Lecture: 01

Introductory Concepts on Signals & Systems

Objectives of this Lecture:
❖ To define signal and system
❖ To classify signals
❖ To illustrate different kinds of signal:
❑ Continuous-time and Discrete-time signals
❑ Even and Odd signals
❑ Periodic and Non-periodic signals
❑ Analog and Digital signals

1.2
What is a Signal?
A signal is a detectable physical quantity (e.g., voice, voltage, current, magnetic
field strength etc.) that varies with time, space or any other independent
variable by which messages or information can be transmitted.
❑ In the physical world, any quantity exhibiting variation in time (such as voice)
or variation in space (such as an image) is potentially a signal that might
provide information.
❑ In a RC circuit, the signal may represent the voltage across the capacitor or the
current flowing in the resistor.

Mathematically, a signal is represented as a function of an independent

variable t which is usually time. Thus, a signal is denoted by x(t).
❑ One-dimensional signal: When the function representing signal depends on
a single variable, the signal is said to be one-dimensional. A speech signal
is an example of a one-dimensional signal whose amplitude varies with
time, depending on the spoken word and who speaks it.
❑ Multi-dimensional signal: When the function representing signal depends
on two or more variables, the signal is said to be multi-dimensional. An
image is an example of a two-dimensional signal, with the horizontal and
vertical coordinates of the image representing the two dimensions.

1.3
What is a System?
A system is an organized set of interrelated components working together to
accomplish a particular task.
❖ All systems have inputs, outputs and feedback mechanisms.
❖ A system takes a signal as input, performs some processing on that signal
and finally produces a signal as output.
❖ A system is a defined by the type of input and output it deals with. The input
is known as excitation and the output is known as response.
Signals are meaningless without systems to interpret them, and systems are
useless without signals to process.
The interaction between a system and its associated signals is illustrated in
the figure below.

In the above figure, input and output both are signals but the input is an
analog signal and the output is a digital signal. It means, the system shown
in the above figure is actually a conversion system that converts analog
signals to digital signals.

1.4
 Example of Systems

In automatic speaker recognition system, input signal is speech/voice signal, the system is
computer, and the output signal is identity of the speaker.

In an aircraft landing system,, the input signal is the desired position of the aircraft relative to
the runway, the system is the aircraft, and the output signal is a correct lateral position.

1.5
Classification of Signals
Based on different features, six methods of classifying signals
are:

1. Continuous-time signal and Discrete-time signal

2. Analog signal and Digital signal
3. Even signal and Odd signal
4. Periodic signal and Non-periodic signal
5. Deterministic signal and Random signal
6. Energy signal and Power signal

1.6
Continuous-time Vs. Discrete-time Signals
Based on the function of time, signals can be classified into two
categories:
A) Continuous-time signal
B) Discrete-time signal
Continuous-time Signal:
A signal x(t) is said to be a continuous-time signal if it is defined for all time t
(i.e., t is continuous time and we can assign to t any unit of time we deem appropriate (e.g., seconds,
hours, years, etc.).

A signal is said to be bounded if it has a finite value. A signal is said to be

not bounded if it takes on an infinite value. Most of the continuous-time
signals we will deal with in the real world are bounded.
Figure shows the graphical representation of a continuous-time signal whose
amplitude or value varies continuously with time.

Figure: Continuous-time signal

1.7
Continuous-time Vs. Discrete-time Signals
Discrete-time Signal:
A discrete-time signal is defined only at discrete instants of
time. That is, if the signal x(t) is defined at discrete times,
then x(t) is a discrete-time signal.
Since a discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times, a it is
often identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by {xn} or
x[n], where n = integer.
Figure shows the graphical representation of a discrete-time
signal.

Figure-2: Discrete-time signal

1.8
Continuous-time Vs. Discrete-time Signals
Discrete-time Signal (cont…):
A discrete-time signal x[n] is often derived from a
continuous-time signal x(t) by sampling it at a uniform rate,
such as-
x(t0), x(t1), x(t2),…., x(tn),…,
or in a shorter form as x[0], x[1], x[2]..., x[n], …
or xo, x1, x2,…,xn,...
Here, xn=x[n]=x(tn) and xn,'s are called samples and the time
interval between them is called the sampling interval.
When the sampling intervals are equal (uniform sampling),
then xn=x[n]=x(nTs), where the constant Ts is the sampling
interval.

1.9
Continuous-time Vs. Discrete-time Signals
Discrete-time Signal (cont…):
A discrete-time signal x[n] can be defined in two ways:

1.10
 Math
Draw a continuous time signal x(t) = 2 sinΠt where time interval 0<=t<=2.
Sample this continuous time signal with sampling period T = 0.2sec & draw the discrete time signal

Given, x(t) = 2 sinΠt comparing with the wave signal x(t) = A sin Wt

So W = Π or, 2Πf = Π or, 2Π/T = Π or, T = 2 This is the time period of signal

T 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.50 1.75 2

x(t) 0 1.414 2 1.414 0 -1.414 -2 -1.414 0

In discrete signal we know, t = nT or, t = 0.2 n

So, x(n) = 2 sin (0.2n Π ) comparing with the wave signal x(t) = A sin Wn

W = 0.2Π or, 2Π/N = 0.2Π or, N = 10

So total 10 samples will be there for this signal. Now create a the data table and draw the signal.

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x(n) 0 1.175 1.902 1.902 1.175 0 -1.175 -1.902 -1.902 -1.175 0

1.11
 Analog Vs. Digital Signals
Based on the taking value over a continuous range or discrete
range, signals can be classified into two categories:
A) Analog signal
B) Digital signal

Analog Signal:
If a continuous-time signal x(t) can take on any value in the
continuous interval (a, b), where a may be minus infinity
and b may be plus infinity, then the continuous-time signal
x(t) is called an analog signal.

Digital Signal:
If a discrete-time signal x[n] can take on only a finite number
of distinct values, then we call this signal a digital signal.

1.12
 Even Vs. Odd Signals
When we do Time Reversal / folding we get these 2 type of signal:

Even Signal:
A continuous-time signal x(t) or a discrete-time signal x[n] is
referred to as an even signal if
x(-t) = x(t) for all t
x[-n] = x[n] for all t
Even signals are symmetric about vertical axis, or time origin.( The
horizontal axis in the coordinate plane is called the x−axis. The vertical axis is called the
y−axis.)

Identical signal

Figure: Even Signals

1.13
Even Vs. Odd Signals
Odd Signal:
A continuous-time signal x(t) or a discrete-time signal x[n] is
referred to as an even signal if
x(-t) = - x(t) for all t
x[-n] = - x[n] for all t
Odd signals are asymmetric about vertical axis, or time origin.
Figure shows the graphical representation of odd signals.

Figure: Odd Signals

1.14
Even Vs. Odd Signals

1.15
 Even-Odd properties

Properties of Even Signals

•The even signals are symmetrical about the vertical axis.
•The value of an even signal at time (t) is same as at time (-t).
•The even signal is identical with its reflection about the origin.
•Area under the even signal is two time of its one side area.

Properties of Odd Signals

•The odd signal is antisymmetric about the origin.
•The value of odd signal at time (t) is negative of its value at time (-t) for all t, i.e., −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞.
•The odd signal must necessarily be zero at time t = 0 to hold 𝑥(0) = −𝑥(0).
•Area under the odd signal is always zero.
 Even-Odd properties

E*E=E
O*O=E
E*O=O
1 /E = E
1/O=O
Power(x, E) = E
Power(x, O) = O
Even-Odd Decomposition of x(t)

1.18
Even Vs. Odd Signals
Example:

Solution:

1.19
 Even-Odd Maths

Find odd and even component of the following signal:

x(t) = sect + sint + sect sint

We know
Even-Odd Maths
 Even-Odd Maths

The unit step signal or function is that type of standard signal which exists only for positive time and it is zero for
negative time. In other words, a signal u(t) = 1 when t > 0
u(t) = 0 when t < 0
Find odd and even components of signal x(t) = sint u(t)

-U(-t)
U(-t)
Even-Odd Maths
 Periodic Signal Vs. Nonperiodic Signals
Periodic Signal:
Signals that repeat over and over are said to be periodic.
A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be periodic that satisfies the
condition
x(t) = x(t+T) for all t
Where T is a positive constant called period of the signal.
Figure shows the graphical representation of a periodic signal.
Clearly, if the above condition is satisfied for T=T0 (for example), then it is
also satisfied for T=2T0, 3T0, 4T0, ….
Therefore, for all t and any integer m, x(t)= x(t+mT) is true for a periodic
signal.

Figure: Periodic Signals

1.24
 Periodic Signal Vs. Nonperiodic Signals
Periodic Signal:
The smallest positive value of T that satisfies the above condition is
called the fundamental period (T0) of the signal x(t). Accordingly,
the fundamental period T0 defines the duration of one complete cycle
of the signal.
The reciprocal of the fundamental period is called the fundamental
frequency of the periodic signal x(t) that describes how frequently
the periodic signal repeat itself.
❖ Periodic discrete-time signals are defined
analogously. A sequence (discrete-time signal)
x[n] is periodic with period N if there is a
positive integer N for which x[n]= x[n+N] for
all n.
❖ An example of discrete-time periodic is given in
the figure below. From the figure it follows that
x[n]= x[n+mN] for all n and any integer m.
❖ The fundamental period No of the signal is the
smallest positive integer N for which the above
condition holds. Figure: Periodic Signals

1.25
 Periodic Signal Vs. Nonperiodic Signals
Nonperiodic Signal:
The definition of periodic signal given before does not work for
a constant signal x(t) (known as a dc signal).
For a constant signal x(t) the fundamental period is undefined
since x(t) is periodic for any choice of T (and so there is no
smallest positive value).
Any continuous-time signal which is not periodic is called a
nonperiodic or aperiodic signal.

Note
The sum of two continuous-time periodic signals may not be periodic
but that the sum of two periodic discrete-time signals is always
periodic.

1.26
Periodic Signal Vs. Nonperiodic Signals
Example-1:

1.27
Periodic Signal Vs. Nonperiodic Signals
Example-2:

1.28
 Periodic - Nonperiodic Math

Find if the signal is periodic and what it’s fundamental period

i. x(t) = 5cos(200Πt)
Comparing this with standard cosine signal x(t) = Acos(2Πft) we get
2Πf = 200Π
Or, f = 100 Hz
So, T = 1/ 100 = 0.01s = 10ms
Given signal is periodic with period T = 10ms (Ans)
 Periodic - Nonperiodic Math

Find if the signal is periodic and what it’s fundamental period

ii. x(n) = 12sin(25Πn)
Condition for a Discrete time signal to be periodic is to be f = k/N
Frequency should be ratio of 2 integer values
Comparing this with standard cosine signal x(n) = Acos(2Πfn) we get
2Πf = 25Π
Or, f = 25/2 Hz [Hence holds the condition k/N]
So given signal is periodic with N = 2 samples per cycle (Ans)
 Periodic - Nonperiodic Math

Find if the signal is periodic and what it’s fundamental period

iii. x(t) = 3cos(4t + Π/4)
We know if x(t) = x(t+T) it’s a periodic signal
And cos is periodic for 2Π fundamental period
So, 3cos(4(t+T) + Π/4) = 3cos(4t + Π/4 + 2Πk)
Or, 3cos(4t+ 4T) + Π/4) = 3cos(4t + Π/4 + 2Πk)
Or, 4T = 2Πk
Or, T = Π/2

Given signal is periodic with period T = Π/2 (Ans)

Periodic - Nonperiodic Maths
Periodic - Nonperiodic Math
Deterministic Vs. Random Signals
Deterministic Signal:
Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are
completely specified for any given time.
Thus, a deterministic signal can be modeled by a known
function of time t.
The square wave signal shown below is an example of a
deterministic signal.

Figure: Deterministic Signal

1.34
Deterministic Vs. Random Signals
Random Signal:
Random signals are those signals that take random values at
any given time and must be characterized statistically.
In random signal, there is uncertainty before its actual
occurrence.
The noise generated in the amplifier of a radio or television
receiver is an example of a random signal. Its amplitude
fluctuates between positive and negative values in a
completely random fashion.
The EEG signal is also an example of a random signal.

1.35
Power Vs. Energy Signals

1.36
Power Vs. Energy Signals

1.37
 Power- Energy Maths

Avg power = Total power / total time

= p (t) / infinite
=0
Power- Energy Maths
Power- Energy Maths
Power- Energy Maths
 Schaum's Outline of Signals and Systems
1.1, 1.2, 1.6, 1.9, 1.10, 1.13, 1.14, 1.16, 1.20
Thank You