The document describes different biomes and forest biomes. It discusses how biomes are defined by climate factors like temperature and precipitation that determine the type of vegetation. Tropical rainforests receive heavy rainfall and have diverse layers of vegetation. Temperate forests have deciduous trees that drop their leaves seasonally. Forest biomes face threats from habitat destruction, climate change, and illegal trading of exotic animals.
The document describes different biomes and forest biomes. It discusses how biomes are defined by climate factors like temperature and precipitation that determine the type of vegetation. Tropical rainforests receive heavy rainfall and have diverse layers of vegetation. Temperate forests have deciduous trees that drop their leaves seasonally. Forest biomes face threats from habitat destruction, climate change, and illegal trading of exotic animals.
The document describes different biomes and forest biomes. It discusses how biomes are defined by climate factors like temperature and precipitation that determine the type of vegetation. Tropical rainforests receive heavy rainfall and have diverse layers of vegetation. Temperate forests have deciduous trees that drop their leaves seasonally. Forest biomes face threats from habitat destruction, climate change, and illegal trading of exotic animals.
The document describes different biomes and forest biomes. It discusses how biomes are defined by climate factors like temperature and precipitation that determine the type of vegetation. Tropical rainforests receive heavy rainfall and have diverse layers of vegetation. Temperate forests have deciduous trees that drop their leaves seasonally. Forest biomes face threats from habitat destruction, climate change, and illegal trading of exotic animals.
1. Describe why vegetation is used to describe a biome.
2. Explain how temperature and precipitation determine which plants grow in an area. 3. Explain how latitude and altitude affect which plants grow in an area. What Is a Biome? ´Earth is covered by many types of ecosystems. Ecologists group these ecosystems into larger areas known as biomes. ´A biome is a large region characterized by a specific type of climate and certain types of plants and animal communities. ´The map in Figure 1.1 shows the locations of the world’s major land, or terrestrial, biomes ´When you read about each biome, notice the adaptations the species that live there have to survive in each biome’s very different environments. Biomes and Vegetation ´ Biomes are described by their vegetation because the plants that grow in a certain region are the most noticeable characteristics of that region. ´ The plants, in turn, determine the other organisms that can live there. ´ For example, mahogany trees grow in tropical rain forests because they cannot survive cold, dry weather. ´ Organisms that depend on mahogany trees live where these trees grow. ´ Plants in a particular biome have adaptations that let them survive there. ´ These adaptations include size, shape, and how they manage water. ´ For example, plants that grow in the tundra tend to be short because they cannot obtain enough water to grow larger. ´ They also have a short summer growing season. ´ Desert plants, such as cactuses, have modified leaves. These specialized structures enable cactuses to conserve and retain water. Biomes and Climate ´Biomes are defined by their plant life, but what factors determine which plants can grow in a certain area? ´The main factor is climate. Climate refers to the weather conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, and winds, that occur in an area over a long period of time. ´Temperature and precipitation are the two most important factors that determine a region’s climate. Temperature and Precipitation ´ Most organisms are adapted to live within a certain range of temperatures and will not survive at temperatures too far outside of that range. ´ The length of the growing season, or the period when temperatures are high enough for plants to grow, also affects plants, as shown in Figure 1.2. ´ Precipitation is another factor that limits the organisms that are found in a biome. ´ All organisms need water. The larger an organism is, the more water it needs. ´ For example, biomes that do not receive enough rainfall to support large trees support communities dominated by small trees, shrubs, and grasses. ´ In biomes where rainfall is not frequent, the vegetation is mostly made up of cactuses and desert shrubs. ´ In extreme cases, lack of rainfall results in no plants, no matter what the temperature is. ´ As shown in Figure 1.3, the higher the temperature and precipitation are, the taller and denser the vegetation is. ´ Notice how much more vegetation exists in a hot, wet tropical rain forest than in a dry desert. Latitude and Altitude ´ Climate varies with both latitude and altitude, and so do biomes. ´ Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator and is measured in degrees, with the equator equal to 0°. ´ Altitude is the height of an object above sea level. ´ Climate gets colder as either latitude or altitude increase. This explains why biomes at high altitudes are similar to those at high latitudes. ´ Figure 1.4 shows that as latitude and altitude increase, biomes and vegetation change. ´ For example, the trees of tropical rain forests usually grow closer to the equator at low altitudes, while the mosses and lichens of the tundra usually grow closer to the poles. ´ The land located in the temperate region, between about 30° and 60° north latitudes and 30° and 60° south latitudes, includes biomes such as temperate forests and grasslands, which usually have the moderate temperatures and fertile soil that are ideal for agriculture. Section 2. Forest Biomes Learning Objectives
1. List three characteristics of tropical rain forests.
2. Name and describe the main layers of a tropical rain forest . 3. Describe one plant in a temperate deciduous forest and an adaptation that helps the plant survive. 4. Describe one adaptation that may help an animal survive in the taiga. 5. Name two threats to the world’s forest biomes. Tropical Rain Forests ´ Of all the biomes in the world, forest biomes are the most widespread and are home to the greatest diversity of plants, animals, and other organisms. ´ Trees need a lot of water, so forests exist where precipitation is plentiful. ´ Tropical forests, temperate forests, and taiga are the main types of forest biomes. ´ Tropical rain forests are always humid and warm and get about 200 to 450 cm of rain a year. ´ They help regulate world climate and play vital roles in the nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon cycles. ´ The tropical climate is ideal for a wide variety of plants and animals, as shown in Figure 2.1. ´ Because they are near the equator, tropical rain forests receive strong sunlight and maintain a relatively constant temperature year-round Nutrients in Tropical Rain Forests ´ You might think that the diverse plant life in a tropical rain forest grows on rich soil, but it does not. ´ Most nutrients are found within the tropical plants, and not within the soil. ´ Organic matter decays quickly in hot, wet conditions. Decomposers on the rainforest floor break down organic matter and return the nutrients to the soil, but plants quickly absorb the nutrients. ´ Some trees in a tropical rain forest support fungi that feed on dead organic matter on the rain-forest floor. In this relationship, the fungi transfer the nutrients from the dead organic matter directly to the tree. ´ The nutrients are removed so efficiently from the soil in a tropical rain forest that water running out of the soil may be as clear as distilled water. ´ Many of the trees form above-ground roots, or lateral supports called buttresses, that grow sideways from the trees and provide the trees with extra support in the thin soil. Layers of the Rain Forest ´ In tropical rain forests, different types of plants grow in different layers, as shown in Figure 2.3. ´ The four main layers above the forest floor are the emergent layer, the upper canopy, the lower canopy, and the understory. ´ The top layer is the emergent layer. It consists of the tallest trees, which reach heights of 60 to 70 m. Trees in the emergent layer grow above the tops of most other trees in the forest. ´ The next layer, considered the primary layer of the rain forest, is called the canopy. ´ Trees in the canopy can grow more than 30 m tall. The tall trees form a dense layer that absorbs up to 95 percent of the sunlight. The canopy can be split into an upper canopy and a lower canopy. ´ The lower canopy receives less light than does the upper canopy. Plants called epiphytes, such as the orchid in Figure 2.4, use the entire surface of a tree as a place to live. ´ Below the canopy, very little light reaches the next layer, called the understory. ´ Trees, shrubs, and other plants that are adapted to shade grow here. ´ Most plants in the understory do not grow more than 3.5 m tall. Herbs with large, flat leaves grow on the forest floor. ´ These plants capture the small amount of sunlight that penetrates the understory. ´ Most of our house plants are native to tropical rainforest floors. Because they are adapted to low levels of light, they are able to grow indoors. Species Diversity in Rain Forests ´ The tropical rain forest is the biome with the largest number of species. ´ The species diversity of rain forest vegetation has led to the evolution of a diverse community of animals. ´ Most rainforest animals are specialists that use specific resources in particular ways. ´ Some rain forest animals have amazing adaptations for capturing prey, and other animals have adaptations that they use to escape predators. ´ For example, the giant anteater in Figure 2.4 uses its long tongue to reach insects in small cracks and holes where other animals cannot reach. ´ The great hornbill (shown below) uses its strong, curved beak to crack open nutshells. ´ Insects, such as the Costa Rican hooded praying mantis in Figure 2.4, use camouflage to avoid predators. These insects may be shaped like leaves or twigs. Threats to Rain Forests ´ Tropical rain forests once covered about 20 percent of Earth’s land area. ´ Today, they cover less than 7 percent. Every 60 seconds, nearly 150 acres of tropical rain forest are cleared for logging operations, agriculture, cattle ranching, or oil exploration. ´ Habitat destruction occurs when land inhabited by an organism is destroyed or altered. This destruction is the usual reason for a species becoming extinct. ´ Warming temperatures and changes in precipitation from climate change also threaten rain forests. ´ An estimated 50 million people live in tropical rain forests. These people are also threatened by habitat destruction. Their food, building materials, culture, and traditions come from and are uniquely connected to the rain forest. Habitat loss also destroys their way of life. ´ Plants and animals that live in rain forests are also threatened by trading. ´ Animals are threatened by exotic-pet trading. Some exotic-pet traders illegally trap animals, such as parrots, and sell them in pet stores at high prices. Temperate Rain Forests ´ Temperate rain forest occurs in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. ´ Temperate rain forests have large amounts of precipitation, high humidity, and moderate temperatures. ´ There, tree branches are draped with mosses and tree trunks are covered in lichens. The forest floor is blanketed with lush ferns. ´ Evergreen trees that are 90 m tall, such as the Sitka spruce and the Douglas fir, dominate the forest. ´ Even though some temperate rain forests are located at high latitudes, they still maintain moderate temperatures year-round because nearby ocean waters blow cool ocean wind over the forest. ´ As ocean winds meet coastal mountains, a large amount of rainfall is produced. ´ Rainfall and ocean breezes keep temperatures cool in the summer, but warmer than might be expected in the winter. ´ These wet and warm conditions mean that trees have long growing seasons and plenty of water to grow very tall. Temperate Deciduous Forests ´ In temperate deciduous forests, trees drop their broad, flat leaves each fall. These forests once dominated vast regions of Earth, including parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. ´ Today, temperate deciduous forests are generally located between 30° and 50° north latitudes, as shown in Figure 2.6. ´ The range of temperatures in a temperate deciduous forest can be extreme, and the growing season lasts for only four to six months. ´ Summer temperatures can soar to 35°C. Winter temperatures often fall below freezing, so little water is available for plants and growing seasons tend to be shorter than in the temperate rain forests. ´ Just as temperatures change with the seasons, so does the vegetation, as shown in Figure 2.7. ´ Although there is enough moisture for decomposition, temperatures are low during the winter. As a result, organic matter decomposes fairly slowly. ´ This means that the soil contains more organic matter and nutrients than the soil in a tropical rain forest. Plants of Temperate Deciduous Forests ´Like the plants of tropical rain forests, the plants in deciduous forests grow in layers. ´Tall trees, such as maple, oak, and birch, dominate the forest canopy. Small trees and shrubs cover the understory. ´Because the floor of a deciduous forest gets more light than does the floor of a rain forest, more plants such as ferns, herbs, and mosses grow in a deciduous forest. ´Temperate-forest plants are adapted to survive seasonal changes. Animals of Temperate Deciduous Forests ´ The animals of temperate deciduous forests are adapted to use the forest plants for food and shelter. Squirrels eat the nuts, seeds, and fruits in the treetops. ´ Bears feast on insects and the tubers and berries of the forest plants. Deer, such as the one shown in Figure 2.8, and other herbivores nibble leaves from trees and shrubs. ´ Many birds nest in the relative safety of the canopy. Most of these birds are migratory. ´ Because many birds cannot survive harsh winters, each fall they fly south to find warmer weather and more food. ´ Each spring, they return north to nest and feed. Animals that do not migrate use various strategies for surviving the winter. ´ For example, some mammals reduce their activity during the cold winter months so that they do not need as much food for energy. Taiga ´ The taiga is the northern coniferous forest that stretches in a broad band across the Northern Hemisphere just below the Arctic Circle. ´ As shown in Figure 2.9, winters in the taiga are long (6 to 10 months) and have average temperatures that are below freezing and often fall to –20°C. ´ Many trees seem like straight, dead shafts of bark and wood— until you look up and see their green tops. ´ Plant growth is most abundant during the summer months because of nearly constant daylight and larger amounts of precipitation. Plants of the Taiga ´ A conifer is a tree with needle-like leaves and seeds that develop in cones. ´ As Figure 2.10 shows, many conifers are shaped like a large cone. ´ The cone-like shape helps to prevent snow from building up on the branches and causing the branches to break under the weight. ´ Conifer needles contain substances that make the soil acidic when the needles fall to the ground. ´ Most plants cannot grow in acidic soil, which is one reason the forest floor of the taiga has few plants. In addition, soil forms slowly in the taiga because the climate and acidity of the fallen needles slow decomposition. Animals of the Taiga ´The taiga has many lakes and swamps that in summer attract birds that feed on aquatic organisms. ´Many birds migrate south to avoid winter in the taiga. Because food is scarce during the winter, some year- round residents, such as jumping mice, burrow underground to hibernate. ´As shown in Figure 2.11, some animals, such as snowshoe hares, have adapted to reduce the risk of predation by lynxes, wolves, and foxes by shedding their brown summer fur and growing white fur that camou- flages them in the winter snow. Section 3. Grassland, Desert, and Tundra Biomes LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the difference between tropical and
temperate grasslands. 2. Describe the climate in a chaparral biome. 3. Describe two desert animals and the adaptations that help them survive. 4. Describe one threat to the tundra biome. Savannas and Tropical Seasonal Forests ´Parts of Africa, India, Australia, and South America are covered by grasslands called savanna. ´A savanna is a tropical biome dominated by grasses, shrubs, and small trees. ´As Figure 3.1 shows, rain falls mainly during the wet season, which lasts for only a few months of the year. ´This is the only time that plants can grow. ´African savannas support an amazing variety of herbivores, such as antelopes, giraffes, and elephants, as well as the predators that hunt them, such as cheetahs, lions, and hyenas. Animals of the Savanna ´ Grazing herbivores, such as the elephants shown in Figure 3.2, have adopted a migratory way of life. ´ They follow the rains to areas of newly sprouted grass and watering holes. ´ Some predators follow and stalk migratory animals for food. ´ Many savanna animals give birth only during the rainy season, when food is most abundant and the young are more likely to survive. ´ Also, some species of herbivores eat vegetation at different heights than do other species. ´ For example, small gazelles graze on grasses, black rhinos browse on shrubs, and giraffes feed on tree leaves. Temperate Grasslands
´Temperate grassland covers large areas of the
interior of continents, where there is moderate rainfall but trees and shrubs cannot be established because there is not enough rain or fires are too frequent. ´The prairies in North America, the steppes in Asia, the veldt in South Africa, and the pampas in South America are temperate grasslands. ´ Mountains often play a crucial role in maintaining grasslands. ´ For example, in North America, rain clouds moving from the west release most of their moisture as they pass over the Rocky Mountains. ´ As a result, the short-grass prairie just east of the Rockies receives so little rain that it looks almost like a desert. ´ The amount of rain increases as you move east, which lets taller grasses and some shrubs grow. ´ Grassland plants dry out in the summer, so lightning strikes often start fires. Figure 3.4 shows two examples of temperate grasslands. Plants of Temperate Grasslands ´ Temperate grassland vegetation consists of grasses and wildflowers. ´ Although there is only a single layer of vegetation, many species may be present. Shrubs and trees grow only where the soil contains extra water, usually on the banks of streams. ´ Periodic fires are an important part of temperate grassland ecosystems. ´ Figure 3.5 shows how the heights of grasses and the depths of their roots vary. ´ Grasslands are highly productive because of their fertile soil. ´ Low temperatures in the winter slow decomposition. As a result, the rate at which dead plants decay is slower than the rate at which new vegetation is added each year. ´ Over time, organic matter accumulates in the soil. This means that grasslands have the most fertile soil in the world. Most grasslands have been converted to farmland for growing crops such as wheat and corn. Animals of Temperate Grasslands
´Grazing animals, such as pronghorn and
bison, have large, flat back teeth for chewing the coarse prairie grasses. ´Other grassland animals, such as badgers, prairie dogs, and burrowing owls, live protected in underground burrows as shown in Figure 3.6. ´The burrows shield the animals from fire and weather and protect them from predators. Threats to Temperate Grasslands ´Farming and overgrazing have changed the grasslands. ´Erosion is also caused by overgrazing. When grasses are constantly eaten and trampled, the grasses cannot regenerate or hold the soil. ´This constant use can change fruitful grasslands into less productive, desert-like biomes. ´The Dust Bowl era, which affected the Great Plains in the 1930s, is a dramatic example of what can happen when temperate grasslands are converted to agricultural land and improperly managed. Chaparral ´ Temperate woodland biomes have fairly dry climates but receive enough rainfall, or mists from the ocean, to support more plants than do deserts. ´ One type of temperate woodlands consists of scattered tree communities made up of coniferous trees such as piñon pines and junipers. ´ The chaparral is a temperate shrub land biome that is found in all parts of the world with a Mediterranean climate. ´ These areas have moderately dry, coastal climates, with little or no rain in the summer. Look at the famous white letters that spell Hollywood across the California hills in Figure 3.7. Plants of the Chaparral ´Most chaparral plants are low-lying evergreen shrubs and small trees that tend to grow in dense patches. ´Common chaparral plants include chamise, manzanita, scrub oak, olive trees, and herbs, such as bay laurel. ´These plants have small, leathery leaves that retain water. The leaves also contain oils that promote burning, which is an advantage because natural fires destroy trees that might compete with chaparral plants for light and space. ´Chaparral plants are so well adapted to fire that they can resprout from small bits of surviving plant tissue. Animals of the Chaparral
´A common adaptation of chaparral
animals is camouflage, which is shape or coloring that allows an animal to blend into its environment. ´Animals such as quail, lizards, chipmunks, and mule deer have a brownish-gray coloring that lets them move through the brush without being noticed. Threats to the Chaparral
´Worldwide, the greatest threat to
chaparral is human development. ´Because chaparral biomes get a lot of sun, are near the oceans, and have a mild climate year-round, humans tend to develop the land for commercial and residential use. Deserts ´ When some people think of a desert, they think of the hot sand that surrounds the Egyptian pyramids. ´ Many kinds of deserts are located throughout the world, but one characteristic that they share is that they are among the driest places on Earth. ´ Deserts are areas that have widely scattered vegetation and receive very little rain. ´ In extreme cases, it never rains and there is no vegetation. The distribution of Earth’s deserts is shown in Figure 3.9. ´ The temperature may go from 40°C (104°F) during the day to near-freezing at night. Deserts are often located near mountain ranges, which block the passage of rain clouds. Plants of the Desert ´ All desert plants have adaptations for obtaining and conserving water, which allow the plants to live in dry, desert conditions. ´ Plants called succulents, such as cactuses, have thick, fleshy stems and modified leaves called spines that store water. ´ Their spines also have a waxy coating that prevents water loss. Sharp spines on cactuses keep thirsty animals from devouring the plant’s juicy flesh. ´ Many desert shrubs drop their leaves during dry periods and grow new leaves when it rains again. ´ When conditions are too dry, some plants die and drop seeds that stay dormant in the soil until the next rainfall. ´ Then, new plants quickly germinate, grow, and bloom before the soil becomes dry again. ´ Some desert plants have adapted so that they can survive even if their water content drops to as low as 30 percent of their mass. Animals of the Desert ´ Reptiles, such as Gila monsters and rattlesnakes, have thick, scaly skin that prevents water loss. ´ Amphibians, such as the spadefoot toad, survive scorching desert summers by estivating—burying themselves in the ground and sleeping through the dry season. ´ Some animals, such as the elf owl shown in Figure 3.10, nest in cactuses to avoid predators. ´ Desert insects and spiders are covered with body armor that helps them retain water. ´ In addition, most desert animals are nocturnal, which means they are active mainly at night or at dusk, when the air is cooler. Tundra ´ The tundra biome is located in northern arctic regions, as shown in Figure 3.11. ´ In many areas of the tundra, the deeper layers of soil, called permafrost, are permanently frozen throughout the year. ´ As a result, the topsoil is very thin. In the summer, when the thin topsoil layer thaws, the tundra landscape becomes quite moist and spongy and is dotted with bogs. ´ These wet areas are ideal breeding grounds for enormous numbers of swarming insects, such as mosquitoes and black flies, and for the many birds that feed on the insects. Vegetation of the Tundra ´ Over 400 species of wildflowers, such as the fireweed shown in Figure 3.12, grow in the tundra during the summer. ´ Mosses and lichens, which can grow without soil, cover vast areas of rocks in this biome. ´ The soil is thin, so plants have wide, shallow roots to help anchor them against the icy winds. ´ Growing close to the ground keeps the plants out of the wind and helps them absorb heat from the sunlit soil during the brief sum- mer. ´ Woody plants and perennials such as willow and birch have evolved dwarf forms and grow flat or grow along the ground. Animals of the Tundra ´ Millions of migratory birds fly to the tundra to breed in the summer. ´ Food is abundant in the form of plants, mollusks, worms, and especially insects. Caribou, shown in Figure 3.13, migrate throughout the tundra in search of food and water. ´ Wolves roam the tundra and prey on caribou, moose, and smaller animals, such as lemmings, mice, and hares. ´ These animals burrow underground during the winter but they are still active. ´ Many animals that live in the tundra year-round, such as arctic foxes, lose their brown fur and grow white fur that camouflages them with the winter snow. ´ These animals are also extremely well insulated. Threats to the Tundra ´ The tundra is one of the most fragile biomes on the planet. ´ Its food webs are relatively simple, so they are easily disrupted. Because conditions are so extreme, the land is easily damaged and slow to recover. ´ Until recently, the tundra was undisturbed by humans. But oil has been located in some tundra regions, such as in northern Alaska. ´ Oil exploration, extraction, and transport can disrupt the habitats of the plants and animals in many parts of the tundra. ´ Global climate change is the most widespread threat to tundra, partly because the largest warming trends are in the arctic region.