korean government’s perspective of overseas
Korean scientists and engineers. Policy targets changed from forced repatriation to the
choice of repatriation (Song, 1997). State policies only aimed at highly experienced scho-
lars and technicians, leaving the rest a choice to return. Financial support for travelling
cost was stopped, while funding for a temporary visit in Korea of both Korean and inter-
national intellectuals increased. In 1994, the state introduced ‘Brain Pool’, a programme to
support public universities and research institutes to hire Korean scholars who were
trained overseas to work in Korea for short periods (i.e. 1 to 3 years). This programme
targeted intellectuals at the middle of their career who has research or teaching experience
for more than 5 years. Their short period in Korea allowed them to get used to the local
situation and find potential long-term opportunities. In 1997, the government supported
research institutes to form their own educational branches, mostly dedicated to graduate
studies. This policy opened up attractive opportunities for overseas Korean intellectuals, as

Table 1. Korean plan on human resource in S&T in 2004.

Phase 1 Plan Phase 1 Plan revised Phase 2 Plan Phase 3 Plan
Issue (2006–2008) (2008–2010) (2011–2015) (2016–2020)
President Roh Moo-huyn Lee Myung-bak Lee Myung-bak Park Geun-hye (now
Management Department of Ministry of Education, Ministry of Education, Mon Jea-In)
system Science, Science and Science and National Council of
Technology and Technology Technology Science and
Innovation Technology
Key content of . Increase the . Basically similar to . As the result of . Increase capacity
the plan quality of S&T Phase 1 Plan, with ministry merge, of human
universities higher emphasis on expand scope of S&T resource in S&T
through policies related to development, and assist their
innovative talented students covering from career
management and foreign talents primary school to development
. Train core R&D university . Attract foreign
staff scholars and
. Demand-based female S&T staff
personnel
allocation,
improved welfare
for S&T staff

Source: Human resource development towards enhanced state capacity and sustainable development, First report of
Vietnam—Korea research project, pp. 208, Hanoi: 2016.
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 7

they tended to prefer working as professors to working in corporates. Besides policies

directly targeting overseas intellectuals, the Korean government also funded certain
events organized by associations and communities of Korean intellectuals living abroad
to help them create connections with their home country, thus motivating them to
come back.
Thanks to these moves, Korean industry has experienced fast but steady growth. From
1982 to 1991, agricultural output increased on average 12.6% per year. Korean industry
always contributed more than 40% of GDP (in comparison with 10% of agriculture). In
1970, Korea was ranked 45th in global import–export; in 1994, Korea rose to number
13, contributing 2.2% of the global export volume, i.e. 96 billion USD, 2.3 times higher
than 1961. In 2003–2008, ecommerce increased from 7.2 million to 12.8 million trans-
actions; the number of IT companies also increased from 14,026 to 16,757 companies.
The number of R&D specialists in Korea also increased gradually over the years, from
20,718 in 1981 to 437,447 in 2014. In October 1996, Korea officially became a member
of OECD. Korea has put R&D at the core of its economy.

Vietnam
Since Đổi mới renovation in 1986, Vietnam has changed from a centralized economy to a
socialism-oriented market economy. This change has helped to increase the growth rate of
the economy. From one of the poorest countries in 1980s, Vietnam has become a below-
average country in 2010. This growth is founded in three factors: renovation policies,
cheap human resources and rich natural resources. However, as Vietnam faces a new
state of development, these factors have their own limitations.
In that context, S&T is considered the new motivation for social-economic develop-
ment and economy restructure. The Communist Party emphasized the role of S&T as
the core national policy; thus, in the 6th Meeting of Central Committee, the party
clearly stated that ‘Human resource in S&T are an invaluable resource of the nation;
S&T intellectuals are the special motivation of intellectual economy’. The Meeting also
set an aim to “developing S&T staff with strong background, enthusiasm, honesty and
devotion; forming strong S&T research groups and key S&T specialists; so that the
ration of S&T staff over the population can reach 11: 10,000”, the number of international
publications and recognized inventions in both Vietnam and abroad increases
significantly.
Some of the major features of R&D development in Vietnam are listed below.
First, low investment in R&D. In 2006–2016, most S&T activities were funded by the
state, with the total funding accounted for 1.4–1.8% of the total government budget
(S&T in the military and national defence excluded). This rate tends to decrease in
recent years. State funding for S&T in 2016 was 80.5 million USD, equal to 1.4% of the
total government budget. The ratio of the S&T budget over the GDP of Vietnam in the
last 5 years is around 0.4% (see Table 2). Privatization in S&T investment increased sig-
nificantly, creating a balance between state investment and corporate investment in S&T.
The GERD/GDP ratio of Vietnam has increased significantly over time, from 0.19% in
2011 to 0.4452% in 2017. Independent high-tech R&D institutes have been formed in both
the public and private sectors, such as the Institute for Advanced Studies in Mathematics,
V-KIST, Viettel R&D Institute, etc.
8 T. M. TUAN AND N. X. DUNG

Table 2. State funding for S&T.

Total state funding for S&T S&T: total national Rate of increase in budget State budget for S&T:
Year activities (million USD) budget ratio for S&T (%) GDP ratio (%)
2006 23.86 1.85 0.51
2007 28.68 1.81 16.22 0.51
2008 29.93 1.69 4.36 0.41
2009 35.76 1.62 19.46 0.43
2010 41.72 1.60 16.66 0.43
2011 52.27 1.58 25.28 0.41
2012 59.85 1.46 14.51 0.41
2013 63.04 1.44 7.41 0.39
2014 62.12 1.36 −1.46 0.35
2015 79.04 1.52 27.25 0.41
2016 80.59 1.39 1.95 0.39
Source: Ministry of Science and Technology (2016), Science and technology in Vietnam 2015, Hanoi: Science and Technology
publishing, p.54.

In the total expenditure for R&D in 2015, spending from the state budget accounted for
62%, spending in the private sector accounted for 12% and foreign funding accounted for
26% (see Table 3). In comparison with 2013, non-public investment on R&D increased
from 4% to 26%. Underlying this significant growth was the success of socialization in
research and technological development. Another noteworthy feature of R&D in 2015
was the active participation of business enterprises in R&D investment, accounting for
25% of total expenditure on R&D. State funding for R&D reduced from 56.7% to 33%.
According to the National R&D survey in 2017, total state funding for R&D was 0.52%
GDP, equivalent to 1,164.3 million USD or 3,359.7 million USD PPP. The total number of
researchers in 2017 were 136,070 (of which 66,953 were PTE), and the average investment
per capita was 24,577 USD PPP, marking a 32% increase compared with 18,572 USD PPP
in 2015 (MOST, 2019). However, when compared with other ASEAN countries, invest-
ment per capita (PTE) of Vietnam was nearly half of Thailand, one-third of Malaysia
and one-sixth of Singapore.
The allocation of human resources in R&D is uneven. A report of the Ministry of
Science and Technology showed that, in 2015, there were 167,746 people participating
in R&D activities, including 131,045 researchers (accounting for 78.2%), 11,522 tech-
nicians (accounting for 6.87%), 16,934 supporters (accounting for 10.11%) and 8,245 in
other areas (accounting for 4.90%) (Ministry of Science and Technology, 2016). The struc-
ture of human resources in R&D of Vietnam remains relatively stable over time. Most of
the manpower work in universities, accounting for 51.25%, following by R&D organiz-
ations (19.8%) and 15.2% working in corporates (see Table 4).

Table 3. Expenditure on R&D by sector in 2015 (million USD).

Expenditure on R&D R&D service Government Business
Sector R&D organizations Universities organizations bodies enterprises
Public sector 52.13 20.74 4.61 2.79 1.22 22.76
Private sector 10.04 0.89 0.20 0.04 0.03 88.64
Foreign 21.89 0.003 0.006 0.03 0 21.85
investment
Total 84.07 21.65 4.83 2.85 1.25 53.48
Source: Ministry of Science and Technology (2016), Science and technology in Vietnam 2015, Hanoi: Science and Technology
publishing, p.57.
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 9

Table 4. Human resources in R&D by sectors and functions.

Function
Sector Total number Researcher Technician Supporter
S&T organizations 34,197 26,681 2,406 5,110
Universities and colleges 88,481 69,095 2,981 16,405
S&T research service organizations 3,229 2,331 442 456
Government bodies 20,584 14,949 3,184 2,487
Business enterprises 26,192 23,014 2,089 1,089
Total 172,683 136,070 11,066 25,547
Source: Ministry of Science and Technology (2019), Science and technology in Vietnam 2018, Hanoi: Science and Technology
publishing, p.64.

Only 14,729 people did R&D activities in agriculture despite the fact that Vietnam is an
agriculture nation with agricultural production accounts for the major proportion of the
economy.
Over time, the quality of researchers in Vietnam has improved significantly. The
minimum international standard for researchers is an associate degree. In Vietnam, the
number of researchers having a bachelor degree or above has increased from 43.8% in
2011 to 52.7% in 2017 (see Table 5).
Second, research capacity. Research capacity of Vietnamese researchers has improved
significantly as reflected in the number of international publications and intellectual prop-
erty patents. Given the low investment in R&D, in absolute values, the research capacity of
Vietnam is comparable with the region and some developed countries. From these
researches, many products have been designed and applied, bringing high economic
returns.
The number of publications in high reputation S&T journals is an indicator frequently
used to measure S&T capacity. According to Web of Science, in 2011–2016, the total
number of S&T publications of Vietnam was 16,104 articles. 2015 was the first year
Vietnam had more than 3,000 articles listed in Web of Science. This number increased
to over 4,000 n 2016. It should be noted that citation of Vietnamese researchers’ articles
is reducing, implying that the quality of publications from Vietnam is still below average
and research topics in these articles have not aligned to trending issues (MOST, 2016). In
2011–2016, in the ASEAN community, Vietnam ranked at the fourth place in inter-
national publications, higher than Indonesia (fifth place) but much lower than Thailand
(third place). The number of publications of Vietnam was only 1/3 of Thailand (49,750
articles).
In 2016, of 5,228 requests for patent protection in Vietnam, 560 requests were from
Vietnamese, accounting for 10.7%, less than 11.6% in 2015 (MOST, 2016). Seventy-six

Table 5. Percentage of researchers by qualification (%).

Qualification 2011 2013 2015 2017
Doctor 10.93 9.50 10.97 11.67
Master 32.90 35.06 39.02 41.07
Bachelor 52.38 51.69 46.33 41.91
Associate 3.80 3.74 3.68 5.35
Total 100 100 100 100
Source: Ministry of Science and Technology (2019), Science and technology in Vietnam 2018, Hanoi: Science and Technology
publishing, p.66.
10 T. M. TUAN AND N. X. DUNG

patents were granted for Vietnamese out of 1,432 patents granted (accounting for 5.3%,
marking an increase of 4.5% than 2015). The number of patents of utility models
granted for Vietnamese in 2016 was 114 (82.6%) out of 138 patents of utility models.
In general, human resources in S&T in Vietnam remain limited in number and
capacity, failing to match the pace of national development. The allocation of human
resources is also unsuitable when considered by sector and region. Vietnam lacks
leaders in S&T, key researchers, head engineers or young people who are capable of
leading S&T development in the near future. Many overseas Vietnamese are high-
quality S&T researchers and technicians, but their contribution to the nation remains
limited. For the S&T workforce inside Vietnam, the majority work in the public
sector; only a small portion of them work in the private sector and in enterprises.
Many are lecturers at universities but do not directly carry out R&D works. Working
conditions, welfare system and research equipment of many S&T organizations in
Vietnam fail to match global-standard S&T research. This is partly because many
S&T organizations, especially in the public sector, are classified as administrative
bodies; thus, their salary and welfare system cannot be flexible. As a result, many
researchers in the public sector feel unmotivated and engaged. This is the cause of
brain drain in the public sector.
A major reason causing limited research capacity of the Vietnamese S&T workforce is
the fact that the Vietnamese education system is not designed for training high-quality
S&T people. Planning of high-quality human resources in S&T, especially prioritized
fields, is missing.

Conclusion and suggestions for Vietnam

Conclusion
The above analysis of the development of human resources in R&D in Japan, Korea and
Vietnam shows that a national strategic investment plan is essential for thorough devel-
opment. The Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) can be used as an important
indicator to evaluate national expenditure on R&D over GDP. GERD is also useful in
transnational comparison. For example, until 2017, gross investment for R&D was
3,359.7 million USD PPP, accounting for 0.52% R&D/GDP. The total number of pro-
fessional technical employees (PTE) was 66,953 and GERD/PTE was 50,180 USD PPP.1
The relative numbers of Japan in 2016 were 168,644.9 million USD PPP, accounting for
3.14%, with 662,071 PTE and 253,390 USD PPP. The relative numbers of Korea in
2016 were 79,354.2 million USD PPP, accounting for 4.23%, with 356,447 PTE and
219,640 USD PPP (MOST, 2018).
The experience of Japan and Korea also shows that the quantity of researchers is also an
important aspect of human resources in R&D that Vietnam should focus on. When com-
pared with Korea and Japan, the number of researchers in Vietnam is significantly lower.
The number of researchers in Vietnam in 2011, 2013 and 2015 was 105,230, 128,997 and
131,045, respectively; while this number in Japan was 803,000 (MIAC, 2012), 835,600
(MIAC, 2014) and 866,900 (MIAC, 2016), respectively and in Korea was 361,374,
401,444 and 356,447, respectively (MSIP & KISTEP, 2015). The question is how human
resources in R&D in Vietnam can meet the requirements of a developing nation.
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 11

Suggestions for Vietnam

Vietnam is the latecomer in industrialization and R&D development, with low national
capacity in S&T, especially weak human resources in R&D. While the global economy
will depend more on S&T and human resources in S&T will become the key force of pro-
duction, the global and regional context will create both opportunities and challenges for
Vietnam. It is necessary for Vietnam to learn from the lessons of successful R&D devel-
opment in Korea and Japan.
First, the Vietnamese government needs to set a vision for R&D. The Vietnamese gov-
ernment has set the plan for fast and stable development in the 2011–2020 period with a
vision of 2030. This plan requires considerable efforts in innovative thinking and actions
so that a vision for R&D could be built scientifically based on a system of S&T policies. The
lessons of Japan in Abenomics and Korean policies of high-tech development clearly show
that S&T needs to be considered the core motivation for workforce development to facili-
tate innovations in S&T. Vietnam needs a thorough shift in the mindset, putting R&D at
the priority of the growth model, creating investment plans for R&D and preparing for
necessary policy changes. The management of S&T needs robust innovations to release
the creative power of scientists and accelerating S&T applications in production and life.
Second, Vietnam should increase stable investment in R&D and human resources in
R&D. While varying in scale, both the Korean and Japanese governments allocate a stable
budget for R&D and support small and medium enterprises, universities and institutes in
strengthening research capacity and competitiveness. Meanwhile, investment for R&D in
Vietnam still accounts for a small percentage; low salary and welfare become a hindrance.
From the lessons of Korea and Japan, the Vietnamese government should (i) increase invest-
ment on R&D in key fields, (ii) allow research institutions to decide payment and benefits of
their own staff based on performance and devotion, (iii) the government should decide
budget and supervise research institutions based on their R&D achievements and (iv) inves-
tigate on the effectiveness of brain drain prevention policies in Vietnam.
Third, establish key R&D organizations. The success of the World Premier International
Research Center Initiative in Japan is a clear example of key R&D organizations in pushing a
knowledge economy, create jobs and facilitate technological innovations. Vietnam needs to
form key R&D organizations to strengthen the connection between research institutes, uni-
versities and enterprises; facilitate technological transfer; and attract talents. A business
incubator is a good model that should be considered for developing at the local level.
Fourth, enhance international cooperation in S&T. International cooperation in S&T is
the inevitable trend of the twenty-first century and the key target of cooperation between
any countries at any level. Suitable training and employment policies have allowed Japan
and Korea to create jobs for thousands of fresh graduates and recruit international scholars
to improve their human resources in R&D. As a result, institutes, research centres and uni-
versities in Vietnam need to foster an exchange of human resources in R&D, promote an
agreement with privileged partners in training and developing human resources in R&D.
Young researchers should be given chances to connect with international scholars, while
foreign talents should be attracted to work in Vietnam and to gradually improve the
quality of human resources in R&D to meet international standards.
Fifth, the Vietnamese government should be flexible in policy making and reviewing.
Policy flexibility, especially in the R&D development, is the shortest way for Vietnam to
12 T. M. TUAN AND N. X. DUNG

become a developed industrial country. The lesson of Korea shows that when policies
could not address developmental challenges, the role of R&D was emphasized. The
Korean government has flexibly modified their strategies to fit the new context. Flexibility
is the key to success for Korea. This should be a crucial lesson for Vietnam in the context of
restructuring the growth model.

Note
1. Exchange rate 1 USD = 17.372 VND.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors
Tran Minh Tuan is an Associate Professor of Economics in the Faculty of Economics, Graduate
Academy of Social Sciences, Hanoi. His research interest covers areas such as human development,
sustainable development, microeconomics, development economics.
Nguyen Xuan Dung is an Associate Professor of Economics at the Vietnam Institute of Economics,
Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences in Hanoi, Vietnam. His research focuses on development
economics and sustainable development.

References
Human resource development towards enhanced state capacity and sustainable development. First
report of Vietnam – Korea research project, Hanoi: 2016.
Johnston, E. (2019). Abe’s plan to battle Japan’s regional brain drain draws mixed reviews, Japan
Times News. Retrieved from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/01/09/national/social-
issues/abes-plan-battle-japans-regional-brain-drain-draws-mixed-reviews/#.XPSXsBYzbct.
Ministry of International Affairs and Communication. (2012). Statistical Handbook of Japan 2012.
Ministry of International Affairs and Communication. (2014). Statistical Handbook of Japan 2014.
Ministry of International Affairs and Communication. (2016). Statistical Handbook of Japan 2016.
Ministry of Science and Technology. (2016). Science and Technology in Vietnam 2015. Hanoi:
Science and Technology Publishing.
Ministry of Science and Technology. (2019). Science and Technology in Vietnam 2018. Hanoi:
Science and Technology Publishing.
Ministry of Science, ICD and Future Planning & Korea Institute of S&T Evaluation and Planning.
(2015). Survey of Research and Development in Korea, 2014.
OECD. (2015). Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and
Experimental Development, The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation
Activities. Paris: Author.
Song, H. (1997). From brain drain to reverse brain drain: Three decades of Korean experience.
Science, Technology & Society, 2, 317–345.
Tasuku, I., & Kotaro, H. (2017). Japan seeks to stop tech brain drain, Nikkei Asian Review. Retrieved
from https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Japan-seeks-to-stop-tech-brain-drain.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2001). The state of science and technology in the world, 1996-1997.
Retrieved from http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/the-state-of-science-and-
technology-in-the-world-1996-1997-en_0.pdf.