Department of

Electrical
Engineering

Unit No:- 1
Name:- DC Circuits

Basics of Electrical &

Electronics Engineering-
01EE1101
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  Definition Current, Voltage, E.M.F., Power Energy, Resistance,
 Open circuit and Short circuit
Outline  Kirchoff’s Laws
 Nodal Analysis & Mesh Analysis of Electrical Networks
 1 Charge (Q)

 The unit of charge is the coulomb (C),

 where one coulomb is one ampere second (1 coulomb = 6.24 ×1018
electrons).
 The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a
Introduction given point in an electric circuit when a current of one ampere for one
second.
 Charge, in coulombs Q=It
 Charge on ions is measured with excess and deficit of electron from atom,
 So, Charge on ions Q=ne, n-number of electron, e- charge of one electron
Introduction
 Positively charged: electrons are removed making the object electron deficient.
 Negatively charged: electrons are added giving the object an excess of electrons.
 Current (I)

 If an electric pressure or voltage is applied across any material there is a

tendency for electrons to move in a particular direction.
 This movement of free electrons, known as drift, constitutes an electric
current flow. Thus current is the rate of movement of charge.
Introduction  Unit: ampere (A)
 If the drift of electrons in a conductor takes place at the rate of one
coulomb per second the resulting current is said to be a current of one
ampere.
 Electric potential / Electromotive force (e.m.f)

 The voltage developed by any source of electrical energy such as a battery

or dynamo.
 The unit of electric potential is the volt (V), where one volt is one joule
per coulomb.
 Ability of charged body to do work is called Electric Potential.
Introduction
 Electrical Potential = Work done/Charge, V=W/Q, V=dw/dq
 A change in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit is
called a potential difference.
 Electrical power and energy
 When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the
voltage across the circuit is V volts, then, power, in watts P=VI
 Electrical energy=Power × time =VIt joules
 Power is rate of change of energy. If, certain amount of energy is used over
a certain span of time, then Power=energy/time, P=W/t, p=dw/dt
Introduction  the unit used for energy is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where,
 1kWh = 1000watt hour
= 1000 ×3600watt seconds or joules
= 3600000J
 Resistance (R)

 The flow of electric current is subject to friction.

 This friction, or opposition, is called resistance, R, and is the property of a conductor that
limits current.
Electrical
circuit  The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω); 1 ohm is defined as the resistance which will have
a current of 1 ampere flowing through it when 1 volt is connected across it,
elements
 Resistance (R) = potential difference (V)/ Current (I)
 R α l, R α 1/A, R α ρ, R= ρl/A
 Specific Resistance / Resistivity (ρ)

 Resistance offered by material having unite dimension is known as Resistivity

of Specific Resistance of material.

Electrical
circuit
elements
 Unit : Ohm-m
 Conductivity (σ)
 Ohm’s law
 Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional
to the applied voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R,
provided the temperature remains constant.

Electrical
circuit
elements
 Ohm’s law

Electrical
circuit
elements
 Ohm’s law

 Limitation of Ohm’s Law

 This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. A unilateral
network has unilateral elements like diode, transistors, etc., which do
not have same voltage current relation for both directions of current.
Electrical  Ohm’s law is also not applicable for non – linear elements.
circuit  Non-linear elements are those which do not give current through it, is
elements not exactly proportional to the voltage applied, that means the
resistance value of those elements changes for different values of
voltage and current. Examples of non – linear elements are thyristor,
electric arc, etc.
 Factors Affecting Resistance
 The resistance of any material mainly depend upon four factors:
 Material
 Length
 Cross-sectional area
 Temperature of the material

Electrical  the higher the resistivity, the greater the resistance of a conductor
circuit  the longer the conductor, the greater the resistance
elements  the greater the area of a conductor, the less the resistance
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Resistors in Series:
Resistors are said to be connected in “Series”, when they are daisy chained together in a
single line. Then the amount of current that flows through a set of resistors in series will
be the same at all points in a series resistor network.

Series &
Parallel

 The resistors R1, R2, R3, R4 ..., Rn are all connected together in series between points A
and B with a common current.
 The total voltage in a series circuit which is the sum of all the individual voltages
added together. VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + …….. + Vn
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Resistors in Series:
As the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes through each
resistor in the chain and the total resistance, RT of the circuit must be equal to the sum of
all the individual resistors added together.

Series &
Parallel

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + …….. + Rn
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Resistors in Parallel:
 Resistors are said to be connected together in parallel when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors.
 Unlike the previous series resistor circuit, in a parallel resistor network the circuit
current can take more than one path as there are multiple paths for the current. Then
parallel circuits are classed as current dividers.
Series &
Parallel  The resistors R1, R2, R3, R4 ..., Rn are all
connected together in parallel between points
A and B with a common potential difference.

 The total current, IT entering a parallel

resistive circuit is the sum of all the
individual currents flowing in all the parallel
branches.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + …….. + In
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Resistors in Parallel:
 Equivalent resistor of parallel connected resistors is mathematically expressed as,

Series &
Parallel
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Example:-
A battery with a terminal voltage of is connected to a circuit consisting of four  and
one  resistors all in series. Assume the battery has negligible internal resistance.
(a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (b) Calculate the current through each
resistor. (c) Calculate the potential drop across each resistor.

Series &
Parallel

(a) The equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances:

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 = 20 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 10 = 90 Ω
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Example:-
A battery with a terminal voltage of is connected to a circuit consisting of four  and
one  resistors all in series. Assume the battery has negligible internal resistance.
(a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (b) Calculate the current through each
resistor. (c) Calculate the potential drop across each resistor.

Series &
Parallel

(b) The current through the circuit is the same for each resistor in a series circuit and is
equal to the applied voltage divided by the equivalent resistance:
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Example:-
A battery with a terminal voltage of is connected to a circuit consisting of four  and
one  resistors all in series. Assume the battery has negligible internal resistance.
(a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (b) Calculate the current through each
resistor. (c) Calculate the potential drop across each resistor.

Series &
Parallel

(c) The potential drop across each resistor can be found using Ohm’s law:

V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = (0.1) × 20 = 2 V

V5 = (0.1) × 10 = 1 V

V1 + V2 + V3 + V 4 + V 5 = 9 V
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Example:-
Calculate the total current ( IT) taken from the 12V supply.

Series &
Parallel

The two resistors, R2 and R3 are actually both connected together in a “SERIES” combination
so we can add them together.

R2 + R3 = 8Ω + 4Ω = 12Ω
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.

Series &
Parallel
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
The resultant resistive circuit now looks something like this:

Series &
Parallel
R(ab) = Rcomb + R1 = 6Ω + 6Ω = 12Ω
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
Example:-
Find the equivalent resistance, REQ for the following resistor combination circuit.

Series &
Parallel
RA is in series with R7 therefore the total resistance will be RA + R7 = 4 + 8 = 12Ω.
 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.

Series &
Parallel This resistive value of 12Ω is now in parallel with R6 and can be calculated as RB.

RB is in series with R5 therefore the total resistance will be RB + R5 = 4 + 4 = 8Ω as shown.

 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.

Series & This resistive value of 8Ω is now in parallel with R4 and can be calculated as RC as shown.
Parallel

RC is in series with R3 therefore the total resistance will be RC + R3 = 8Ω as shown.

 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
RC is in series with R3 therefore the total resistance will be RC + R3 = 8Ω as shown.

Series &
Parallel This resistive value of 8Ω is now in parallel with R2 from which we can calculated RD as:

RD is in series with R1 therefore the total resistance will be RD + R1 = 4 + 6 = 10Ω as shown.

 Determine the relationship in series and parallel connected resistors.
RD is in series with R1 therefore the total resistance will be RD + R1 = 4 + 6 = 10Ω as shown.

Series &
Parallel
 Voltage Sources
 Voltage Sources: In general, there will be a current flowing through a
voltage source. That current can be positive, negative, or zero, depending
on how the source is connected into the circuit.

 Ideal Independent Voltage Source: The ideal independent voltage

source maintains a fixed voltage across its terminals regardless of the
Voltage and current through it.
current
sources

 Ideal Dependent Voltage Source: The ideal dependent (or controlled)

voltage source maintains a voltage across its terminals that depends on
either a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.
 Current Sources
 Current Sources: In general, there will be a voltage across a current
source. That voltage can be positive, negative, or 0 depending on how it
is connected into the circuit.

 Ideal Independent Current Source: The ideal independent current

source maintains a fixed current through its terminals regardless of the
Voltage and voltage across it.
current
sources

 Ideal Dependent Current Source: The ideal dependent (or controlled)

current source maintains a current through its terminals that depends on
either a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.
 Comparison
between series and
parallel circuits

Comparision
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit
2  There are five differences between open and short circuits:
1. Current passing through an open circuit is zero, while current through
the short circuit is infinite.
2. An open circuit posses infinite resistance, while a short circuit posses
zero resistance.
3. The voltage through the short circuit is zero, while voltage through the
Analysis of short circuit in maximum.
Circuits
4. An ohmmeter connected to short circuit displays ‘0’ ohms while an
ohmmeter connected to open circuit displays ‘infinity’ or ‘0L’.
5. Practically, short circuit happens when a low resistance wire connects
across the circuit and an open circuit occurs when a circuit breaks from
some point.
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit
 An open circuit is the one having a disconnection between components.
The figure below displays an open:

Analysis of
Circuits
A short circuit is the one where components are connected with a very
small or zero resistance wire. The figure below displays an ideal short.
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit
 Resistance
 An open circuit posses infinite resistance, while a short circuit posses
zero resistance.
 Ω for open → Infinite
 Ω for short → Zero
Analysis of  An ohmmeter connected across a short displays ‘0’ ohms or very small
Circuits values of ohms. An ohmmeter across open will display 1 or 0L. (Most
multimeter manufacturers display 0L for open).
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit
 Current
 Current always requires a path to flow. If it is open, no electrons will
flow from one terminal to other and the resultant current will be zero.
Similarly, resistance is the other current controlling factor. As per Ohm’s
law, the higher resistance means lower current. In case of open, the
infinite resistance means zero current, and zero resistance means infinite
current.
Analysis of
Circuits  From Ohm’s law, I = V/R.
 Current for open → I = V/R = V/Infinite = 0
 Current for short → I = V/R = V/0 = Infinite
 Voltage
 The voltage across the short circuit is zero. However, the voltage across
open terminals equals the supply voltage.
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit
 Open Circuit: When there is nothing attached to the terminals; the
circuit is open there. Open circuit means RL = ∞. The voltage across the
terminals in this case is the open circuit voltage.
 Short Circuit: In this condition, there is a wire connected between the
terminals; in other words, RL = 0. The current flowing through the wire is
the short circuit current.
Analysis of
Circuits
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

Analysis of
Circuits

 Bottom line: if there is a wire across a resistor, the current in it is 0 and

we can replace it with an open circuit (i.e., remove it). If the resistor is
hanging with nothing connected to it, the voltage across it is 0 and we can
replace it with a short circuit.
 Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law in Electrical Networks
3
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
 Kirchhoff’s first law or current law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which
requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchoff’s  “Kirchhoff’s Current Law States that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is
current and zero.”
voltage laws

 Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents
leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
 Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law in Electrical Networks

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

 Consider a node in Figure, Applying KCL gives,

Kirchoff’s
current and  i1 + (- i2) + i3 + i4 + (-i5) = 0
voltage laws

 Since currents i1, i3 and i4 are entering the node, while current i2 and i5 are leaving it.
By rearranging the terms, we get

 i1 + i3 + i 4 = i 2 + i5

The sum of the current entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
 Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law in Electrical Networks

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

 Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
 “Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
Kirchoff’s closed path (or loop) is zero.”
current and
voltage laws
 Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and vm is
the mth voltage.
 Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law in Electrical Networks

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

 To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit shown in Figure. The sign of each voltage is the
polarity of the terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with
any branch and go around that loop either clockwise or counter-clockwise.
Kirchoff’s
current and
voltage laws

 Suppose we start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the loop as shown,
then voltages would be -v1,+v2,+v3,-v4 and +v5, in that order. For example, as we reach
branch 3, the positive terminal is met first; hence we have +v3. For branch 4, we reach the
negative terminal first, hence -v4.
 Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law in Electrical Networks

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

Kirchoff’s
current and -v1 + v2 + v3 – v4 + v5 = 0
voltage laws
v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4
Sum of Voltage drops = Sum of Voltage Rises
 Example based on KCL and KVL
 Circuit Analysis by Kirchhoff’s Laws
Resistors of R1= 10Ω, R2 = 4Ω and  R3 = 8Ω are connected up to two
batteries (of negligible resistance) as shown. Find the current through each
resistor.

Examples-1
  Circuit Analysis by Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Assume currents to flow in directions indicated by arrows.
 Apply KCL on Junctions C and A.
 Current in mesh ABC = i1

 Current in Mesh CA = i2
Examples  Current in Mesh CDA = i1 – i2

Now, Apply KVL on Mesh ABC, 20V are acting in clockwise direction. Equating the sum of IR products, we

get;

10 i1 + 4 i2 = 20 ……………….(1)
  Circuit Analysis by Kirchhoff’s Laws
 In mesh ACD, 12 volts are acting in clockwise direction,
then:

 8(i1– i2) – 4i2 = 12

Examples  8i1 – 8i2 – 4i2= 12

 8i1 – 12i2 = 12 ……………. (2)

 Multiplying equation (1) by 3;

30i1 + 12i2 = 60
  Circuit Analysis by Kirchhoff’s Laws

30i1 + 12i2 = 60

8i1 – 12i2 = 12
Examples 38i1 = 72

i1 = 1.895 Amp
Substituting this value in (1), we get:
10(1.895) + 4i2 = 20 Now,
i1 – i2 = 1.895 – 0.263 = 1.632 Amp
4i2 = 20 – 18.95

i2 = 0.263 Amp
 Example based on KCL and KVL
Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3.

Examples-2

 The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.

 Using Kirchhoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as:
At node A :    I  + I  = I
 Example based on KCL and KVL
Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3.

Examples

 Using KVL, the equations are given as:

 Loop 1 is given as :  10 = R1I1 + R3I3 = 10I1 + 40I3

 Loop 2 is given as :   20 = R2I2 + R3I3 = 20I2 + 40I3

 Loop 3 is given as :   10 – 20 = 10I1 – 20I2

 Example based on KCL and KVL
Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3.

Examples

 As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;

 Eq. No 1 :    10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2)  =  50I1 + 40I2

 Eq. No 2 :    20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2)  =  40I1 + 60I2
 We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced to give us
 Example based on KCL and KVL
Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3.

Examples

 As :  I3 = I1 + I2

The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as : -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps

and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as :  0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts

 Example based on KCL and KVL
Find the voltage V1.

Examples
 Example based on KCL and KVL
Where
Voltage of point E with respect to point D, VED = -50 V
Voltage of point D with respect to point C, VDC = -50 V
Voltage of point A with respect to point E. VAE = I * R
VAE = 500m* 200
VAE = 100 V
Examples Similarly Voltage at point C with respect to pint B, VCB
= 350m*100
VCB = 35V
Consider voltage at point A with respect to point B, VAB
= V1
VBA= -V1
 Example based on KCL and KVL
-50 + 100 – V1 + 35 – 50 = 0
V1 = 35 Volts

Examples
 Example based on KCL and KVL
Consider the below typical two loop circuit where we have to find
the currents I1 and I2 by applying the Kirchhoff’s laws.

Examples
 Example based on KCL and KVL

Examples
 Example based on KCL and KVL

Examples By applying KVL to these loops we get

For first loop,
2 (I1 + I2) + 4I1 – 28 = 0
6I1 + 2I2 = 28 ——— (1)
For second loop,
-2(I1 + I2) – 1I2 + 7 = 0
-2I1 – 3I2 = -7 ——– (2)
By solving the above 1 and 2 equations we get,
I1 = 5A and I2 = -1 A
 Nodal Analysis & Mesh Analysis of Electrical Networks
4
 Mesh is a loop that doesn’t consists of any other loop inside it. Mesh
analysis technique, uses  mesh currents as variables, instead of currents in
the elements to analyze the circuit.
 Therefore, this method absolutely reduces the number of equations to be
Mesh
Analysis solved. Mesh analysis applies the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to
determine the unknown currents in a given circuit.
 Mesh analysis is also called as mesh-current method or loop analysis.
After finding the mesh currents using KVL, voltages anywhere in a given
circuit can be determined by using Ohms law.
 Nodal Analysis & Mesh Analysis of Electrical Networks

 Steps to Analyze the mesh analysis technique

1. Check whether there is a possibility to transform all current sources in
the given circuit to voltage sources.
2. Assign the current directions to each mesh in a given circuit and follow
Mesh
Analysis the same direction for each mesh.
3. Apply KVL to each mesh and simplify the KVL equations.
4. Solve the simultaneous equations of various meshes to get the mesh
currents and these equations are exactly equal to the number of meshes
present in the network. 
 Example based simple circuit with DC excitation
Mesh Current Analysis or Loop Analysis

Examples-3

One simple method of reducing the amount of math’s involved is to analyze

the circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law equations to determine the
currents, I1 and I2 flowing in the two resistors. Then there is no need to

calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1 and I2.

 Example based simple circuit with DC excitation

Examples

Kirchhoff’s voltage law simply becomes:

Equation No 1 :    10 =  50I1 + 40I2

Equation No 2 :    20 =  40I1 + 60I2
 Example based simple circuit with DC excitation

Examples

Multiply Eqn no:1 by 4 and Eqn no: 2 by 5.

Equation No 1 :    10 =  50I1 + 40I2 40 = 200I1 + 160I2

Equation No 2 :    20 =  40I1 + 60I2 100 = 200I1 + 300I2

-60 = - 140I2
I2 = 0.429 A
 Example based simple circuit with DC excitation
Nodal Voltage Analysis
Find i0 by using the nodal analysis:

Examples-8

Step-1
Identify all of the essential nodes and choose one of them as a reference
node.
 Example based simple circuit with DC excitation

Examples

We do not need to apply the KCL at Node 1, because the node voltage at this node
is known, V1 =12 V.
Also, we do not need to apply the KCL at Node 3, because the node voltage at this
node is known V3 = - 6 V.
Notice that the V3 is negative because its polarity is opposite to the polarity of the
voltage source. Notice that, for node voltages the negative sign of the polarity is at
the reference node.
 Example based simple circuit with DC excitation

Examples

Now, we have only one unknown node voltage (V2).

Apply KCL at node #2:
 Example based simple circuit with DC excitation

Examples

Substitute the values of V1 and V3: Find the current i0 using ohm’s law:

i0 = V2 / 6 kΩ = 0.25 mA