UNIT:I

CHAPTER:1

LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION TO NON RESONANT CIRCUIT

GOOD MORNING EVERYBODY!

It gives me immense pleasure to see the budding engineers of tomorrow.
Quality is always important than quantity.Thereof, let’s make an effort to make learning interesting
and funfilled.

As the title indicates, we are going to get introduced to non-resonant circuits today.Before doing
that, it is important for us to know everything about the basic building blocks of Electrical circuits
known as the Circuit Elements viz Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance.We will first try to
understand the concept of A.C and D.C circuits in brief.

Direct current (DC) circuits involve current flowing in one direction. In alternating current (AC)
circuits, instead of a constant voltage supplied by a battery, the voltage oscillates in a sine wave
pattern, varying with time as:

In a household circuit, the frequency is 50 Hz. The angular frequency is related to the frequency, f,
by:

Vo represents the maximum voltage, . Voltages and currents for AC circuits are generally expressed
as rms values. For a sine wave, the relationship between the peak and the rms average is:

rms value = 0.707 peak value

RESISTANCE
We can define resistance as the property of material by virtue of which it opposes the flow of
electrons through the material. It’s unit is ohm.(Ω).You can say that as a dam on water body restricts
the flow of water, similarly, resistance restricts flow of current.
The unit ot resistance (R) being "ohm" (Ω),quantitatively it is obtained from Ohm's law' as
the resistance offered by the material when a current of I ampere flows through it with V volt
potential difference across the material.

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i.e. R=V/I
When an electric current flows through any conductor, heat iH generated due to collision offree
electrons with atoms. If I amps be the strength of current for a potential difference of V volts across
the conductor, the power absorbed by the resistor is given by

P = VI = (IR)I = I2 R watts
. .
and the energy lost in the resistance in form of heat is then expressed as
t
W = ∫ P.dt = Pt = I2Rt = (V2/R)* 1/t
0

Resistance in an AC circuit

The relationship V = IR applies for resistors in an AC circuit, so

In AC circuits we'll talk a lot about the phase of the current relative to the voltage. In a circuit which
only involves resistors, the current and voltage are in phase with each other, which means that the
peak voltage is reached at the same instant as peak current. In circuits which have capacitors and
inductors (coils) the phase relationships will be quite different.

Inductance
Let’s now define inductance.Inductance is the property of a material by virtue of which it
opposes any change of magnitude or direction of electric current passing through the conductor. The
unit of inductance being "henry" (L), it is given by Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
Inductance is said to be one henry when current through a coil of conductor changes at the rate of
one ampere per second inducing one volt across the coil.
A wire of finite length, when twisted into a coil, it becomes a simplest inductor. As soon as
current will flow through the coil, an electromagnetic field is formed. However, with any change
of flow or direction of current, the electromagnetic field changes. This change offield induces a
voltage (v) across the coil, given by

V = L di/dt

where i is the current through the inductor in ampere.

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 It may be noted from equation (1.4) that the voltage across the inductor would be zero if the
current through it remains constant. This means that an inductor behaves as a short circuited coil in
steady state, when direct steady current flows through it. However, for any small change in current
strength or change in direction, inductance will appear. If may also be observed from equation (1.4)
that for a minute change in current within zero time (dt = 0) gives an infinite voltage e.::ross the
inductor which is pl'ysically not at all feasible. Thus in an inductor, the current cannot chal.'ge
abruptly. Thus an inductor behaves as open circuit just after switching across d.c. voltage but as short
circuit at steady state.
Also, the power absorbed by the inductor is given by

P = V x i = Li . di/dt watts ….(1.5)

Energy absorbed by the inductor will thus be given by

t t
W = ∫ Pdt = ∫ Li di/dt . dt = 1/2 (Li2) .....(1.6)
0 0
Thus from equations (1.5) and (1.6) it is evident that the inductor can store finite amount of
energy, even the voltage across it may be nil. A pure inductor does not dissipate energy, but only
stores it.

Inductance in an AC circuit

An inductor is simply a coil of wire (often wrapped around a piece of ferromagnet). If we now look
at a circuit composed only of an inductor and an AC power source, we will again find that there is a
90° phase difference between the voltage and the current in the inductor. This time, however, the
current lags the voltage by 90°, so it reaches its peak 1/4 cycle after the voltage peaks.

The reason for this has to do with the law of induction:

Applying Kirchoff's loop rule to the circuit above gives:

As the voltage from the power source increases from zero, the voltage on the inductor matches it.
With the capacitor, the voltage came from the charge stored on the capacitor plates (or, equivalently,
from the electric field between the plates). With the inductor, the voltage comes from changing the

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flux through the coil, or, equivalently, changing the current through the coil, which changes the
magnetic field in the coil.

To produce a large positive voltage, a large increase in current is required. When the voltage passes
through zero, the current should stop changing just for an instant. When the voltage is large and
negative, the current should be decreasing quickly. These conditions can all be satisfied by having
the current vary like a negative cosine wave, when the voltage follows a sine wave.

How does the current through the inductor depend on the frequency and the inductance? If the
frequency is raised, there is less time to change the voltage. If the time interval is reduced, the
change in current is also reduced, so the current is lower. The current is also reduced if the
inductance is increased.

As with the capacitor, this is usually put in terms of the effective resistance of the inductor. This
effective resistance is known as the inductive reactance. This is given by:

where L is the inductance of the coil (this depends on the geometry of the coil and whether its got a
ferromagnetic core). The unit of inductance is the henry.

As with capacitive reactance, the voltage across the inductor is given by:

Capacitance

After getting acquainted with the inductance let’s now discuss all about capacitance.
It is the capability of an element to store electric charge within it. A capacitor stores electric energy in
the form of electric field being established by the two polarities of charges on the two electrodes of a
capacitor. Quantitatively capacitance is a measure of charge per unit voltage that can be stored in an
element. The unit of capacitance (C) is farad (F). The capacitance is said to be one Farad provided
one coulomb of charge can be stored with one volt across the two electrodes of the element. The
element, which bas capacitance, is called capacitor.

q being the amount of charge that can be stored in a capacitor of capacitance C against a
potential difference of v volts, we can write

C = q/v ….(1.7)
i.e. i = C dv/dt [ i = dq/dt ] .…(1.8)

where lower case letters represent the instantaneous values of the respective parameters;
vt t
dv = (1/C) i dt or ∫ dv = (1/C) ∫ i dt
v0 0

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 ( v0 = initial voltage of capacitor, vt = final voltage of capacitor )
t
vt - v0 = (1/C ) ∫ i dt
0

t
vt = (1/C) ∫ i dt + v0 ….(1.9)
0
The power absorbed by the capacitor is given by .
p = vi = vC (dv/dt)

and the energy stored by the capacitor is

t t
W = ∫ Pdt = ∫vC (dv/dt) = (1/2) Cv2 ….(1.10)
0 0
Thus we observe that, the voltage across the capacitor being constant, current through it is zero.
This means that the capacitor, on application of d.c. voltage and with no initial charge first acts as
short circuit but as soon as the full charge it retains, the capacitor behaves an open circui. Also, a
capacitor never dissipates energy and only stores it. It can store finite amount energy, even if the
current through it is zero.

Capacitance in an AC circuit

Consider now a circuit which has only a capacitor and an AC power source (such as a wall outlet). A
capacitor is a device for storing charging. It turns out that there is a 90° phase difference between the
current and voltage, with the current reaching its peak 90° (1/4 cycle) before the voltage reaches its
peak. Put another way, the current leads the voltage by 90° in a purely capacitive circuit.

To understand why this is, we should review some of the relevant equations, including:

relationship between voltage and charge for a capacitor: CV = Q

The AC power supply produces an oscillating voltage. We should follow the circuit through one
cycle of the voltage to figure out what happens to the current.

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Step 1 - At point a (see diagram) the voltage is zero and the capacitor is uncharged. Initially, the
voltage increases quickly. The voltage across the capacitor matches the power supply voltage, so the
current is large to build up charge on the capacitor plates. The closer the voltage gets to its peak, the
slower it changes, meaning less current has to flow. When the voltage reaches a peak at point b, the
capacitor is fully charged and the current is momentarily zero.

Step 2 - After reaching a peak, the voltage starts dropping. The capacitor must discharge now, so the
current reverses direction. When the voltage passes through zero at point c, it's changing quite
rapidly; to match this voltage the current must be large and negative.

Step 3 - Between points c and d, the voltage is negative. Charge builds up again on the capacitor
plates, but the polarity is opposite to what it was in step one. Again the current is negative, and as the
voltage reaches its negative peak at point d the current drops to zero.

Step 4 - After point d, the voltage heads toward zero and the capacitor must discharge. When the
voltage reaches zero it's gone through a full cycle so it's back to point a again to repeat the cycle.

The larger the capacitance of the capacitor, the more charge has to flow to build up a particular
voltage on the plates, and the higher the current will be. The higher the frequency of the voltage, the
shorter the time available to change the voltage, so the larger the current has to be. The current, then,
increases as the capacitance increases and as the frequency increases.

Usually this is thought of in terms of the effective resistance of the capacitor, which is known as the
capacitive reactance, measured in ohms. There is an inverse relationship between current and
resistance, so the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the capacitance and the frequency:

A capacitor in an AC circuit exhibits a kind of resistance called capacitive reactance, measured in

ohms. This depends on the frequency of the AC voltage, and is given by:

We can use this like a resistance (because, really, it is a resistance) in an equation of the form V = IR
to get the voltage across the capacitor:

Note that V and I are generally the rms values of the voltage and current.

Where does the energy go?

One of the main differences between resistors, capacitors, and inductors in AC circuits is in what
happens with the electrical energy. With resistors, power is simply dissipated as heat. In a capacitor,
no energy is lost because the capacitor alternately stores charge and then gives it back again. In this
case, energy is stored in the electric field between the capacitor plates. The amount of energy stored
in a capacitor is given by:

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In other words, there is energy associated with an electric field. In general, the energy density Where
does the energy go?

One of the main differences between resistors, capacitors, and inductors in AC circuits is in what
happens with the electrical energy. With resistors, power is simply dissipated as heat. In a capacitor,
no energy is lost because the capacitor alternately stores charge and then gives it back again. In this
case, energy is stored in the electric field between the capacitor plates. The amount of energy stored
in a capacitor is given by:

In other words, there is energy associated with an electric field. In general, the energy density
(energy per unit volume) in an electric field with no dielectric is:

With a dielectric, the energy density is multiplied by the dielectric constant.

There is also no energy lost in an inductor, because energy is alternately stored in the magnetic field
and then given back to the circuit. The energy stored in an inductor is:

Again, there is energy associated with the magnetic field. The energy density in a magnetic field is:

Table below exhibits the voltage current relations of the three circuit elements R, L and C.

CIRCUIT ELEMENT VOLTAGE(volts) CURRENT(amps) POWER(watts)

Resistance(Ω) V = Ri I = v/R P = i2R

Inductance(H) V = Ldi/dt I = 1/L ∫ v dt + i0 P = Li (di/dt)

(i0 being the initial
current)

Capacitance(F) V = 1/C ∫ idt + v0 i = C (dv/dt) P = Cv (dv/dt)

(v0 being the initial

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 voltage)

RLC Circuits

Consider what happens when resistors, capacitors, and inductors are combined in one circuit. If all
three components are present, the circuit is known as an RLC circuit (or LRC). If only two
components are present, it's either an RC circuit, an RL circuit, or an LC circuit.

The overall resistance to the flow of current in an RLC circuit is known as the impedance,
symbolized by Z. The impedance is found by combining the resistance, the capacitive reactance, and
the inductive reactance. Unlike a simple series circuit with resistors, however, where the resistances
are directly added, in an RLC circuit the resistance and reactances are added as vectors.

This is because of the phase relationships. In a circuit with just a resistor, voltage and current are in
phase. With only a capacitor, current is 90° ahead of the voltage, and with just an inductor the
reverse is true, the voltage leads the current by 90°. When all three components are combined into
one circuit, there has to be some compromise.

To figure out the overall effective resistance, as well as to determine the phase between the voltage
and current, the impedance is calculated like this. The resistance R is drawn along the +x-axis of an
x-y coordinate system. The inductive reactance is at 90° to this, and is drawn along the +y-axis. The
capacitive reactance is also at 90° to the resistance, and is 180° different from the inductive
reactance, so it's drawn along the -y-axis. The impedance, Z, is the sum of these vectors, and is given
by:

The current and voltage in an RLC circuit are related by V = IZ. The phase relationship between the
current and voltage can be found from the vector diagram: its the angle between the impedance, Z,
and the resistance, R. The angle can be found from:

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If the angle is positive, the voltage leads the current by that angle. If the angle is negative, the
voltage lags the currents. .

The power dissipated in an RLC circuit is given by:

Note that all of this power is lost in the resistor; the capacitor and inductor alternately store energy in
electric and magnetic fields and then give that energy back to the circuit.

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.

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