EG 244: MATERIAL SCIENCE

1. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1.1. Introduction
While in service use, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of
response. For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished
metal surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude
of response to a specific imposed stimulus.

Important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of
stimulus capable of provoking different responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to
an applied load or force; examples include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties,
such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The
thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity.
Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field.
For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and
reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the
chemical reactivity of materials. In this study, we shall consider the classification of materials
and three important properties, namely electrical, mechanical and magnetic properties.

1.2.Classification of materials
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics,
and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and
most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates.
In addition, there are composites which are combinations of two or more of the above three basic
material classes.
1.2.1. Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron, aluminium,
copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for example, carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts. Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged
in a very orderly manner, and in comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.
With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff and strong, yet are
ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without fracture), and are resistant to
fracture, which accounts for their widespread use in structural applications. Metallic materials
have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to particular
atoms. Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. For example, metals
are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat, and are not transparent to visible light; a
polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the metals (such as Fe, Co,
and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.
Note: The term metal alloy is used in reference to a metallic substance that is composed of two
or more elements.
1.2.2. Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the common ceramic materials include
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aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC),
silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics-those
composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.

With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong. Stiffness
and strength are comparable to those of the metals. In addition, ceramics are typically very hard.
On the other hand, they are extremely brittle (lack ductility), and are highly susceptible to
fracture. These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have
low electrical conductivities, and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments
than metals and polymers. With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent,
translucent, or opaque and some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.

1.2.3. Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic compounds
that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (such as O, N,
and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures which are often chain-like in
nature that have a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS),
and silicone rubber. Several common objects that are made of polymeric materials include plastic
tableware (spoon, fork, and knife), a bicycle helmet, lawnmower wheel (plastic hub and rubber
tire), and a plastic milk carton. These materials typically have low densities, whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials. They
are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types. Most polymers are extremely ductile
and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex shapes. In general,
they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments. One major
drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures,
which, in some instances, limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities
and are nonmagnetic.

1.2.4. Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the categories
discussed above i.e., metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a composite is to
achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single material, and also to
incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials. A large number of
composite types exist that are represented by different combinations of metals, ceramics and
polymers. Furthermore, some naturally-occurring materials are also considered to be composites
for example, wood and bone. However, most of those we consider in our discussions are
synthetic (or man-made) composites.

One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers are
embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass fibers are
relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak and
flexible). Thus, the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible and ductile. In addition,
it has a low density. Another of these technologically important materials is the carbon fiber
reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite in which carbon fibers are embedded within a polymer.
These materials are stiffer and stronger than the glass fiber-reinforced materials, yet they are

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more expensive. The CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace applications, as
well as high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and
skis/snowboards).

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1.3.Electrical properties
Consideration of the electrical properties of materials is often important when materials selection
and processing decisions are being made during the design of a component or structure. The
electrical behaviors of the various materials are diverse. Some need to be highly electrically
conductive (e.g., connecting wires), whereas electrical insulativity is required of others (e.g., the
protective package encapsulation).

1.3.1. Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity (λ) is the intrinsic property of a material which relates its ability to conduct
heat. Heat transfer by conduction involves transfer of energy within a material without any
motion of the material as a whole. Conduction takes place when a temperature gradient exists in
a solid (or stationary fluid) medium. Conductive heat flow occurs in the direction of decreasing
temperature because higher temperature equates to higher molecular energy or more molecular
movement. Energy is transferred from the more energetic to the less energetic molecules when
neighboring molecules collide.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat (Q) transmitted through a unit thickness
(L) in a direction normal to a surface of unit area (A) due to a unit temperature gradient
(∆T) under steady state conditions and when the heat transfer is dependent only on the
temperature gradient. In equation form this becomes the following:
Thermal Conductivity = heat × distance / (area × temperature gradient)

λ = Q × L / (A × ∆T)
Approximate values of thermal conductivity for some common materials are presented in the
Table 1 below.
Table 1: Thermal conductivity values

Thermal Conductivity Thermal Conductivity

Material
W/m, oK (cal/sec)/(cm2, oC/cm)

Air at 0 C 0.024 0.000057

Aluminum 205.0 0.50

Brass 109.0 -

Concrete 0.8 0.002

Copper 385.0 0.99

Glass, ordinary 0.8 0.0025

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Gold 310 -

Ice 1.6 0.005

Iron - 0.163

Lead 34.7 0.083

Polyethylene HD 0.5 -

Polystyrene expanded 0.03 -

Silver 406.0 1.01

Styrofoam 0.01 -

Steel 50.2 -

Water at 20 C - 0.0014

Wood 0.12-0.04 0.0001

1.3.2. Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material accommodates the movement of an
electric charge. It is the ratio of the current density to the electric field strength. Its SI derived
unit is the Siemens per meter, but conductivity values are often reported as percent IACS. IACS
is an acronym for International Annealed Copper Standard, which was established by the 1913
International Electrochemical Commission. The conductivity of the annealed copper (5.8001 x
107S/m) is defined to be 100% IACS at 20°C. All other conductivity values are related back to
this conductivity of annealed copper. Therefore, iron with a conductivity value of 1.04 x 107S/m,
has a conductivity of approximately 18% of that of annealed copper and this is reported as 18%
IACS. Conductivity values in Siemens/meter can be converted to % IACS by multiplying the
conductivity value by 1.7241 x10-6.
Sometimes, electrical conductivity is used to specify the electrical character of a material. It is
simply the reciprocal of the resistivity, or

and is indicative of the ease with which a material is capable of conducting an electric current. In
addition to the equation V = IR, Ohm’s law may be expressed as
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, in which J is the current density, the current per unit of specimen area I/A, and ξ is the electric
field intensity, or the voltage difference between two points divided by the distance separating
them; that is,

Electrical conductivity is a very useful property since values are affected by such things as a
material’s chemical composition and the stress state of crystalline structures. Therefore,
electrical conductivity information can be used for classifying materials, checking for proper
heat treatment of metals and inspecting for heat damage in some materials. When electrical
conductivity is used to classify materials, there are three groupings within the classification
scheme namely, conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Metals are good conductors,
typically having conductivities on the order of 107 (Ω-m)-1. At the other extreme are materials
with very low conductivities, ranging between 10-10 and 10-20 (Ω-m)-1; these are electrical
insulators. Materials with intermediate conductivities, generally from 10-6 to 104 (Ω-m)-1 are
termed semiconductors.

1.3.3. Electrical resistivity

Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. It is the opposition of a material to the flow
of electrical current through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other
forms of energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of material. Materials with low
resistivity are good conductors of electricity and materials with high resistivity are good
insulators. The SI unit for electrical resistivity is the ohm meter.

1.4.Mechanical properties
Materials are often subjected to forces/deformations, resulting in stresses/strains. Therefore, the
properties of materials under the action of forces and deformations are an important engineering
consideration. The properties of materials when subjected to stresses and strains are called
mechanical properties.
1.4.1. Strength
Strength is a measure of the material’s ability to resist deformation and to maintain its shape. It is
quantified in terms of yield stress or ultimate tensile strength. High carbon steels and metal
alloys have higher strength than pure metals. Ceramics also exhibit high strengths.
1.4.2. Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a material to penetration by a pointed tool. It can also be defined as
a measure of the material’s ability to resist indentation, abrasion and wear. Although there are
many hardness-measuring systems, we shall consider here only the two in greatest use.

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In Rockwell hardness tests, measurements are quickly and easily made, they have good
reproducibility and the test machine for them is easy to use. In fact, the hardness number is read
directly from a dial. Rockwell hardness scales are designated as A, B, C, etc. The indenters are
described as a diamond, a 1.6-mm-diameter ball, and a diamond for scales A, B and C,
respectively, where the load applied is 60, 100 or 150 kg. Thus the Rockwell B scale, designated
RB, uses a 100 kg load and No.2 indenter, which is a 1.6-mm-diameter ball. The Rockwell C
scale RC uses a diamond cone, which is the No.1 indenter, and a load of 150 kg. Hardness
numbers so obtained are relative. Therefore, a hardness RC = 50 has meaning only in relation to
another hardness number using the same scale.
The Brinell hardness is another test in greatest use. In testing, the indenting tool through which
force is applied is a ball and the hardness number HB is found as a number equal to the applied
load divided by the spherical surface area of the indentation. Thus, the units of HB are the same
as those of stress, though they are seldom used. Brinell hardness testing takes more time, since
HB must be computed from the test data. The primary advantage of both methods is that they are
nondestructive in most cases. Both are empirically and directly related to the ultimate strength of
the material tested. This means that the strength of parts could, if desired, be tested part by part
during manufacture.

1.4.3. Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. The associated property is the modulus of
resilience, Ur, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material from an
unloaded state up to the point of yielding.
Computationally, the modulus of resilience for a specimen subjected to a uniaxial tension test is
just the area under the engineering stress–strain curve taken to yielding (Figure 1), or

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Figure 1: Determination of modulus of resilience.

Assuming a linear elastic region,

in єy which is the strain at yielding.

The units of resilience are the product of the units from each of the two axes of the stress–strain
plot. For SI units, this is joules per cubic meter (J/m3, equivalent to Pa). The area under the
stress–strain curve represents energy absorption per unit volume (in cubic meters) of material.
From the relationship between stress and strain,

therefore,

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Thus, resilient materials are those having high yield strengths and low moduli of elasticity; such
as alloys, would be used in spring applications.
1.4.4. Stiffness
Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of elasticity
is the measure of stiffness.
1.4.5. Elasticity
Elasticity is the property of a material that returns to its original shape after stress (e.g. external
forces) that made it deform or distort is removed.
1.4.6. Plasticity
Plasticity is the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in
response to applied forces.
1.4.7. Ductility
Ductility is a measure of how much strain a material can take before rupturing. It can also be
defines as a measure of the material’s ability to deform before failure. Ductility is quantified by
reading the value of strain at the fracture point on the stress strain curve. A material that
experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle. The tensile
stress–strain behaviors for both ductile and brittle materials are schematically illustrated in
Figure 2.

Figure 2: Schematic representations of tensile stress–strain behavior for brittle and ductile
materials loaded to fracture.

Examples of ductile material include:

• low carbon steel
• aluminum
• bubble gum
• copper
• zinc, tin and lead

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Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent reduction in

area. The percent elongation %EL is the percentage of plastic strain at fracture, or

.
Where lf is the fracture length and lo is the original gauge length as above. In as much as a
significant proportion of the plastic deformation at fracture is confined to the neck region, the
magnitude of %EL will depend on specimen gauge length. The shorter lo the greater is the
fraction of total elongation from the neck and, consequently, the higher the value of %EL.
Therefore, should be specified when percent elongation values are cited; it is commonly 50 mm
(2 in.).
Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as

.
Where Ao is the original cross-sectional area and Af is the cross-sectional area at the point of
fracture. Percent reduction in area values are independent of both lo and Ao. Furthermore, for a
given material the magnitudes of %EL and %RA will, in general, be different.
Knowledge of the ductility of materials is important for at least two reasons. Firstly, it indicates
to a designer the degree to which a structure will deform plastically before fracture. Secondly, it
specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication operations.
1.4.8. Malleability
Malleability is the property of a material that can be worked or hammered or shaped without
breaking.

1.4.9. Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing.
The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. This property is desirable in parts
subjected to shock and impact loads.
1.4.10. Fatigue
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses
(e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine components). Under these circumstances it is possible for
failure to occur at a stress level considerably lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static
load. The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period
of repeated stress or strain cycling. Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause
of failure in metals, estimated to comprise approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers
and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to this type of failure. Furthermore, fatigue
is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and without warning.

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Fatigue failure is brittle-like in nature even in normally ductile metals, in that there is very little,
if any, gross plastic deformation associated with failure. The process occurs by the initiation and
propagation of cracks, and ordinarily the fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress.

1.4.11. Creep
Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static mechanical
stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal
stresses, and high-pressure steam lines). Deformation under such circumstances is termed creep.
Defined as the time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a
constant load or stress, creep is normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting
factor in the lifetime of a part. It is observed in all materials types; for metals it becomes
important only for temperatures greater than 0.4Tm where Tm is the absolute melting
temperature.

1.5.Magnetic properties
1.5.1. Hysteresis
When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back to zero
magnetization when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It must be driven back to zero by
a field in the opposite direction. If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its
magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis loop. The lack of retraceability of the
magnetization curve is the property called hysteresis and it is related to the existence of magnetic
domains in the material. Once the magnetic domains are reoriented, it takes some energy to turn
them back again. This property of ferromagnetic materials is useful as a magnetic memory. Some
compositions of ferromagnetic materials will retain an imposed magnetization indefinitely and
are useful as permanent magnets. The magnetic memory aspects of iron and chromium oxides
make them useful in audio tape recording and for the magnetic storage of data on computer disks
1.5.2. Permeability
Permeability is the ease with which a material can be magnetized. It is a constant of
proportionality that exists between magnetic induction and magnetic field intensity. This
constant is equal to approximately 1.257 x 10-6 Henry per meter (H/m) in free space (a vacuum).
In other materials it can be much different, often substantially greater than the free-space value,
which is symbolized µ 0.
Materials that cause the lines of flux to move farther apart, resulting in a decrease in magnetic
flux density compared with a vacuum, are called diamagnetic. Materials that concentrate
magnetic flux by a factor of more than one but less than or equal to ten are called paramagnetic;
materials that concentrate the flux by a factor of more than ten are called ferromagnetic. The
permeability factors of some substances change with rising or falling temperature, or with the
intensity of the applied magnetic field.
In engineering applications, permeability is often expressed in relative, rather than in absolute,
terms. If µ o represents the permeability of free space (that is, 4p X10-7H/m or 1.257 x 10-6 H/m)
and µ represents the permeability of the substance in question (also specified in henrys per
meter), then the relative permeability, µ r, is given by:

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µr = µ / µ0
For non-ferrous metals such as copper, brass, aluminum etc., the permeability is the same as that
of free space, i.e. the relative permeability is one. For ferrous metals however the value of µ r
may be several hundred. Certain ferromagnetic materials, especially powdered or laminated iron,
steel, or nickel alloys, have µ r that can range up to about 1,000,000. Diamagnetic materials have
µ r less than one, but no known substance has relative permeability much less than one. In
addition, permeability can vary greatly within a metal part due to localized stresses, heating
effects, etc.
When a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic core is inserted into a coil, the inductance is multiplied
by µ r compared with the inductance of the same coil with an air core. This effect is useful in the
design of transformers and eddy current probes.

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