Faculty of Science

Department of Physics

PHY 3106 Solar Energy I Course work Due Friday 8th December 2022
Hand in all Numbers but retain a photo copy of your work

Question 1.

(a) Briefly explain the following terms,

(i) Absorbed spectral flux
(ii) Spectral absorptivity
(iii) Black body.
b) (i) Sketch graph to show the thermal emission spectra of black bodies at different
temperatures of T = 2000 K and T = 3000 K.
(ii) State the displacement law.
(iii) Write down the equation form of the Stefan- Boltzmann’s law explaining all the
Symbols used.
c) If the Sun was to cool down to Tθ = 2506 K, estimate
(i) The total flux, Fθ
(ii) The total radiant power, Pθ, and hence the Solar constant, S at mean earth-
sun distance of r = 2.93.x1011m.
Question 2.
(a) With diagrams explain the following terms
(i) Ecliptic plane,
(ii) Summer solstice,
(iii) A tropical year.
(b) (i) Draw the entire electromagnetic spectrum in relation to its Frequency.
(ii) What percentage does the visible component make in the spectrum?
(iii) What happens when the electromagnetic radiation is incident on the surface of a
body?
Question 3.
(a) Write short notes on the following terms,
(i) Reflected spectral flux,
(ii) Spectral reflectivity,
(iii) White body and grey body
(b) (i) State any TWO characteristics of the thermal radiation.
(ii) List down ALL the constituents of the thermal radiation.
Question 4.
(a) Define the terms below
(i) Conduction
 (ii) Convection
(b) (i) State the characteristics of the atoms that are undergoing conduction.
(ii) State the characteristics of the fluid that is undergoing convection.
(c) A concrete wall (K = 0.2 w/m0C) is 3m x 4m x 35cm thick. The temperatures of the interior
and exterior surfaces are at 36 0C and 12 0C respectively.
(i) Find the rate at which heat flows through the wall.
(ii) Find the heat flux J, conducted through the above concrete wall.
(ii) Determine the thermal conductivity per unit length (U - Value) for the concrete.
(d) If a ply-wood (K =0.2 w/m °C) sheet of thickness 2.25 cm is placed face to face with the
concrete in part (b) above,
(i) Calculate the total U-Value of the combined system
(ii) Determine the heat flux rate of the combined system if the temperature through the
back face of the plywood is 5 0C.
Question 5.
(a) (i) Explain the optical properties upon which the operation of a flat solar heating panel
depends.
(ii) Define Reflectance, R of a sheet of glazing.
(b) Given the parallel and perpendicular polarization states to the plane of incidence
respectively as,
𝑛𝑟2 cos 𝑖−𝑛𝑖 √𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖 𝑛𝑖 cos 𝑖−√𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖
𝑟∥ = { } and 𝑟⊥ = { }
𝑛𝑟2 cos 𝑖+ 𝑛𝑖 √𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖 𝑛𝑖 cos 𝑖+ √𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖

𝑛 −𝑛 2
(i) Show that for normal incidence 𝑟∥ = 𝑟⊥ = ( 𝑛𝑟 +𝑛𝑖 )
𝑟 𝑖
(ii) Determine the average reflection coefficient, r at the interface, if the direct solar
radiation is not polarized as in part b(i) above.
(iii) If the parallel transmission coefficient above is given by 𝑡∥ = 1 − 𝑟∥ , Show that
4𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑟
𝑡∥ = (𝑛𝑖 +𝑛𝑟 )2
(iv) If the light is now traveling from air to glass (ng =1.52). determine the values of
𝑟∥ and 𝑟⊥ above at normal incidence.
(c) (i) Explain why the transmittance of a glazing is always less then unity.
(ii) An array whose power is 5.149 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1 , is 73% efficient. If the average daily
insolation intercepted is15 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑚−2 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1.Estimate the number of panels in the
array if each panel has an area of 0.15 m2.
Question 6
(a) (i) When is a solar heating panel said to be active?
(ii) Draw a well labeled cross sectional diagram of a flat plate solar panel.
(b) A single- glazed flat plate has a plate to glazing transfer coefficient, 𝑢̅𝑝−𝑔 = 6.5 W/m2 0C,
and a glazing-to-air coefficient 𝑢̅𝑔−𝑢 = 9.82W/m2 0C.
(i) Determine the overall transfer coefficient for the panel.
 (ii) Determine the stagnation temperature and glazing temperature when the absorbed
solar flux is 𝐹𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 416𝑊𝑚−2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑎 = 00 𝐶
(c) On the same axes, sketch graphs of (𝑇𝑝−𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ) and (𝑇𝑔−𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ) against Fabs
(d) Briefly explain the principle of a thermocouple.
Question 7.
(a) Define the following terms,
(i) Photosphere,
(ii) Chromosphere,
(iii) Incident spectral flux, F(i)λ
(b) Draw a labeled simplified diagram of the sun.
(c) (i) Draw a graph to show the emission spectrum against the wavelength of a black,
grey and a real body at 6,000 K.
𝑥 𝑎𝑑𝑥 ℎ𝑐
(ii) Given 𝑓𝜆 (𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫0 ( 𝑏 ) where 𝑎 = 2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2 and b = 𝑘
. Determine
𝜎𝑥5 (𝑒𝑥 −1)
𝑏
an expression for the Stefan Boltzmann constant, o, provided that 𝑏 = 𝑥, f(x) → 1
∞ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢 ℼ4
and ∫𝜎 = 15
𝑢 𝑒𝑢 −1

Question 8.
(a) With reference to labelled diagrams, briefly explain the following seasonal variation terms
(i) Autumnal equinox,
(ii) Vernal equinox,
(iii) Winter solstice.
(b) (i) Draw the entire electromagnetic spectrum showing all possible wavelengths.
(ii) Explain what meant by black body emission
(c) Describe the nature of earth's orbit around the sun stating any assumptions made.

Question 9.
(a) (i) Explain what is meant by Solar day.
(ii) 1f the earth rotated on its axis but did not revolve about the sun, show that the
frequency of rotation, is given as frot = 1.16 x 10-5 rev/second.
(iii) Assuming the earth’s orbit is circular, considering the effect of the revolution of
the earth about the sun when the earth is not rotating at all, show that the frequency
of revolution, is given as frev = 3.17 x 10-8 rev/second and determine the net
frequency, fnet and the effective period T.
(b) (i) Define luminosity.
(ii) When is the luminosity (total radiant power) emitted equally in all directions of
space?
(iii) Define the divergence of the radiation.
Question 10
(a) (i) Define the term radiation.
(ii) State the law of conduction.
(b) An absorber plate in a flat plate collector is operating at a temperature of T = 80°C and
rests on 15 cm of fiber glass insulation (Kf = 0.05 w/m 0C), which is itself supported by a
plywood sheet ( Kw = 0.08 w/m 0C) of thickness 1.25 cm. If the temperature of the exterior
face of the plywood is at 250C, find the heat flux rate conducted through the back face of
the collector.
(c) (i) Define the U- value of a conducting material.
(ii) Given two long concentric cylindrical surfaces of radii rin and rout at temperatures
Tin and Tout as shown below, show that the heat flow rate is given by
2𝜋𝐿𝐾(T𝑖𝑛 − T𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑄= r .
ln( 𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
r𝑖𝑛

(iii) Determine an expression for the heat flow rate per unit length.
Question 11
(a) (i) State the preferred optical properties which determine the operation of a
Concentrator solar heating panel.

(ii) Define transmittance, T of a sheet of glazing.

(b) (i) When is a solar heating panel said to be Passive?

(ii) For an active liquid - type flat plate, show that the overall efficiency is given by
𝐽𝑐 𝐹𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝐽𝑐
η = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑐 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑐 = 𝐹𝑎𝑏𝑠 = ηther x ηopt

Defining all the symbols used.

(c) (i) Describe the operation of a resistance thermometer.

1 𝑑𝑅
(ii) If the temperature coefficient of resistance, β is given by β = 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
, where R is the
resistance at temperature T. Determine an expressi1on for the temperature T.

(iii) The element of copper whose temperature coefficient is 0.00393 °C has a

resistance of 0.018Ω at 00C. The element's resistance is measured as 0.034 Ω.
Calculate the temperature T of the element.

(d) Briefly explain the principle and action of a junction thermocouple.

Question 12.

(a) Briefly explain the following,

(i) Absorbed spectral flux,

(ii) Spectral absorptivity

(iii) Black body radiation

(b) (i) Draw a graph to show the thermal emission spectra of black bodies at different
temperatures of T= 2000K and T = 3000 K.

(ii) Derive the Stefan - Boltzmann’s law and Wiens displacement law from planks law
explaining all the symbols used.

(c) If the Sun was to cool down to Tθ= 2500 K, estimate the total flux, Fθ and the total radiant
power, Pθ, and hence the Solar constant, S at mean earth- Sun distance of r = 2.93 x1011m.

Question 13.

(a) with the aid of diagrams, write short notes on the following terms

(i) Ecliptic plane,

(ii) Summer solstice,
(iii) A tropical year.
(b) (i) Draw the entire electromagnetic spectrum in relation to its frequency.

(ii) What percentage does each component constitute in the spectrum?

(iii) What happens when the electromagnetic radiation is incident on the surface of a
body?

Question 14.

(a) Briefly explain the following terms,

(i) Reflected spectral flux,

(ii) Spectral reflectivity,

(iii) White body and gray body, and

(b) (i) State any TWO characteristics of the thermal radiation.

(ii) List down ALL the constituents of the thermal radiation.

Question 15.

(a) Explain the major differences between the terms below

(i) Conduction

(ii) Convection

(b) Distinguish between characteristics materials that are undergoing conduction and
Convection.
(c) A concrete wall (Ko = 0.84 w/m°C) is [3m x 4mk 3Scm thick. The temperatures of the
interior and exterior surfaces are at 36 °C and 12 °C respectively.

(i) Determine the rate at which heat flows through the wall.

(ii) Determine the heat flux J, conducted through the above concrete wall.

(iii) Determine the thermal conductivity per unit length (U-Value) for the concrete.

(d) If a sheet of ply-wood (Ko = 0.2 w/m °C) of thickness 2.25 cm is placed face to face with
the concrete in part (c) above,

(i) Calculate the total U-Value of the combined system.

(ii) Determine the heat flux rate of the combined system if the temperature through the
back face of the plywood is 5 0C.

Question 16.

(a) (i) Explain the principle of operation of a flat solar heating panel

(ii) Define Reflectance, R of a sheet of glazing.

(b) Given the parallel and perpendicular polarization states to the plane of incidence
respectively as,

𝑛𝑟2 cos 𝑖−𝑛𝑖 √𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖 𝑛𝑖 cos 𝑖−√𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖
𝑟∥ = { } and 𝑟⊥ = { }
𝑛𝑟2 cos 𝑖+ 𝑛𝑖 √𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖 𝑛𝑖 cos 𝑖+ √𝑛𝑟2 −𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖

(i) Show that for normal incidence 𝑟∥ = 𝑟⊥

(ii) Determine the average reflection coefficient, r at the interface, if the direct solar
radiation is not polarized as in part b(i) above.

Question 17

(a) (i) When is a solar heating panel said to be active?

(ii) Draw a well labeled cross sectional diagram of a flat plate solar panel.

(b) A single- glazed flat plate has a plate to glazing transfer coefficient Up-g = 6.5w/m2 0C, and
a glazing-to-air coefficient Ug-u = 9.82w/m2 0C.

(i) Find the overall transfer coefficient for the panel.

(ii) Find the stagnation temperature and glazing temperature when the absorbed solar
flux is Fabs = 416w/m2 and Ta =00C
Question 18.

(a) What are the possible short comings of using tracking concentrators as compared to flat
plates.

(b) (i) Calculate the power required to heat 108 kg of tap water per day from 110C to 520C

which will be supplied in winter to a summer home.

(ii) If the array to provide the heating is 73% efficient in part b(i) above, and that the
average daily insolation intercepted is 15 kwh/m2day. Estimate the number of
panels in an array if each panel has an area of 0. 15 m2.
(iii) Explain the advantages of using wider area panels in the construction of a Solar
panel.

Question 19.

(a) With diagrams briefly explain the processes that occur in the following regions of the sun.

(i) Photosphere,

(ii) Chromosphere,

(b) Draw a labeled simplified diagram of the sun.

(c) Sketch graph showing the emission spectrum against the wavelength of a black, grey and
a real body at 6,000 K.

Question 20.

(a) Explain the term luminosity.

(b) Explain how the total radiant power emitted from the sun is equally in all directions of
space?

(c) Explain the concept of divergence of the radiation from the sun.

(d) Explain the law of conduction.

(e) An absorber plate in a flat plate collector is operating at a temperature of T = 80°C and
rests on 15 cm of fiber glass insulation (Kf = 0.05 w/m 0C), which is itself supported by a
plywood sheet (Kw = 0.08 w/m 0C) of thickness 1.25 cm. If the temperature of the exterior
face of the plywood is at 250C, find the heat flux rate conducted through the back face of
the collector.

Question 21
(a) A plastic pipe (Kp= 0.8w/m0C) is carrying water at 60 °C from a solar heating panel. The
inner and the outer radii are 0.5 cm and 0.75 cm respectively. The pipe is wrapped with a
cylindrical sponge (K1, 0.04 w/m 0C) insulation to a radius of 1.5 cm. If the outer surface
of the insulation is at 250C, Determine

(i) The U - value per unit length of the pipe, ULpipe and of the insulation ULins

(ii) Hence, determine the UL for the pipe system.

(iii) Calculate the heat conduction rate per unit length QL.

(b) (i) Explain the conditions upon which the amount of heat transferred from a heated

surface to air depends.

(ii) Describe a single current heat exchanger process, and determine an expression for
the rate at which the heat is extracted by the fluid.

Question 22.

(a) (i) Briefly explain the factors that determine the size of an array.

(ii) Explain the difference in operation when solar heating panels are arranged in Series,
in Parallel array, and in the Combination of the two.

(b) A single solar heating panel uses water (Cf, = 4186 J/ kg°C) as the transfer fluid flowing at
m = 0.005 kg/s. It enters the panel at 20 °C and leaves at 50 °C. The fluid is carried to a
storage tank by an exterior pipe 10 m long whose overall heat transfer coefficient per unit
length is UL, = 0.2 w/m°C. The ambient temperature, Ta = 15°C.

(i) Find the temperature of water entering the storage tank.

(ii) Find the percentage of the heat produced by the panel lost by the pipe.

(c) (i) Explain on of the most effective use of solar heating.

(ii) Describe the open loop system of the heat exchangers.

Question 23.

(a) (i) Explain with diagrams reflection and refraction of e/m radiation takes place

at the upper and lower surfaces of the atmosphere.

(ii) State any FIVE properties of the radiation at the upper and lower surfaces of the
atmosphere.

(b) (i) Why is it necessary to use more than one glazing in solar heating panels?
 (ii) How is the overall transmittance obtained for a double glazing?

(c) Compare and contrast between the advantages of using concentrating solar collectors as
compared to the flat plates.

END