Chapter 6. Biomes

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CHAPTER 6.

BIOMES
SECTION 1. BIOME

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Describe why vegetation is used to describe a biome.


2. Explain how temperature and precipitation determine
which plants grow in an area.
3. Explain how latitude and altitude affect which plants
grow in an area.
What Is a Biome?
´Earth is covered by many types of ecosystems.
Ecologists group these ecosystems into larger areas
known as biomes.
´A biome is a large region characterized by a specific
type of climate and certain types of plants and
animal communities.
´The map in Figure 1.1 shows the locations of the
world’s major land, or terrestrial, biomes
´When you read about each biome, notice the
adaptations the species that live there have to survive
in each biome’s very different environments.
Biomes and Vegetation
´ Biomes are described by their vegetation because the plants that grow in
a certain region are the most noticeable characteristics of that region.
´ The plants, in turn, determine the other organisms that can live there.
´ For example, mahogany trees grow in tropical rain forests because they
cannot survive cold, dry weather.
´ Organisms that depend on mahogany trees live where these trees grow.
´ Plants in a particular biome have adaptations that let them survive there.
´ These adaptations include size, shape, and how they manage water.
´ For example, plants that grow in the tundra tend to be short because they
cannot obtain enough water to grow larger.
´ They also have a short summer growing season.
´ Desert plants, such as cactuses, have modified leaves. These specialized
structures enable cactuses to conserve and retain water.
Biomes and Climate
´Biomes are defined by their plant life, but what
factors determine which plants can grow in a
certain area?
´The main factor is climate. Climate refers to the
weather conditions, such as temperature,
precipitation, humidity, and winds, that occur in
an area over a long period of time.
´Temperature and precipitation are the two
most important factors that determine a
region’s climate.
Temperature and Precipitation
´ Most organisms are adapted to live within a certain range of temperatures and
will not survive at temperatures too far outside of that range.
´ The length of the growing season, or the period when temperatures are high
enough for plants to grow, also affects plants, as shown in Figure 1.2.
´ Precipitation is another factor that limits the organisms that are found in a
biome.
´ All organisms need water. The larger an organism is, the more water it needs.
´ For example, biomes that do not receive enough rainfall to support large trees
support communities dominated by small trees, shrubs, and grasses.
´ In biomes where rainfall is not frequent, the vegetation is mostly made up of
cactuses and desert shrubs.
´ In extreme cases, lack of rainfall results in no plants, no matter what the
temperature is.
´ As shown in Figure 1.3, the higher the temperature and precipitation are, the
taller and denser the vegetation is.
´ Notice how much more vegetation exists in a hot, wet tropical rain forest than in
a dry desert.
Latitude and Altitude
´ Climate varies with both latitude and altitude, and so do biomes.
´ Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator and is measured
in degrees, with the equator equal to 0°.
´ Altitude is the height of an object above sea level.
´ Climate gets colder as either latitude or altitude increase. This explains
why biomes at high altitudes are similar to those at high latitudes.
´ Figure 1.4 shows that as latitude and altitude increase, biomes and
vegetation change.
´ For example, the trees of tropical rain forests usually grow closer to the
equator at low altitudes, while the mosses and lichens of the tundra
usually grow closer to the poles.
´ The land located in the temperate region, between about 30° and
60° north latitudes and 30° and 60° south latitudes, includes biomes
such as temperate forests and grasslands, which usually have the
moderate temperatures and fertile soil that are ideal for agriculture.
Section 2. Forest Biomes
Learning Objectives

1. List three characteristics of tropical rain forests.


2. Name and describe the main layers of a tropical rain forest .
3. Describe one plant in a temperate deciduous forest and an
adaptation that helps the plant survive.
4. Describe one adaptation that may help an animal survive in
the taiga.
5. Name two threats to the world’s forest biomes.
Tropical Rain Forests
´ Of all the biomes in the world, forest biomes are the most widespread and
are home to the greatest diversity of plants, animals, and other organisms.
´ Trees need a lot of water, so forests exist where precipitation is plentiful.
´ Tropical forests, temperate forests, and taiga are the main types of forest
biomes.
´ Tropical rain forests are always humid and warm and get about 200 to 450
cm of rain a year.
´ They help regulate world climate and play vital roles in the nitrogen, oxygen,
and carbon cycles.
´ The tropical climate is ideal for a wide variety of plants and animals, as shown
in Figure 2.1.
´ Because they are near the equator, tropical rain forests receive strong
sunlight and maintain a relatively constant temperature year-round
Nutrients in Tropical Rain Forests
´ You might think that the diverse plant life in a tropical rain forest grows
on rich soil, but it does not.
´ Most nutrients are found within the tropical plants, and not within the
soil.
´ Organic matter decays quickly in hot, wet conditions. Decomposers on
the rainforest floor break down organic matter and return the nutrients
to the soil, but plants quickly absorb the nutrients.
´ Some trees in a tropical rain forest support fungi that feed on dead
organic matter on the rain-forest floor. In this relationship, the fungi
transfer the nutrients from the dead organic matter directly to the tree.
´ The nutrients are removed so efficiently from the soil in a tropical rain
forest that water running out of the soil may be as clear as distilled
water.
´ Many of the trees form above-ground roots, or lateral supports called
buttresses, that grow sideways from the trees and provide the trees with
extra support in the thin soil.
Layers of the Rain Forest
´ In tropical rain forests, different types of plants grow in different layers, as shown in Figure 2.3.
´ The four main layers above the forest floor are the emergent layer, the upper canopy, the lower
canopy, and the understory.
´ The top layer is the emergent layer. It consists of the tallest trees, which reach heights of 60 to 70 m.
Trees in the emergent layer grow above the tops of most other trees in the forest.
´ The next layer, considered the primary layer of the rain forest, is called the canopy.
´ Trees in the canopy can grow more than 30 m tall. The tall trees form a dense layer that absorbs up to
95 percent of the sunlight. The canopy can be split into an upper canopy and a lower canopy.
´ The lower canopy receives less light than does the upper canopy. Plants called epiphytes, such as the
orchid in Figure 2.4, use the entire surface of a tree as a place to live.
´ Below the canopy, very little light reaches the next layer, called the understory.
´ Trees, shrubs, and other plants that are adapted to shade grow here.
´ Most plants in the understory do not grow more than 3.5 m tall. Herbs with large, flat leaves grow on the
forest floor.
´ These plants capture the small amount of sunlight that penetrates the understory.
´ Most of our house plants are native to tropical rainforest floors. Because they are adapted to low levels
of light, they are able to grow indoors.
Species Diversity in Rain Forests
´ The tropical rain forest is the biome with the largest number of species.
´ The species diversity of rain forest vegetation has led to the evolution of a
diverse community of animals.
´ Most rainforest animals are specialists that use specific resources in particular
ways.
´ Some rain forest animals have amazing adaptations for capturing prey, and
other animals have adaptations that they use to escape predators.
´ For example, the giant anteater in Figure 2.4 uses its long tongue to reach
insects in small cracks and holes where other animals cannot reach.
´ The great hornbill (shown below) uses its strong, curved beak to crack open
nutshells.
´ Insects, such as the Costa Rican hooded praying mantis in Figure 2.4, use
camouflage to avoid predators. These insects may be shaped like leaves or
twigs.
Threats to Rain Forests
´ Tropical rain forests once covered about 20 percent of Earth’s land area.
´ Today, they cover less than 7 percent. Every 60 seconds, nearly 150 acres of tropical
rain forest are cleared for logging operations, agriculture, cattle ranching, or oil
exploration.
´ Habitat destruction occurs when land inhabited by an organism is destroyed or
altered. This destruction is the usual reason for a species becoming extinct.
´ Warming temperatures and changes in precipitation from climate change also
threaten rain forests.
´ An estimated 50 million people live in tropical rain forests. These people are also
threatened by habitat destruction. Their food, building materials, culture, and
traditions come from and are uniquely connected to the rain forest. Habitat loss also
destroys their way of life.
´ Plants and animals that live in rain forests are also threatened by trading.
´ Animals are threatened by exotic-pet trading. Some exotic-pet traders illegally trap
animals, such as parrots, and sell them in pet stores at high prices.
Temperate Rain Forests
´ Temperate rain forest occurs in North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
´ Temperate rain forests have large amounts of precipitation, high humidity, and
moderate temperatures.
´ There, tree branches are draped with mosses and tree trunks are covered in
lichens. The forest floor is blanketed with lush ferns.
´ Evergreen trees that are 90 m tall, such as the Sitka spruce and the Douglas fir,
dominate the forest.
´ Even though some temperate rain forests are located at high latitudes, they still
maintain moderate temperatures year-round because nearby ocean waters
blow cool ocean wind over the forest.
´ As ocean winds meet coastal mountains, a large amount of rainfall is produced.
´ Rainfall and ocean breezes keep temperatures cool in the summer, but warmer
than might be expected in the winter.
´ These wet and warm conditions mean that trees have long growing seasons
and plenty of water to grow very tall.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
´ In temperate deciduous forests, trees drop their broad, flat leaves each fall. These
forests once dominated vast regions of Earth, including parts of North America,
Europe, and Asia.
´ Today, temperate deciduous forests are generally located between 30° and 50° north
latitudes, as shown in Figure 2.6.
´ The range of temperatures in a temperate deciduous forest can be extreme, and the
growing season lasts for only four to six months.
´ Summer temperatures can soar to 35°C. Winter temperatures often fall below
freezing, so little water is available for plants and growing seasons tend to be shorter
than in the temperate rain forests.
´ Just as temperatures change with the seasons, so does the vegetation, as shown in
Figure 2.7.
´ Although there is enough moisture for decomposition, temperatures are low during
the winter. As a result, organic matter decomposes fairly slowly.
´ This means that the soil contains more organic matter and nutrients than the soil in a
tropical rain forest.
Plants of Temperate Deciduous Forests
´Like the plants of tropical rain forests, the plants in
deciduous forests grow in layers.
´Tall trees, such as maple, oak, and birch, dominate
the forest canopy. Small trees and shrubs cover the
understory.
´Because the floor of a deciduous forest gets more
light than does the floor of a rain forest, more plants
such as ferns, herbs, and mosses grow in a deciduous
forest.
´Temperate-forest plants are adapted to survive
seasonal changes.
Animals of Temperate Deciduous Forests
´ The animals of temperate deciduous forests are adapted to use the forest
plants for food and shelter. Squirrels eat the nuts, seeds, and fruits in the
treetops.
´ Bears feast on insects and the tubers and berries of the forest plants. Deer,
such as the one shown in Figure 2.8, and other herbivores nibble leaves from
trees and shrubs.
´ Many birds nest in the relative safety of the canopy. Most of these birds are
migratory.
´ Because many birds cannot survive harsh winters, each fall they fly south to
find warmer weather and more food.
´ Each spring, they return north to nest and feed. Animals that do not migrate
use various strategies for surviving the winter.
´ For example, some mammals reduce their activity during the cold winter
months so that they do not need as much food for energy.
Taiga
´ The taiga is the northern coniferous forest that stretches in a
broad band across the Northern Hemisphere just below the Arctic
Circle.
´ As shown in Figure 2.9, winters in the taiga are long (6 to 10
months) and have average temperatures that are below freezing
and often fall to –20°C.
´ Many trees seem like straight, dead shafts of bark and wood—
until you look up and see their green tops.
´ Plant growth is most abundant during the summer months
because of nearly constant daylight and larger amounts of
precipitation.
Plants of the Taiga
´ A conifer is a tree with needle-like leaves and seeds that develop
in cones.
´ As Figure 2.10 shows, many conifers are shaped like a large cone.
´ The cone-like shape helps to prevent snow from building up on
the branches and causing the branches to break under the
weight.
´ Conifer needles contain substances that make the soil acidic
when the needles fall to the ground.
´ Most plants cannot grow in acidic soil, which is one reason the
forest floor of the taiga has few plants. In addition, soil forms slowly
in the taiga because the climate and acidity of the fallen needles
slow decomposition.
Animals of the Taiga
´The taiga has many lakes and swamps that in summer
attract birds that feed on aquatic organisms.
´Many birds migrate south to avoid winter in the taiga.
Because food is scarce during the winter, some year-
round residents, such as jumping mice, burrow
underground to hibernate.
´As shown in Figure 2.11, some animals, such as
snowshoe hares, have adapted to reduce the risk of
predation by lynxes, wolves, and foxes by shedding their
brown summer fur and growing white fur that camou-
flages them in the winter snow.
Section 3. Grassland, Desert, and Tundra
Biomes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Describe the difference between tropical and


temperate grasslands.
2. Describe the climate in a chaparral biome.
3. Describe two desert animals and the adaptations that
help them survive.
4. Describe one threat to the tundra biome.
Savannas and Tropical Seasonal Forests
´Parts of Africa, India, Australia, and South America
are covered by grasslands called savanna.
´A savanna is a tropical biome dominated by grasses,
shrubs, and small trees.
´As Figure 3.1 shows, rain falls mainly during the wet
season, which lasts for only a few months of the year.
´This is the only time that plants can grow.
´African savannas support an amazing variety of
herbivores, such as antelopes, giraffes, and
elephants, as well as the predators that hunt them,
such as cheetahs, lions, and hyenas.
Animals of the Savanna
´ Grazing herbivores, such as the elephants shown in Figure 3.2,
have adopted a migratory way of life.
´ They follow the rains to areas of newly sprouted grass and
watering holes.
´ Some predators follow and stalk migratory animals for food.
´ Many savanna animals give birth only during the rainy season,
when food is most abundant and the young are more likely to
survive.
´ Also, some species of herbivores eat vegetation at different
heights than do other species.
´ For example, small gazelles graze on grasses, black rhinos browse
on shrubs, and giraffes feed on tree leaves.
Temperate Grasslands

´Temperate grassland covers large areas of the


interior of continents, where there is moderate
rainfall but trees and shrubs cannot be
established because there is not enough rain
or fires are too frequent.
´The prairies in North America, the steppes in
Asia, the veldt in South Africa, and the pampas
in South America are temperate grasslands.
´ Mountains often play a crucial role in maintaining
grasslands.
´ For example, in North America, rain clouds moving from
the west release most of their moisture as they pass over
the Rocky Mountains.
´ As a result, the short-grass prairie just east of the Rockies
receives so little rain that it looks almost like a desert.
´ The amount of rain increases as you move east, which lets
taller grasses and some shrubs grow.
´ Grassland plants dry out in the summer, so lightning strikes
often start fires. Figure 3.4 shows two examples of
temperate grasslands.
Plants of Temperate Grasslands
´ Temperate grassland vegetation consists of grasses and wildflowers.
´ Although there is only a single layer of vegetation, many species may be
present. Shrubs and trees grow only where the soil contains extra water,
usually on the banks of streams.
´ Periodic fires are an important part of temperate grassland ecosystems.
´ Figure 3.5 shows how the heights of grasses and the depths of their roots
vary.
´ Grasslands are highly productive because of their fertile soil.
´ Low temperatures in the winter slow decomposition. As a result, the rate at
which dead plants decay is slower than the rate at which new vegetation
is added each year.
´ Over time, organic matter accumulates in the soil. This means that
grasslands have the most fertile soil in the world. Most grasslands have
been converted to farmland for growing crops such as wheat and corn.
Animals of Temperate Grasslands

´Grazing animals, such as pronghorn and


bison, have large, flat back teeth for chewing
the coarse prairie grasses.
´Other grassland animals, such as badgers,
prairie dogs, and burrowing owls, live
protected in underground burrows as shown in
Figure 3.6.
´The burrows shield the animals from fire and
weather and protect them from predators.
Threats to Temperate Grasslands
´Farming and overgrazing have changed the
grasslands.
´Erosion is also caused by overgrazing. When grasses
are constantly eaten and trampled, the grasses
cannot regenerate or hold the soil.
´This constant use can change fruitful grasslands into
less productive, desert-like biomes.
´The Dust Bowl era, which affected the Great Plains in
the 1930s, is a dramatic example of what can happen
when temperate grasslands are converted to
agricultural land and improperly managed.
Chaparral
´ Temperate woodland biomes have fairly dry climates but
receive enough rainfall, or mists from the ocean, to
support more plants than do deserts.
´ One type of temperate woodlands consists of scattered
tree communities made up of coniferous trees such as
piñon pines and junipers.
´ The chaparral is a temperate shrub land biome that is
found in all parts of the world with a Mediterranean
climate.
´ These areas have moderately dry, coastal climates, with
little or no rain in the summer. Look at the famous white
letters that spell Hollywood across the California hills in
Figure 3.7.
Plants of the Chaparral
´Most chaparral plants are low-lying evergreen shrubs
and small trees that tend to grow in dense patches.
´Common chaparral plants include chamise,
manzanita, scrub oak, olive trees, and herbs, such as
bay laurel.
´These plants have small, leathery leaves that retain
water. The leaves also contain oils that promote
burning, which is an advantage because natural fires
destroy trees that might compete with chaparral
plants for light and space.
´Chaparral plants are so well adapted to fire that they
can resprout from small bits of surviving plant tissue.
Animals of the Chaparral

´A common adaptation of chaparral


animals is camouflage, which is shape or
coloring that allows an animal to blend into
its environment.
´Animals such as quail, lizards, chipmunks,
and mule deer have a brownish-gray
coloring that lets them move through the
brush without being noticed.
Threats to the Chaparral

´Worldwide, the greatest threat to


chaparral is human development.
´Because chaparral biomes get a lot
of sun, are near the oceans, and
have a mild climate year-round,
humans tend to develop the land for
commercial and residential use.
Deserts
´ When some people think of a desert, they think of the hot sand
that surrounds the Egyptian pyramids.
´ Many kinds of deserts are located throughout the world, but
one characteristic that they share is that they are among the
driest places on Earth.
´ Deserts are areas that have widely scattered vegetation and
receive very little rain.
´ In extreme cases, it never rains and there is no vegetation. The
distribution of Earth’s deserts is shown in Figure 3.9.
´ The temperature may go from 40°C (104°F) during the day to
near-freezing at night. Deserts are often located near mountain
ranges, which block the passage of rain clouds.
Plants of the Desert
´ All desert plants have adaptations for obtaining and conserving water, which
allow the plants to live in dry, desert conditions.
´ Plants called succulents, such as cactuses, have thick, fleshy stems and
modified leaves called spines that store water.
´ Their spines also have a waxy coating that prevents water loss. Sharp spines on
cactuses keep thirsty animals from devouring the plant’s juicy flesh.
´ Many desert shrubs drop their leaves during dry periods and grow new leaves
when it rains again.
´ When conditions are too dry, some plants die and drop seeds that stay
dormant in the soil until the next rainfall.
´ Then, new plants quickly germinate, grow, and bloom before the soil becomes
dry again.
´ Some desert plants have adapted so that they can survive even if their water
content drops to as low as 30 percent of their mass.
Animals of the Desert
´ Reptiles, such as Gila monsters and rattlesnakes, have thick, scaly
skin that prevents water loss.
´ Amphibians, such as the spadefoot toad, survive scorching desert
summers by estivating—burying themselves in the ground and
sleeping through the dry season.
´ Some animals, such as the elf owl shown in Figure 3.10, nest in
cactuses to avoid predators.
´ Desert insects and spiders are covered with body armor that
helps them retain water.
´ In addition, most desert animals are nocturnal, which means they
are active mainly at night or at dusk, when the air is cooler.
Tundra
´ The tundra biome is located in northern arctic regions, as
shown in Figure 3.11.
´ In many areas of the tundra, the deeper layers of soil,
called permafrost, are permanently frozen throughout the
year.
´ As a result, the topsoil is very thin. In the summer, when the
thin topsoil layer thaws, the tundra landscape becomes
quite moist and spongy and is dotted with bogs.
´ These wet areas are ideal breeding grounds for enormous
numbers of swarming insects, such as mosquitoes and
black flies, and for the many birds that feed on the insects.
Vegetation of the Tundra
´ Over 400 species of wildflowers, such as the fireweed shown in
Figure 3.12, grow in the tundra during the summer.
´ Mosses and lichens, which can grow without soil, cover vast
areas of rocks in this biome.
´ The soil is thin, so plants have wide, shallow roots to help anchor
them against the icy winds.
´ Growing close to the ground keeps the plants out of the wind
and helps them absorb heat from the sunlit soil during the brief
sum- mer.
´ Woody plants and perennials such as willow and birch have
evolved dwarf forms and grow flat or grow along the ground.
Animals of the Tundra
´ Millions of migratory birds fly to the tundra to breed in the summer.
´ Food is abundant in the form of plants, mollusks, worms, and
especially insects. Caribou, shown in Figure 3.13, migrate
throughout the tundra in search of food and water.
´ Wolves roam the tundra and prey on caribou, moose, and smaller
animals, such as lemmings, mice, and hares.
´ These animals burrow underground during the winter but they are
still active.
´ Many animals that live in the tundra year-round, such as arctic
foxes, lose their brown fur and grow white fur that camouflages
them with the winter snow.
´ These animals are also extremely well insulated.
Threats to the Tundra
´ The tundra is one of the most fragile biomes on the planet.
´ Its food webs are relatively simple, so they are easily disrupted.
Because conditions are so extreme, the land is easily damaged and
slow to recover.
´ Until recently, the tundra was undisturbed by humans. But oil has
been located in some tundra regions, such as in northern Alaska.
´ Oil exploration, extraction, and transport can disrupt the habitats of
the plants and animals in many parts of the tundra.
´ Global climate change is the most widespread threat to tundra,
partly because the largest warming trends are in the arctic region.

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