Psychedelic Substances and Paranormal Phenomena - A Review of The Research David Luke 2008, Journal of Parapsychology

PSYCHEDELIC SUBSTANCES AND PARANORMAL
PHENOMENA: A REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH

BY DAVID P. LUKE
ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the research on psychedelic substances in relation to

so-called paranormal phenomena, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
(i.e., ESP), as well as out-of-body experiences (OBEs) and near-death experiences
(NDEs). Reference is made to the age-old shamanic use of these substances to
specifically induce such experiences, and to contemporary reports from within
academia and psychotherapy bearing witness to such phenomena. However, the
review focuses primarily on describing and critically evaluating the contribution
of controlled experiments that have attempted to induce ESP using psychedeUcs,
and of surveys, which have either direcdy or indirecdy investigated the belief
in, and experience of, the paranormal in relation to the use of such substances.
Furthermore, a methodological critique of the experimental research is offered
alongside some recommendations for further research in this field.
Experimental efforts to investigate the apparent paranormal effects

of psychoactive drugs began with simple stimulants and depressants such as
caffeine, amphetamine, and alcohol (e.g., Huby & Wilson, 1961; Rhine,
1934), and has been reviewed elsewhere (Palmer, 1978; Rao, 1966). The
present review, however, is focused on psychedelic substances, which Braud
(2002) has suggested primarily cause qualitative rather than just quantitative
alterations to the user's state of consciousness and are seemingly much
more favorable to the facilitation of psi and other paranormal experiences,
anecdotally at least. Earlier reviews of psychedelics in parapsychology exist
(Blewett, 1963; Krippner & Davidson, 1974; Parker, 1975; Rogo, 1976;
Wilson, 1949) and these have been incorporated into the current paper,
yet a systematic analysis of the empirical research to date is overdue.
The active use of psychedelic substances for paranormal purposes
supposedly extends back to the ancient Greek oracles at Delphi (von Bibra,
1855/1994) and even into prehistory (Devereux 1997). Since the beginning
of the 20th century, when Zerda Bayon (1912) isolated harmaline from the
South American jungle decoction ayahuasca and named it "telepathine,"
anthropologists, ethnobotanists, mycologists and other field researchers
have continued to report psychedelic-induced paranormal activities among
ritual users of these substances (e.g., Andritzky, 1989; Shannon, 2002;
Slotkin, 1956; Wasson, 1979; Winkelman, 1989). Some have even reported
the direct observation or experience of this themselves (e.g., Kensinger,
1978; Stamets, 1996; Wasson & Wasson, 1957) and such pharmaco-magical
practices are now once more fairly common among contemporary occultists
in the United States and Europe (Vayne, 2001 ; Louv, 2005). Indeed, following
the cultural explosion in psychedelic drug use during the 1960s, reports
78 The Journal of Parapsychology
of ostensible paranormal phenomena such as ESP became commonplace

among both psychedelic psychotherapists (e.g., Eisner, 1995; Grof, 1975,
1980; Harman, 1963; Holzinger, 1964; Pahnke, 1968; Stolaroff, 2004) and
so-called recreational users (e.g., Eisner, 1989; Gaskin, 1990; Krippner &
Fersh, 1970; Osmond, 1968; Stevens, 1989; Wolfe, 1971), as well as among
parapsychologists (e.g.. Krippner, 2006; Millay, 1999, 2001, 2004).
Anecdotes aside, there are good theoretical reasons for investigating
psychedelic-induced ESP and other paranormal phenomena. Given that an
altered state of consciousness (ASC) is a common feature in the occurrence
of subjective paranormal experiences (Alvarado, 1998; Parker, 1975) and
has often been incorporated into experimental attempts to induce ESP
(e.g., see Palmer, 1978), then visionary drugs are, potentially, a repeatable
means of accessing such a state; Several researchers have documented some
of the mind-altering features of the visionary-drug experience that are
considered conducive to the production of ESP (Blackmore, 1992; Blewett,
1963; Krippner & Fersh, 1970; Millay, 2001; Garrett, 1961; Huxley, 1961;
Nicol & Nicol, 1961; Osis, 1961; Panhke, 1968; Parker, 1975; Rogo, 1976;
Tart 1968, 1994). These have been categorized as follows:
1. Increase in vividness and quality of the mental image and the

dreamlike state.
2. Altered perception of self-identity, such as unity consciousness.
3. Altered body perceptions and dissociation (of particular
interest to the study of OBEs).
4. Distorted sensory input.
5. Increased absorption and focused attention.
6. Increased empathy, which is of interest for telepathy.
7. Emotionalflexibility,which may also assist in negotiating fears
about manifesting psi.
8. Increased alertness and awareness.
9. Increased spontaneity.
10. Sensitivity to subtle changes and intensity of feeling.
11. Physical relaxation.
12. Increased suggestibility.
13. Increase in intuitive thought processes.
14. Reduced critical conscious faculty, and increased optimism
toward impossible realities.
15. Increased openness and extroversion.
16. Release of repressed or unconscious material into the
conscious mind.
17. Complex distortions, and transcendence, of space and time.
In addition to these temporary alterations that may occur during

the psychedelic experience, it is arguable that long-term alterations to
the person's philosophical oudook, such as changes in concepts of reality
Psychedelic Substances and Paranormal Phenomena 79
(Conway, 1989; Strassman, 2001), might also be psi-conducive. In a follow-up

survey of 113 LSD-psychotherapy clients (82% response rate) 78% reported
an increased tendency to view telepathy and precognition as possibilities
warranting investigation (International Foundation for Advanced Study,
1962). Furthermore, the distinguished medium—and founder of the
Parapsychology Foundation—Eileen Garrett asserted that the use of LSD
had made her a better, more accurate sensitive (Garrett, 1961).
Aside from the subjective psychedelic experience, there is a
reasonable possibility that exceptional mental phenomena, such as psi and
OBEs, involve quite specific neurochemical activity in which psychedelic
molecules may play a role. Indeed, the endogenous psychedelic A^^Ai-
dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and the unique pineal gland neurochemistry
that is speculated to accompany it—though presently unproven—have been
put forward as the neurochemical basis for the near-death experience, and
possibly for alien abduction experiences too (Strassman, 2001). Roney-
Dougal (1986,1991, 2001) also suggested that this same neural system, along
with the complex interaction of psychedelic and endogenous ¿ff-carbolines,
might also be fundamental in the occurrence of psi experiences and OBEs.
Similarly, Jansen's (1997, 2001) ketamine model posits that TV-methyl-D-
aspartate (NMDA) antagonists, such as the psychedelic dissociatives ketamine
and phencyclidine (PCP), have a fundamental role in the neurochemical
mediation of near-death experiences (Jansen, 1997, 2001).
SURVEYS
Belief in the Paranormal
Investigating correlates of belief in tbe paranormal, Kumar,

Pekala, and Cummings (1992) asked their convenience sample of 574
psychology students a yes/no question about recreational drug use
(including psychedelics). Drug users reported greater paranormal and
psi-related beliefs, as part of a larger subscale. For more direct assessment
of tbis relationship, Gallagher, Kumar, and Pekala (1994) created the
Anomalous Experiences Inventory (AEI) with a drug-use subscale
complementing four other subscales relating to anomalous/paranormal
belief, experience, abilities, and fear. The AEI was successfully validated
against other paranormal experience and belief scales using a convenience
sample of 400 psychology students. The drug-use subscale (witb items
relating to the use of mind-altering substances, LSD, marijuana, heroin,
cocaine, and alcohol) correlated positively, although only very weakly, with
the AEI anomalous/paranormal beliefs subscale, r(399) = .16; /; < .01, and
also marginally with most of Tobacyk's (1988) Revised Paranormal Belief
subscales, r(399) = from .10 to .17; p < .05, but negatively with "traditional
religious beliefs,"r(399) = -.14; p < .01..
Additionally, some specific items in tbe AEI drug-use subscale

correlated witb Tobacyk's (1988) overall scale, altbough only very
weakly. Overall paranormal belief correlated negatively witb heroin use,
r(399) = -.12; /; < .05, but positively witb tbe use of LSD, r(399) = .11; p <
.05, and mind-altering substances, r(399) = .15; p < .01. Tbere were no
significant correlations for marijuana, cocaine, or alcobol. Similarly, tbe
AEI anomalous/paranormal belief subscale correlated witb tbe same AEI
drug-use subscale items; mind altering substances, r(399) = .18; p < .001;
LSD, r(399) = .15; p< .01, and also marijuana, r(399) = .16, /)< .01, but not
beroin. Additionally, for all categories of drugs except heroin tbere was
a small significant negative correlation witb the fear of psi, from r(399)
= -.12 to -.24, wbereas alcohol correlated positively r(399) = .13, p < .05.
Nevertheless, these correlations are uncorrected for multiple inferential
tests, so they sbould be accepted cautiously.
Using a convenience sample of 413 psychology students, Pekala,
Kumar, and Marcano (1995) correlated the AEI with measures of hypnotic
susceptibility and dissociation, finding no relationship. However, drug-use
once more correlated positively witb anomalous/paranormal beliefs, r(412)
= .25; p < .001, and negatively witb fear of tbe anomalous/paranormal,
r(412) =-.14,/)< .01, supporting Gallagber et al.'s (1994) findings.
A furtber AEI survey witb a convenience sample of 107 students
(Houran & Williams, 1998) provided furtber support for tbe small, but
significant, relationsbips between drug use and anomalous/paranormal
belief, r(106) = .22; p< .05, and fear of tbe anomalous/paranormal, r(106)
= -.18; p < .05. Elsewhere, Simmonds and Roe (2000) used tbe AEI in
relation to scbizotypy and temporal lobe lability witb a convenience sample
of 145 psycbology students, similarly finding a small significant correlation
between drug use and anomalous/paranormal belief, r(143)= .20; p< .05.
Eollowing a Bonferoni correction for multiple tests, tbis correlation failed
to remain significant, yet it is consistent witb previous surveys and so is
probably genuine, albeit small.
Tbe relationsbip between AEI drug use and belief in tbe paranormal
was furtber replicated by Thalbourne's (2001 ) convenience sample survey of
125 psycbology students, r(124) = .24; p< .01. Tbalbourne also investigated
tbis relationship witb respect to Kundalini experiences and transliminality—
tbe proclivity for psychological material to cross tbresholds in or out of
consciousness. Tbere was a significant positive correlation between drug
use and transliminality, r(124) = .29; p= .001, and tbe "new age pbilosopby"
(NAP) subscale of Tobacyk's (1988) Revised Paranormal Belief Scale,
r(124) = .23; /; < .01. However, tbere was no significant correlation witb
Tobacyk's "traditional paranormal beliefs" (TPB) subscale, and reanalysis
of Tbalbourne's data by Houran and Lange (2001) found the difference in
reports of drug use in relation to NAP and TPB to be significant {p < .001,
uncorrected for multiple analyses, exact statistics not reported), reinforcing
tbeir argument for two distinct paranormal belief groups. Additionally,
there was a suggestive but nonsignificant negative correlation between drug

use and fear of the anomalous/paranormal.
A post hoc analysis identified small but significant positive
correlations, ranging from r(124) = .20 to .27, between transliminality
and all of tbe AEI drug-use categories except for alcobol. Thalbourne
suggested that this relationship may be due to tbe need to use drugs to
escape tbe unpleasant aspects of tbe transliminal state or tbat drug use may
be a means of promoting the psychic phenomena that high transliminal
scorers may have become deprived of. However, it is possible that both
of these hypotheses are correct, concurrently, but only for particular
substances, as it is actually bighly unlikely that psychedelic drugs are used
to escape the transliminal state because, according to Vayne (2001), these
substances are used expressly to cause tbe opposite effect. However, some
nonpsychedelic drugs, such as alcohol may ameliorate transliminality.
Alternatively, Thalbourne bas speculated tbat an "openness to experience"
trait underlies the relationship between drug use, transliminality, and
paranormal experience.
In a follow-up survey (Tbalbourne & Houran, 2005), a convenience
sample of 200 psycbology students completed an extended AEI drug-use
subscale, which included a new item relating to ecstasy (MDMA) and another
relating to speed (amphetamines). As previously, drug use correlated
marginally, although significantly, with transliminality, r(199) = .21, p< 005,
one-tailed. Furthermore, scores on tbe Oxford Happiness Questionnaire
indicated transliminality, a syndrome related to schizotypy, was not related
to happiness and that the majority of high transliminals were actually happy.
This offers some support for McCreery and Claridge's (1995) notion of
the pathology-free "happy schizotype," prone to paranormal experiences.
However, unhappy high-scoring tranliminals reported significantly more
drug use that happy high-scoring transliminals, <(76) = 1.98, p < .05,
somewhat supporting Thalbourne's speculation that transliminality, akin to
psychosis, can be an unbappy state that such people attempt to escape from
with drugs. Unfortunately, Thalbourne and Houran's findings sweep several
different types of drugs—including psychedelics, narcotics, stimulants, and
alcobol—together under one umbrella, revealing very little about wbicb of
these diverse psychoactive drugs relate to each particular syndrome. Civen
the system of scoring in this study, it is possible that the use ofjust one drug,
such as opiates/opioids, entirely accounts for the differences in substance
use between bappy and unbappy transliminals, and a replication with more
specific analysis is needed.
Recently, a wealth of epidemiological psychiatric research has
surveyed reports Of cannabis use and schizotypal symptoms, finding fairly
consistent correlations (for a review see Castle & Murray, 2004). Items
relating to telepathy and other kinds of thought broadcasting are often
included, and it deserves mentioning that the subscales in which these
items appear tend to correlate with cannabis use (e.g., Johns et al., 2004).
However, although relevant, this research is largely indirect to the present

study as incidence rates for specific types of paranormal-like experiences
are scarcely reported, though when given they are reported anyway with a
diminished incidence rate than in the apparent absence of pathology.
In summary, a small but consistent significant relationship was
found between the drug-use and anomalous/paranormal belief subscales of
the AEI, ranging from r = .16 to r = .25, and where specified this relationship
was mostly due to correlations between anomalous/paranormal belief
and the LSD, r= from .11 to .15, mind altering substances, r= from .15
to .18, and marijuana use items, r(399) = .16, of the drug-use subscale,
whereas cocaine, alcohol, and heroin either did not correlate or correlated
negatively: heroin, r(399) =-.12. Asimilar, but negative, relationship existed
between drug use and fear of psi, r= from -.14 to -.18, where reported, with
the majority of the effect being due to psychedelic drugs, whereas heroin
did not correlate and alcohol correlated positively. Two studies also found
a relationship between transliminality and drug use generally, r= from .21
to .29, and this was particularly related to unhappy transliminals, although
the types of drugs accounting for this relationship were not specified.
Furthermore, in relationship to Tobacyk's PBS, the New Age Philosophy
subscale was found to be a better predictor of drug use than the Traditional'
Paranormal Beliefs subscale. Within psychiatric epidemiological research,
correlations between self-reports of cannabis use and thought transmission
are apparent, often indirectly, though similar experiences are also more
widely and commonly reported in the apparent absence of pathology, with
or without cannabis.
Paranormal Experiences
Several major surveys of psychic experiences have included

questions regarding the use of psychoactive drugs. Palmer (1979) originally
created a psychic experiences questionnaire for use in a randomly
distributed postal survey. It was completed by 354 townspeople (T) and
268 students (S), treated as different samples, with response rates of
51% and 89%, respectively. Those who reported using "mind-expanding
drugs" also responded positively to being an ESP agent, having a recurrent
spontaneous PK experience, T only, A^= 354/?< .01, (exact x^ not reported),
haunting experience, T only, p<.05, aura vision, S only, p< .05, and OBEs, S
on\y, p< .01. Despite reported drug-use differences between samples, equal
proportions from each group (T: 29%; S: 28%) reported psi experiences
actually occurring during use. Kohr (1980) criticized the analysis for not
reporting the chi-squared statistic and for using an underpowered test.
Kohr (1980) surveyed a special sample of self-selecting respondents
(A' = 406) from the Association for Research and Enlightenment, an
organization formed of those intrigued by the legacy of the renowned
psychic and Christian mystic Edgar Cayce. Using Palmer's questionnaire.
Kohr failed to find any association between subjective paranormal

phenomena and the use of mind-expanding drugs, although figures for
drug use were not actually reported, so little inference can be made. A
special-sample survey with attendees at an occult conference demonstrated
the opposite effects to Kohr's (Roney-Dougal 1984). Ofthe 33 respondents,
30 (91%) reported psi experiences, of which 12 (40%) reported the use of
mind-expanding drugs, indicating both the slightly higher reported use of
psychedelics (36% ofthe sample) and the greater reporting of paranormal
experiences among occultists compared to other populations, though this
observation needs replicating.
Palmer's (1979) questionnaire was later modified (Usha&Pasricha,
1989a, 1989b) to suit the needs of an Indian student population {N= 328;
response rate 79% using convenience sampling). Use of mind-expanding
drugs was reported by 11%, who were also significantly more likely to be
Hindu, x''^(l, A'= 328) = 4.17, p < .05, or male, x^(l, A'= 328) = 14.3, p
< .01, probably largely due to the sacred use of marijuana among many
Indian men, mostly Hindus. Of those reporting drug use, 18% reported
psi experiences during the drug experience, somewhat less than Palmer's
28-29%. Yet, similar to Palmer's work, the use of mind-expanding drugs was
positivelyassociatedwith OBEs, xMl,A'= 328) = 6.87,/;<.01, and additionally
with waking ESP, x'(l, A'= 328) = 5.24, /;< .05, apparitions, x'(l, A'= 328) =
6.6, p< .05, and déjà vu experiences, x^{l,N= 328) = 1.01, p< .01. However,
none of the studies using Palmer's 46-item questionnaire (Palmer, 1979;
Kohr, 1980; Usha & Pasricha, 1989a, 1989b) made corrections for multiple
inferential analyses.
Returning to the surveys of paranormal belief among students
reviewed above, these studies also investigated anomalous/paranormal
experiences, and Kumar et al. (1992) found drug users reported
significantly more of these. Each ofthe five later surveys (Gallagher et al.,
1994; Houran & Williams, 1998; Pekala et al., 1995; Simmonds & Roe, 2000;
Thalbourne, 2001) utilizing the Anomalous Experiences Inventory reported
a significant positive correlation between the drug-use and the anomalous/
paranormal experience subscales (comprising 29 items relating to a range
of experiences including psi experiences, NDEs, OBEs, déjà vu, apparitions,
past-life memories, aliens, UFOs, mystical experiences, and attendance at
séances), ranging from r(399) = .13 (Gallagher et al., 1994) to r(124) =
.29 (Thalbourne, 2001), and Pekala et al. (1995) additionally found that
drug use was positively correlated with a "shamanic or encounter-like
experiences" subscale, r(412) = .23; p< .001, which included items relating
to OBE and contact with spirits.
Thalbourne (2001) also found a relationship between drug use
and Kundalini experiences, r(124) = .28; p < .01, which is a syndrome
of various psychophysiological phenomena described as bodily energy
surges and certain transpersonal experiences. Thalbourne suggested the
relationship between paranormal experience, drug use, and the Kundalini
84 TheJoumal of Parapsychology
experience indicates that certain drugs may either trigger a Kundalini

experience or alleviate it. Alternatively, Thalboume proposed that this
relationship indicates a need for nonstandard sensations, or that the
physiological aspects of the kundalini experience were being misinterpreted
as paranormal. However, this final supposition is inconsistent with age-
old Tantric teachings that warn of psi-Iike Kundalini experiences, called
"siddhis." Furthermore, as an alternative to Thalbourne's interpretations,
the results may simply be due to an overlap of subjective psychic experiences
common to both the Kundalini and the drug experiences, as suggested
by Naranjo (1987) and demonstrated by DeGracia (1995). Perhaps the
activation of endogenous psychedelics found in the brain such as DMT—
which, based on the availability of certain neurochemicals, is speculated but
certainly not proven to be made in the pineal gland (Roney-Dougal, 2001;
Strassman, 2001 ) —underlies both factors, resulting in subjective paranormal
experiences. Indeed, Roney-Dougal (1991) notes that the pineal gland has
been considered by some yogis to be primary in the control of Kundalini
psi experiences, and other tentative evidence suggests such a link (e.g., see
Roney-Dougal, 1986, 1991, 2001).
Summarizing the paranormal experiences surveys with either
student or general samples, significant associations were found
between those reporting the use of psychedelics and those reporting
auras, apparitions, hauntings, déjà vu, and RSPK experiences in at
least one study using the Palmer questionnaire, with the report of
OBEs being associated with psychedelic drug use in two samples. No
such associations were found for the members of the Association for
Research and Enlightenment, possibly due to this sample's high
incidence of religiosity, which is known to correlate negatively with drug
use. Occultists, on the other hand, had a higher reported incidence of
both drug use and psi experiences. Correlations between drug use and
scores on the anomalous/paranormal experiences subscale of the AEI
were all positive and significant for each of the five published studies
and ranged from r= .13 to .29. Kundalini and "shamanic or encounter-
like experiences" also correlated with drug use.
Psychedelic User Samples
DeGracia (1995) conducted a self-selecting internet survey with

61 experienced psychedelic users about their Kundalini-like experiences.
The results demonstrated a large overlap between reported psychedelic
experiences and experiences common in spontaneous Kundalini
awakenings. Psychedelic users frequently reported an enhanced sense of
empathy (75%), OBEs (40%), intuition, psychic powers, and the recall of
past lives (no statistics given). This triadic relationship between reported
psychedelic use and both paranormal and Kundalini experiences is further
supported by Thalboume (2001).
A survey (Tart, 1993) conducted in California in 1970 with

150 experienced users of marijuana recruited by anonymous snowball
sampling found an even bigher incidence of paranormal experience tban
tbe student and general samples discussed above. Tbe sample consisted
of 76% students, 72% of wbom bad tried LSD, altbough only 7% bad
tried bard narcotics (e.g., presumably, beroin). Experiences occurring
on marijuana include 69% reporting telepatby (rising to 83% in a later
sample), 32% precognition, 13% PK, and 50% seeing auras, with beavier
users reporting significantly bigber frequencies of tbese experiences in
eacb category (Tart, 1971).
A Swedisb survey similar to DeGracia's investigated transpersonal
drug experiences among an anonymous snowball sample of 16 experienced
psychedelic users (Kjellgren & Norlander, 2000). Respondents reported
OBEs (53%), telepatby (60%), tbe loss of tbe sense of a discrete self
(47%), traveling clairvoyance, (62%), contact witb entities (20%), time
travel (40%), animal sbapesbifting (53%), and visions of mythological
beings (33%), all under tbe influence of psycbedelics. All respondents
reported baving some experiences, witb beavier users and tbose practicing
mind-expanding, spiritual, or ritual tecbniques reporting more of tbese
experiences tban infrequent users. However, significant differences in
tbe quantity of experiences between low and bigb users were found only
for telepatby, U = \2, p < .05, two-tailed, and for a combined index of all
paranormal experiences, U= 7, p < .05, tbougb uncorrected for multiple
analyses. Tbis partially supports tbe hypothesis tbat subjective paranormal
experiences occur more frequently during tbe use of psycbedelics, altbougb
alternative explanations are possible.
White (2002) conducted an incidental survey tbrougb tbe collation
of unsolicited responses to a "frequently asked questions" (E\Q) article
about dextromethorphan (DXM) tbat was posted on a drug information
website. White received so many reports of paranormal experiences witb
DXM, a dissociative drug commonly found in cougb remedies, tbat a
summary of tbe reports was publisbed, and it is independently supported in
part by a psychiatric admission report publisbed elsewhere (Price & Lebel,
2000). DXM-users reported OBEs, NDEs, and a loss of tbe sense of causality,
as well as a sense of presence, encounters witb entities, and tbe occasional
experience of ESP, altbougb not PK (no statistics given).
Summarizing the surveys of paranormal experiences among
psycbedelic-user samples, tbe studies sbow tbat self-reported incidence rates
are as bigb as 83%—for telepatby experiences occurring wbile under tbe
influence of marijuana (and 60% for psycbedelics)—with bigb rates also
being reported for traveling clairvoyance (63%), OBEs (40-53%), animal
sbapesbifting experiences (53%), seeing auras (50%), precognition (32%),
and even PK (13%). In some cases incidence rates were significantly bigber
for beavier users, lending more support to tbe notion tbat paranormal
experiences occur more frequently during tbe use of psycbedelics.
86 The foumal of Parapsychology
Out-of-Body Experiences (OBEs)
Special attention has been given to the relationship between

psychoactive substances and OBEs. Combining two convenience samples
of students (N = 192), Blackmore (1982) reported that ofthe 35 (18%)
claiming to have had at least one OBE, 13 (37%) occurred when taking
drugs, most often LSD or marijuana. A later questionnaire survey with
students (convenience sample, A^' = 96) found 31% claimed to have had an
ÜBE, and they were significantly more likely than those who did not claim
to have had an OBE to have taken drugs such as cannabis, LSD, or opium
derivatives (Blackmore & Harris, 1983).
Altbough these two surveys suggest that the use of psychedelic
substances is an important correlate of OBEs, tbis relationsbip is less
pronounced in populations otber tban students. A later randomized
postal study (Blackmore, 1984) with a sample of "OBEers" revealed that
only 18% of respondents reported that OBEs occurred after taking drugs
and medicines (type not specified). Blackmore (1992) concluded that
hallucinogenic drugs undoubtedly helped induce the OBE.
The Blackmore OBE surveys support Palmer's (1979) finding
that a higher percentage of students than townspeople report OBEs (S:
25%; T: 14%; p < .01), which Palmer attributed to tbe likely greater use
of "mind-expanding" drugs among students. Indeed, only 7% of the
townspeople reported the use of mind-expanding drugs compared to
32% ofthe students. In addition, 13% ofthe townspeople and 21% ofthe
students reporting OBEs said that at least one OBE had occurred under
the influence of such drugs, figures more comparable to tbe reports by
18% of the general OBE population (Blackmore 1984) than to the 37%
in Blackmore's (1982) student OBE group. Nevertheless, reviewing OBE
surveys, Irwin (2004) agreed with Palmer that the higher reports of OBEs
among students (20-48%) compared to the general population (8-15%)
were probably due in part to students' more frequent experimentation witb
"psychotropic" drugs, but perhaps also partly due to factors of education
and survey familiarity.
Using Palmer's questionnaire, Kohr (1980) failed to find any
relationship between OBEs and drug use with the members of the
Association for Research and Enlightenment although Usha and Pasricha
(1989a, 1989b) did find a positive association between OBEs and tbe use of
mind-expanding drugs, X^{1, N= 328) = 6.87, p< .01, supporting Palmer's
findings. Tart (1993) also found tbat 44% of marijuana users reported
OBEs, with 58% of this group indicating that their OBE occurred since using
marijuana and 54% reporting at least one experience while actually under
the influence (Tart, 1971). Most of Tart's sample were also students (72%),
supporting Alvarado's (2000) suggestion tbat the relationship linking
psychedelics with OBEs shown in student populations is not evident among
the nonstudent populations, although this assertion is arguably too exclusive
of nonstudent drug users, as is evident from surveys with psychedelic users.

DeGracia (1995) found that 40% had an OBE while under the influence
of psychedelics, and in Kjellgren and Norlander's (2000) sample, of which
only 25% were students, OBEs under the influence of psychedelics were
reported by 53%, a figure comparable to Tart's marijuana group. Eurther
testament to the prevalence of psychedelic-induced OBEs comes from a
survey of 28 first-time ayahuasca users in two Brazilian churches, 32% of
whom reported alterations in self body-image ranging from fusion with the
environment to full OBEs (Barbosa, Giglio, & Dalgalarrondo, 2005).
Reports of OBEs are also evident with practically every psychedelic
drug, ranging from nitrous oxide, hasish, and ether (Crookall, 1961) to LSD
(Grof, 1975,1980), PCP (Rudgley, 2000), DMT (Strassman, 2001 ), harmaline,
and ayahuasca (Andritzky, 1989; Roney-Dougal 1986). In particular, OBEs
reportedly occur most frequently and reliably with ketamine (Jansen, 1997,
2001; Lilly, 1978). Some early researchers considered drug-induced OBEs
to be both different from and inferior to natural OBEs (Crookall, 1961),
though the evidence for this is lacking. Nevertheless, a formal comparison
of drug-induced and nondrug-induced OBEs could be highly informative.
In summary of the surveys relating OBEs to drug use, it can be
seen that OBEs are one of the most prevalent paranormal experiences
to occur on psychedelic substances and occur with a very wide range of
different substances. The use of psychedelic substances has been suggested
as one of the reasons why students report more OBEs than the general
population, with some evidence to support this. The reporting of OBEs in
the general public (8-15%) is certainly lower than that for student groups
(20-48%), of which 37% in one study reported the experience to occur
under the influence of psychedelics (or opium). Marijuana users also
frequently reported the occurrence of OBEs (44%), as did regular users of
psychedelics (40-53%) and first-time only users of ayahuasca (up to 32%)
supporting the notion that OBEs occur more frequently with persons on
psychedelic substances than they do normally.
Summary of Main Survey Research Findings
In summary, these surveys reveal a small but consistent relationship

between drug use and anomalous/paranormal experiences, r= from .13 to
.29, and belief in the anomalous/paranormal, r= from .16 to .25, although
the size of this latter relationship was more pronounced in Tart's (1993)
marijuana study. Furthermore, among students and general populations,
those reporting ESP, apparitions, and anomalous/paranormal experiences
were found to be significantly more likely to use psychedelics. One study
found the same for RSPK as well, although only tentatively (Palmer 1979).
Additionally, of those reporting the use of psychedelics, 18-83% reported
psi experiences—most commonly telepathy—actually occurring during
drug use, with heavier users reporting more experiences, where specified.
88 TheJournal of Parapsychology
whereas PK during drug use was reported only by a few respondents in

the marijuana study. OBEs are also a common feature of psychedelic
experiences and are reported to occur with a wide variety of drugs.
EXPERIMENTAL ESP RESEARCH
Forced-Choice Designs
Whittlesey (1960) used an unspecified dose of LSD in a forced

choice ESP task with 27 participants, mostly psychiatric outpatients
receiving psychotherapy (with LSD, presumably). Using ESP cards
concealed within opaque envelopes, participants performed two runs of
25 guesses, one before and one after dosing. Neither performance yielded
significant deviations from mean chance expectation (MGE), although a
chi-squared analysis revealed a significant reduction in variance {p < .001,
exact x^ not reported) for scores in the experimental condition. Under the
influence of LSD, participants had reported that the card-guessing task was
"ridiculous, petty, mundane, etc." (p. 221) and Whittlesey suggested that
the exceptional lack of deviation from MGE was possibly due to participants
feeling so constrained by the task.
Making similar use of ESP symbols, Pahnke (1971) reported a pilot
study with five participants given a high dose of LSD (200-400 micrograms)
and tested 8-9 hours later. There was no increase from predrug scores for
the experimental condition, and Pahnke cited the long delay in testing
from dosage and, somewhat similarly to Whittesley (1960), the use of an
ESP machine with sterile symbols as counterproductive factors.
Masters and Houston (1966) also experimented with an ESP-card
guessing procedure, with each participant performing ten 25-card runs.
Only 4 out ofthe sample of 27 participants did better than chance, but those
few participants performing better were known very well by the trip guide
and had reported a high degree of empathy (with the guide, presumably).
Masters and Houston note that participants very quickly became bored with
the task and complained that it was "psychedelically immoral" to have them
perform card guessing while tripping.
As part of a larger series of ESP tests with 36 participants under the
influence of psilocybin, Asperen de Boer, Barkema, and Kappers (1966)
found that in ten 25-card runs, no individual scored significantly better than
in his or her own no-drug control condition. The results ofthe 29,000 ESP-
card trials for the 36 psilocybin and 44 control participants (a few participants
did multiple conditions) were significantly above chance (reported as /> <
.0006, exact test statistic not reported but calculated from the results of all
the trials using binomial calculation, z = 2.89, A'= 29000, p = .0019) overall,
but the experimental and control groups were not compared as a whole,
only individually. However, a closer inspection of the results showed that,
when compared as a group, those in the psilocybin condition scored higher.
mean correct = .208 (MCE = .2), z = 2.94, iV trials = 20000, p = .0016, than
the control condition, mean correct = .203, z = .83, A^ trials = 9000, p = .20,
although there is concern about the statistical independence of these data.
However, there is some indication that order effects reduced any difference
between the groups because the psilocybin condition always occurred after
the control condition, resulting in test fatigue, as demonstrated by those
participants performing two control conditions.
Kugel ( 1977) very briefly reported the only LSD telepathy experiment
in which test scores actually declined in the experimental condition compared
to the periods before and after drug influence. Participants had been given
trial-by-trial feedback and Kugel noticed that there was a very strong tendency
for participants to respond with the same ESP symbol following feedback
of a hit, and a different symbol following a miss. Analysis revealed that this
"feedback susceptibility" increased urider the influence of LSD, perhaps
accounting for the poorer test performance, although no further details
about the methodology or statistical results were provided.
In an indirect experiment with participants selected for good psi
scoring. Palmer, Tart, and Redington (1976) found a positive correlation
between scores on an automated ESP-symbol guessing task and the
reported frequency of marijuana use outside of the laboratory, with a
negative correlation between ESP scores and alcohol consumption (see
Tart, 1993). However, a follow-up study (Tart, Palmer, & Redington, 1979)
failed to replicate these results, although Tart (1993) suggested that might
have been due to the difference in sample groups and the rising popularity
of marijuana, an "active-placebo," as a social drug rather than as a tool of
self-development.
Despite earlier cautions (e.g.. Masters & Houston, 1966; Pahnke,
1971; Whittesley, 1960) that ESP-symbol tests are too boring for those
affected by psychedelic drugs, two later studies (Tinoco, 1994; Don et al.,
1996) found further support for this view with the use of ayahuasca in Brazil.
In a series of 825 ESP-card guessing trials conducted in two 90-minute
sessions with one sender and one receiver, both under the influence of
ayahuasca, no significant deviation from MCE was found (Tinoco 1994). A
second automated ESP-card precognition test involved one of the previous
participants in a further 625 trials over two separate sessions lasting 1 hr
and 40 min each, the scores of which were slightly below chance but not
significantlyso. However, no control conditions were evident for comparison,
and as with forced-choice studies, both participants volunteered that the
tasks were boring, meaningless, and unimportant because it was more
important to live the visions of the moment.
As part of a larger investigation into EEG variations with ayahuasca
use, Don et al. (1996) similarly found no significant deviation from MCE
with a small group of (presumably experienced) participants on ayahuasca
using the automated "ESPercisor" procedure, though, like Tinoco's study,
without nondrug controls.
Unlike most of tbe otber forced choice designs, a series of

successful experiments were reported by Pubaricb (1959, 1962), one of
whicb utilized a 10-image unseen picture-matcbing test witb participants
who bad ingested tbe psycbedelic musbroom Amanita muscaria. Controlled
experimental work with 26 unselected participants in independent trials
revealed an overall cbance occurrence of bits in tbe control condition
(106/1140; MGE = 114, exact test statistic not reported but calculated from
tbe resvilts of all tbe trials using binomial calculation, z= .84, Ntrials = 1140,
p = .20) compared to tbe experimental group (141 bits; /; < .01, exact test
statistic not reported, but binomial calculation, z = 2.67, A^trials = 1140, p =
.0038) indicating a positive effect of tbe musbroom on ESP, later repeated
in a telepatby-type design.
To summarize the forced-cboice designs, early experiments
all returned null results and were reported by tbe participants as being
mundane, sterile, "psychedelically immoral" and so on, wbile under tbe
influence of tbe psycbedelic substance. Similar results were also obtained
in two more recent experiments with ayabuasca in tbe 1990s in wbicb tbe
participants again reported tbeir desire to have experienced the visions
undisturbed ratber than do repetitive and boring tests. Nevertbeless, one
early study found an increase in psi scores witb psilocybin (significance
unknown), and anotber study found a significant effect of Amanita muscaria
mushrooms on psi, but caution is raised about tbe lack of peer review witb
tbe latter study. Finally, a positive correlation between marijuana use outside
tbe lab witb forced choice psi scores in the lab was originally reported but
later failed to replicate. Overall, forced choice designs have not proved
successful.
Free Response
Psychometry. In an exploratory study using a special sample of

six mediums, presumably inexperienced witb psychedelics, Osis (1961)
administered 100 or 125 micrograms of LSD prior to a psychometry test,
in wbicb participants are given an object to obtain clairvoyant information
about its bistory or ownership. Eive performed at cbance wbereas one was
extremely successful, unfortunately witbout details, thougb Osis noted
tbat the others were too absorbed in eitber tbe aestbetic pleasure of tbe
experience or tbe quest for philosopbical knowledge.
In 1950, in probably tbe first reported psychedelic ESP experiment,
Smytbies (1987) conducted a preliminary psycbometry investigation witb
one volunteer using mescaline. Although tbe participant was unable to
discern tbe targets under blind, remote-viewing style conditions, informal
questioning about tbe target location typical of psycbometry tasks elicited
promising responses. Similarly using mescaline, a series of pilot studies witb
tbree participants "failed in card-guessing tests but sbowed encouraging
success in tests witb free material, particularly token objects" (Rusb & Gabn,
1958, p. 300), though, unfortunately, further details were not supplied in

this paper
The most extensive psychedelic object-reading tests formed part
of an ESP test battery in a large-scale psilocybin study (Asperen de Boer,
Barkema, & Kappers, 1966). In a no-blind repeated-measures design, 44
no-drug control and 36 test participants (30 participants did one of eacb
condition, with 6 doing multiple control conditions) given 10 or 20 mg of
psilocybin, were individually tested for an entire 4 hr for ESP performance
with ESP cards, object reading, remote viewing (traveling clairvoyance),
telepathy, and clairvoyance tests. Using a complex and outdated, bias-prone
analysis, the experimenters jointly estimated the degree of probability for
eacb participant statement and then determined the extent to which the
probability of correct statements outweighed the number and probability
of incorrect statements. All participants were considered to have performed
better than chance overall in the object reading, remote viewing, and
clairvoyance tests, but tbose in the psilocybin condition were not considered
to have performed better tban those in the control condition.
Asperen de Boer et al. (1966) concluded that it is not possible to
induce ESP witb psilocybin, altbough Bierman (1998) argued that their
participants should be pitied for having to do such a range of boring and
strenuous tests while tripping, a burden unlikely to be imposed in modem
researcb. Parker (1975) also criticized tbe study for promoting a scientific
methodology at the expense of interpersonal factors. Furthermore, Asperen
de Boer et al. made little account for their methodological shortcomings
despite reporting that more than half of the psilocybin participants, mostly
drug novices, were distracted from the tasks by their visions. Nevertheless,
they did acknowledge the influence of order effects due to the psilocybin
condition always following the control condition, which was shown to
cause fatigue effects independently of tbe drug. Asperen de Boer et al.
also reported briefly on a previous series of more promising unpublisbed
psychometry trials with LSD tbat were conducted prior to switching to
the "less distracting" psilocybin. Out of several LSD participants, some
exceptionally accurate accounts of object reading were given, for which
Kappers (1.983) later suggested only a paranormal explanation seemed
possible.
Summarizing the psychometry-type studies, it can be said tbat
some degree of success appears to have been obtained, which in some cases
was quite compelling for the researchers (although lacking in details in
the reports); nevertheless, the lack of a means of accurately assessing the
statistical success of these techniques dictates that clear evidence for psi is
unforthcoming from tbese studies. However, on tbe surface it appears tbat
such tests are potentially better suited tban forced cboice tasks for eliciting
psi witb participants under the influence of psychedelics.
Other clairvoyance-type experiments. Cavanna and Servadio (1964)
reported extensively on a repeated-measures clairvoyance design with the
alternate use of LSD and psilocybin in what was primarily an ideographic,

psychoanalytic study. In a series of three control, five psilocybin, and four
LSD trials, three participants performed in a single-blind (water placebo)
free-response clairvoyance test. In each trial there were 10 ESP targets.
Participants, who were drug novices, were given low doses of LSD (40-75
micrograms) and psilocybin (10 mg).
The participants' mentations were rated for correspondences by
three experimenters and then independently by two blind judges, with
reasonable correspondence between the judging groups. Compared to
the control conditions, the blind judges' results with both the LSD and
psilocybin showed a clear improvement in ESP ability, with some accurate
correspondence with about one in five of the targets for both drugs.
No success at all was achieved in the three control conditions, though
unfortunately no estimation of the probability of the results was given, nor
were inferential statistical analyses possible because the design had no decoy
targets in the judging process. Although the results are positive, caution is
raised concerning any inferences drawn from so few trials.
Seeking to avoid the earlier boring and repetitive test procedures,
a series of pilot "ganzfeld" experiments (i.e., in a controlled, sensory-
reduction environment) with cannabis (marijuana) and psilocybin
were conducted (Wezelman & Bierman, 1997; Bierman, 1998). Initially,
Wezelman and Bierman utilized an automated ganzfeld set-up with 40
participants preselected for experience with marijuana. In a randomized
crossover design, participants performed two trials each: one self-dosing
marijuana condition and a control condition. All but four participants, who
became nauseous and dropped out after the first session, completed both
trials. A planned mixture of either subject judging or external judging was
used. The control condition had a hit rate of 15% (MCE = 25%) compared
to 30% for the marijuana condition. However, scores for the experimental
group were not significantly different from MCE.
Wezelman and Bierman (1997) also reported on findings from a
no-sender ganzfeld pilot study conducted with six psilocybin-experienced
participants performing two trials each under the influence of psilocybin.
There was no control condition. Utilizing a buddy system to deter "bad
trips," pairs of receivers were placed in the ganzfeld room together. Using
only subjectjudging, participants in the psilocybin group scored 7 direct hits
out of 12 trials (58%), a figure that even with only afew trials is significantly
deviant from MCE {p < .05, exact test statistic not reported), although
uncorrected for a stacking effect (Milton & Wiseman, 1997, p. 93).
In summary of the three clairvoyance-type studies reported here,
ii can be said that the results are positive in two of the three studies, albeit
without adequate probability estimates in one study and with too few
independent trials in the other study. Nevertheless, again the free response
type designs implemented here show more promise in obtaining significant
results than do the forced choice task designs.
Telepathy-type experiments. Utilizing the standard sender-receiver pair

set-up used in telepathy research, Bierman (1998) followed up the psilocybin
research using a within-subjects control condition with 20 psilocybin-
experienced participants who each performed one control and one
psilocybin ganzfeld trial with a "sober" sender. Participants in the psilocybin
condition scored at chance (25%) whereas in the control condition they
performed slightly below (20%), with no significant difference between the
two. However, a post hoc analysis revealed an interaction between target
emotionality and drug state, with a much higher hit rate for emotionally
positive clips (44%) than for emotionally negative clips (8%) in the
psilocybin condition and a reversal of this effect in the control condition.
This interaction was explained in terms of psilocybin participants possibly
detecting the positive ESP targets but blocking the negative images to deter
bad trips, given that participants were tripping alone this time. However,
the reverse effects for the control condition are not as easily explicable, and
the effect needs to be replicated prospectively.
Masters and Houston (1966) demonstrated a greater understanding
of psychedelic research methodology than their contemporaries in a
series of ESP experiments. They provided an experienced trip guide, with
whom most participants were familiar, and utilized experienced trippers as
participants. Only the 62 receivers were given LSD, with their guide as the
sender ofthe 10 static image targets. Using independentjudges, the majority
ofthe receivers {11%) gave free-recall responses approximating the target
at least 2/10 times, with five of these participants approximating the target
image 7/10 or 8/10 times. The remaining 14 participants (23%), who
performed worse, were either unknown to the guide, anxious, or primarily
interested in their own personal psychological narrative rather than the
ESP task. Parker (1975) noted that nonverbal communication from the
guide could not be ruled out. Once again, no estimation ofthe probability
of describing the target image is given because no decoy images were used
in the judging process and no comparison was made to a control condition
to establish if LSD actually improved scores. Nevertheless, accuracy rates
were similar to those reported in the clairvoyance procedure of the same
nature by Gavanna and Servadio (1964), in which LSD and psilocybin
scores exceeded those in control conditions. Gavanna and Servadio further
reported an exploratory sender-receiver telepathy design with one LSD trial
and one control, in which only the receiver took LSD. The results indicated
accurate comparisons in approximately 1 in 3 ofthe targets for LSD, with a
rate of only 1 in 10 for the no-drug control condition.
Finally, Puharich (1962) followed up his earlier success at clairvoyance
using the Amanita muscaria mushroom with a demonstration for four Los
Angeles news reporters who also acted as participants and who were either
skeptical or hostile toward the idea of drug-induced psi. The design relied
on a computerized random number (1-9) guessing task with a nondrugged
sender elsewhere, though where, exactly, was not specified, so sensory
94 The Joumal of Parapsychology
leakage cannot be ruled out. Participants scored at chance in the control

condition (35 hits in 297 trials, nonsignificant) and significantly above
chance (65 hits in 432 trials, reported as z = 2.6, p = .0047) after ingesting
Amanita muscaria. Scoring returned to chance after 2.5 hr, as they had in
the previous clairvoyance experiment. However, because there are a different
number of trials in the two conditions, there is also the possibility that
"optional stopping" occurred in this latter experiment, such that the number
of trials was not prespecified but rather stopped when the results became
significant. Krippner (2006) also raises concern that Puharich's research,
as with Masters and Houston, was reported in a self-authored book rather
than a peer-reviewed joumal. In addition, an anonymous referee pointed
out that Amanita muscaria contains a different class of psychoacdve chemicals
than the other substances experimented with in this review. Indeed, the most
psychoactive constituents of Amanita muscaria are muscimol and ibotenic
acid, which work, respectively, as a GABA agonist and an NMDA agonist (in
an opposite manner to dissociative psychedelics such as ketamine), which is
a very different mode of neurochemical action to that of the serotonergic
(e.g., LSD, psilocybin, DMT, mescaline) and dopaminergic (e.g., cannabis)
substances primarily discussed in this paper.
In summary, all of the four telepathy-type designs mentioned here
have reported positive results, albeit with the use of post hoc evaluations
in some cases, lacking exact probability estimates in others, and possibly
exhibiting optional stopping in one study. So, as with the clairvoyance-
type designs, the results for the telepathy-type designs appear to be at
least promising though they are a far cry from offering any conclusive
experimental evidence due to poor design issues and the current lack of
prospective replication.
Summary of Experimental Research
Due to the exploratory nature of most of these experiments, it is

difficult to fully assess the efficacy of psychedelics for producing ESP. In
most cases this could have largely been improved with an adequate control
condition, without order effects (Palmer 1978), and with the blind use of
decoy targets in the judging process as a gauge for what may be achieved
by chance alone. Procedures using subjective probability estimates by
experimenters (such as Asperen de Boer et al., 1966) are now virtually
obsolete in parapsychology because they are so difficult to assess and are
prone to bias (Parker 1975). In the one ESP-card experiment to use a control
condition, scores in the psilocybin condition were significantly different
from chance and were also superior to the control condition, although
significance of difference between the groups is unknown (Asperen de Boer
et al., 1966). Nevertheless, it is apparent that those experiments using ESP-
card type symbol guessing procedures were mostly unsuccessful compared
to chance expectation.
However, the use of the symbol guessing procedure bas been

widely criticized for being far too mundane under tbe influence of
psychedelics (Grof, 1980; Masters & Houston, 1966; Pabnke, 1971; Parker,
1975; Rogo, 1976; Smytbies, 1960; Tart, 1968; Whittesley, 1960). Even so,
usmg Amanita Muscaria, Pubaricb (1962) demonstrated tbat forced-cboice
procedures could be successful witb picture-sorting tasks. More engaging,
free-response procedures bave demonstrated at least some success in all
but one of the studies tbat have used psychometry, altbougb rarely witb
any control condition for comparison. A clearer indication still of possible
psycbedelically induced ESP, even in comparison, to control conditions,
wbere used, comes from tbe clairvoyance and telepatby designs, with tbe
exception onlyof tbe Asperen de Boer etal. (1964) study and tbe marijuana
ganzfeld study (Wezelman & Bierman, 1997). Replication, however, is
needed and, in some cases, witb better methodology and preplanned
analyses.
METHODOLOGICAL GRITIQUE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Experimenters and reviewers alike have bigbligbted the difficulties

involved in attempting to test for psi with tripping participants. Asperen de
Boer et al. (1964) suggested tbat tbe participant's willingness to perform
in tbe task was important, but given tbe participants' difficulty maintaining
alertness, self-control, focus, and orientation to tbe task (Edge et al., 1986;
Millay, 2001) it seems mucb more important to consider tbe participants'
capability to perform ratber than their mere willingness. A participant's
increased sensitivity to subtle influences under psycbedelics is botb a boon
and a bane to researcb (Parker 1975) and using psycbedelics to induce
psi is a double-edged sword, as all of tbe reasons cited in tbe introduction
tbat make such researcb alluring also make participants poor test subjects.
In addition, participants may bave difficulty communicating because of
tbe lack of adequate language (Lilly, 1969), the overwbelming flood of
ideas and emotions (Ryzl, 1968), and tbe speed of cbange of tbe internal
experience (Blewett, 1961, 1963).
However, it is apparent tbat tbese obstacles to researcb may be
greatly alleviated or even eliminated if participants bave experience using
psycbedelics (Blewett, 1963; Parker, 1975; Tart, 1977). Indeed, about
a quarter of inexperienced participants are expected to bave intense
spontaneous mystical experiences during tbeir first trip (Wulff, 2000).
Yet, very few of tbe studies reviewed bere (only Bierman, 1998; Masters &
Houston, 196(3; Wezelman & Bierman, 1997) specifically reported the use
of participants experienced witb tbese psycbedelics, altbougb it is worth
noting tbat tbose tbat did were relatively more successful tban tbose that
used inexperienced participants.
As regards tbe duration of tbe psi-task, ratber tban tbe extended
test periods favored by some researchers (e.g., Asperen de Boer et al..
96 Thefoumal of Parapsychology
1964; Tinoco, 1995), Osis (1961) suggested 20 min should be the

maximum for optimum performance. Some consideration has also been
given to tbe optimal substance, and LSD was considered to be stronger,
longer lasting, and more difficult to work witb than psilocybin by those
who worked with both substances. Furthermore, since the era when most
of this research was conducted, there has been an increasing number
of ethnobotanical substances discovered that have traditionally been
used for psycbic purposes, wbich have not yet been thoroughly tested or
even tested at all (e.g.. Salvia divinorum). Tart (1993) further suggested
that marijuana was an ideal substance for psi experimentation because
of its wide familiarity within the public, its mild psycbedelic qualities,
and its reputed ability to induce psi, experiendally at least. Puharich's
(1962) apparent repeated success with Amanita muscaria also needs
replicating. In addition, nonpsychedelic drug psi research, such as
Pablos's (2002) unsuccessful first-person precognitive-dream study with
the pharmaceutical substance Rivastigmine could also be replicated with
the use of psychedelic substances that have actually been reported to
induce psi in dreams by both traditional users and modern consciousness
researchers, such as Calea zacatechichi (Devereux, 1997; Diaz, 1979), and
tree datura (Brugmansia) (Metzner, 1992).
It is additionally advised that experienced participants control their
own dosage (Tart, 1977), as in the experiment by Wezelman and Bierman
(1997). However, some researchers (e.g., Parker, 1975; Tart, 1968, 1977)
have noted that the issue of dosage is largely irrelevant in comparison to the
influence ofthe psychological factors of set and setting, as originally noted
by Leary, Litwin, and Metzner (1963), and Vayne (2001) has suggested
that the drug is best tbougbt of primarily as an experience, composed
of set, setting, and substance. For tbis reason it would prove fruitful to
assess tbe degree of alteration to the experient's state using a scale like
the Phenomenon of Consciousness Inventory (Pekala, Steinberg, & Kumar,
1986), so tbat any aspects of tbe altered state relevant to ESP can emerge as
correlates of ESP performance.
Tart (1968) bas also criticized previous research for assuming that
psycbedelic states automatically induce psi, because in traditional scenarios
the shamans who use these substances usually have extensive training and
experience. It is further suggested that the experimental task be sbaped
to tbe state of the participant, not vice versa (Tart, 1977), and utilize the
strong motivation, directed awareness, and complex ritual that is found
in shamanism (Copley, 1962; Crof, 1980; Tart, 1968). Crob and Harman
(1995) have also urged the integration of aspects from shamanic practices
into scientific procedure so that there is attendveness to factors of set and
setdng, such as intendon, expectadon, preparadon, group idendficadon,.
and formalized structure, as well as the integradon ofthe experience in the
following months.
GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Even though the subjective paranormal experiences, clinical

observations, and anthropological reports are subject to all the usual
criticisms and rebuttals that apply to nonexperimental cases of psi (e.g.,
see Stokes, 1997) there is a growing body of reports, rooted in thousands
of years of traditional psychedelic use, that encourages the further
scientific investigation of these phenomena. Nevertheless, as evidence
this data is not scientifically rigorous, yet it has great value in mapping the
phenomenological terrain of paranormal experiences with psychedelics.
This body of reports is further supported by correlations from surveys
linking psychedelic use with the increased reporting of paranormal
experiences and belief in the paranormal, although again, self-reports have
more phenomenological merit than evidential value. Eurthermore, even
though it can be considered little more than exploratory at this stage, the
experimental evidence is more positive than not and proves promising so
far, illuminating both methodological pitfalls and possibilities.
It is apparent that parapsychopharmacology is a multidisciplinary
field pooling expertise from anthropology, ethnobotany, phytochemistry,
neurochemistry, pharmacology, psychiatry, . psychotherapy, and indeed
parapsychology. It also owes much to the nonacademic explorers of
consciousness, be they shamans, occultists, or psychonauts. This is a branch
of research that is still very much in its infancy yet it may expect to see
a rekindled interest following the reemergence of psychedelic research
during the last decade (see Grob & Harman, 1995). Nevertheless, further
experimental laboratory research continues to need strict ethical and
often governmental approval before it can proceed, requiring lengthy
applications (see Strassman, 2001). Tart (1977) once suggested bypassing
these difficulties by casually enrolling participants who were already
using psychedelics rather than administering them directly. An example
of this involved several thousand Grateful Dead fans, renowned for their
psychedelic consumption, who acted as senders in a series of dream
telepathy experiments, with some success (Krippner, Honorton, & UUman,
1973).
However, now resumed, direct parapsychological research with
psychedelics needs expanding beyond the Netherlands and Brazil.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that psychedelics are considered as
sacramentáis by the spiritual and religious groups that use them, and they
should be treated with respect. It is also clear that besides trying to replicate
the promising free-response studies, further experimental research should
utilize protocols that maximize psi effects, and, simultaneously, this should
enhance future psi research methodology by indicating optimal test
conditions through the magnifying psychological effects of these substances.
Eor instance, Bierman's (1998) psychedelic psi research may have revealed a
psychic blocking effect for negative images. Eurthermore, special attention
should be paid to the study protocol so as to avoid the use of boring and trite
test procedures, and participants should be experienced with psychedelics
generally or, ideally, with the substance under investigation. It would also
help in the development of theory building to ask what, exactly, is it about
the psychedelic experience that seemingly facilitates psi—whether it is
purely neurochemical, due to changes in the state of consciousness, or due
to changes in belief or other factors, and whether these factors interact.
If ESP and other paranormal phenomena can be genuinely induced by
such a wide range of neurochemical agents as have been investigated in
this paper, then this would seem to suggest that the state-induced rather
then the neurochemical action has to be considered in some sense as
primary. However, much more parapsychopharmacological research is
required to establish this, and much more needs to be known about human
neurochemistry before any firm conclusions can be made.
Additionally, following in the footsteps of William James's bioassay
approach, Pablos (2002) has developed a viable protocol for testing one's
own precognitive dreaming abilities with drugs via self-experimentation. In
the future, parapsychologists might also ask their participants about their
drug use, and researchers investigating the use of psychedelics might once
more include questions relating to paranormal experiences in their work,
as in the design of a recent EEG study with ayahuasca (Echenhofer, 2005).
Furthermore, with an ever-growing number of substances being discovered
and a large natural data pool of psychedelic users, there is a need for more
thorough and focused phenomenological research that identifies the
type of paranormal experiences that occur specifically through the use of
each of these diverse psychedelic substances (Luke, 2004; Luke & Kittenis,
2005).
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The Beckley Foundation

Beckley Park, Oxford, 0X3 9SY
DrDLukeMGmail. com
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Cradtude is expressed to Debra Wiener, Marios Kittenis, Nicola

Holt, and two anonymous referees for tbeir useful comments on earlier
drafts of tbis paper. Tbanks are also due to Stanley Krippner for advice, and
to tbe Mulddisciplinary Associadon for Psychedelic Studies (www.maps.
org) for generously funding this research project. Thanks also to all the
shamans and all the other botanists, sciendsts, and psychonauts who have
researched in this field in the past few thousand years, providing us with the
seeds of knowledge in this area we have today.
ABSTRAGTS IN O T H E R LANGUAGES
Spanish
SUBSTANCIAS PSICODÉLICAS Y FENÓMENOS PARANORMALES:

UNA REVISION DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN
RESUMEN: Este articulo presenta una revisión de la investigación sobre

substancias psicodélicas en relación a los llamados fenómenos paranormales tales
como telepatía, clarividencia, y precognición (esto es, percepción extrasensorial,
PES) al igual que experiencias fuera del cuerpo y experiencias cercanas a la muerte.
Se menciona el uso antiguo de estas substancias por chamanes para inducir estas
experiencias, e informes contemporáneos provenientes de la literatura académica
y de psicoterapia con ejemplos de estos fenómenos. Sin embargo, la revisión
enfatiza principalmente la descripción y la evaluación critica de experimentos
controlados que han intentado inducir la PES usando drogas psicodélicas, y de
encuestas que han investigado la creencia o la experiencia paranormal directamente
o indirectamente en relación a el uso de estas substancias. También se presenta
una critica metodológica de la investigación experimental y sugerencias para el
desarrollo de la investigación en este campo.
Cerman
PSYCHEDELISCHE SUBSTANZEN UND PARANORMALE

PHÄNOMENE: EINE FORSCHUNGSÜBERSICHT
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Dieser Artikel bietet eine Übersicht über Forschungen

zu psychedelischen Substanzen in Bezug auf sogenannte paranormale Phänomene,
wie z. B. Telepathie, Hellsehen und Präkognition (d. h. ASW) wie auch auf
Ausserkörperliche Erfahrungen (AKEn) und Nahtoderfahrungen (NTEn). Es
Psychedelic Substances and Paranormal Phenomena . 107
wird Bezug genommen auf alte schamanistische Verfahren zur spezifischen

Herbeiführung solcher Erfahrungen wie auch auf zeitgenössische Berichte im
akademischen Rahmen und in der Psychotherapie, die solche Phänomene belegen.
Die Übersicht beschränkt sich jedoch in erster Linie auf die Beschreibung und
kritische Bewertung des Beitrags kontrollierter Experimente, bei denen versucht
wurde, AS W-Eflfekte durch Psychedelika herbeizuführen, sowie auf Umfragen, die
entweder direkt oder indirekt den Glauben an das Paranormale oder Erfahrungen
damit in Bezug auf die Verwendung solcher Substanzen erfasst haben. Femer
wird eine methodologische Kritik des experimentellen Zugangs zusammen mit
Empfehlungen für eine weitere Forschung auf diesem Gebiet formuliert.
French,
LES SUBSTANCES PSYCHADELIQUES ET PHENOMENES

PARANORMAUX : UNE REVUE DE LA RECHERCHE
SOMMAIRE : Ce papier représente un revue sur la recherche concernant

la relation entre des substances psychédéliques et les soit-dits phénomènes
paranormaux, comme la télépathie, la clairvoyance, et la precognition
(i.e., ESP), aussi bien que hors du corps (OBEs) et les expériences pre-
mortem (NDEs). Les références qui suivent sont par rapport aux anciens
Shamans qui utilisaient ces substances pour intentionnellement provoquer
ces expériences et plus récemment des rapports venants des cercles
académiques et la parapsychologie de leur témoignages de tels phénomènes.
Cependant, la revue se concentre sur la description et l'évaluation critique
des expériences contrôlées dans l'intention de provoquer ESP utilisant
des substances psychédéliques et des études qui ont soit directement, soit
indirectement investigué la croyance en l'existence et les expériences
du paranormal en relation avec ces substances. En outre, une critique
méthodique de la recherche expérimentale est offerte avec quelques
recommandations pour poursuivre des recherches dans ce domaine.

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PSYCHEDELIC SUBSTANCES AND PARANORMAL

PHENOMENA: A REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH

ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the research on psychedelic substances in relation to

Experimental efforts to investigate the apparent paranormal effects

of ostensible paranormal phenomena such as ESP became commonplace

1. Increase in vividness and quality of the mental image and the

In addition to these temporary alterations that may occur during

(Conway, 1989; Strassman, 2001), might also be psi-conducive. In a follow-up

Belief in the Paranormal

Investigating correlates of belief in tbe paranormal, Kumar,

Additionally, some specific items in tbe AEI drug-use subscale

there was a suggestive but nonsignificant negative correlation between drug

However, although relevant, this research is largely indirect to the present

Several major surveys of psychic experiences have included

Kohr failed to find any association between subjective paranormal

experience indicates that certain drugs may either trigger a Kundalini

Psychedelic User Samples

DeGracia (1995) conducted a self-selecting internet survey with

A survey (Tart, 1993) conducted in California in 1970 with

Out-of-Body Experiences (OBEs)

Special attention has been given to the relationship between

of nonstudent drug users, as is evident from surveys with psychedelic users.

Summary of Main Survey Research Findings

In summary, these surveys reveal a small but consistent relationship

whereas PK during drug use was reported only by a few respondents in

EXPERIMENTAL ESP RESEARCH

Whittlesey (1960) used an unspecified dose of LSD in a forced

Unlike most of tbe otber forced choice designs, a series of

Psychometry. In an exploratory study using a special sample of

1958, p. 300), though, unfortunately, further details were not supplied in

alternate use of LSD and psilocybin in what was primarily an ideographic,

Telepathy-type experiments. Utilizing the standard sender-receiver pair

leakage cannot be ruled out. Participants scored at chance in the control

Summary of Experimental Research

Due to the exploratory nature of most of these experiments, it is

However, the use of the symbol guessing procedure bas been

METHODOLOGICAL GRITIQUE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimenters and reviewers alike have bigbligbted the difficulties

1964; Tinoco, 1995), Osis (1961) suggested 20 min should be the

GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Even though the subjective paranormal experiences, clinical

ALVARADO, G. S. (1998). ESP and altered states of consciousness: An overvaew

BiBRA, BARON, E. VON (1994). Plant intoxicants. Rochester, Vermont: Healing

ECHENHOFER, E (2005). Ayahuasca/EEG researcb progress report and

JOHNS, L . C ; CANNON, M . S.; SINGLETON, N . ; MURRAY, R. M.; FARRELL,

Louv, J. (Ed.) (2005). Generation hex. New York: The Disinformation

PAHNKE, W. N . (1971). The use of psychedelic drugs in parapsychological

RYZL, M . (1968). Training methods for psi induction. In R. Cavanna & M.

THALBOURNE, M. A. (2001). Measures of tbe sbeep goat variable,

The Beckley Foundation

Cradtude is expressed to Debra Wiener, Marios Kittenis, Nicola

SUBSTANCIAS PSICODÉLICAS Y FENÓMENOS PARANORMALES:

RESUMEN: Este articulo presenta una revisión de la investigación sobre

PSYCHEDELISCHE SUBSTANZEN UND PARANORMALE

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Dieser Artikel bietet eine Übersicht über Forschungen

wird Bezug genommen auf alte schamanistische Verfahren zur spezifischen

LES SUBSTANCES PSYCHADELIQUES ET PHENOMENES

SOMMAIRE : Ce papier représente un revue sur la recherche concernant

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