MODULE PASTRY PRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1: THE BAKING PROFESSION

AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

 Describe the major events in the history of baking, from
prehistoric times to the present.
 Name the principal career positions in modern food service and
bakery operations.
 Name and discuss four attitude characteristics possessed by
successful bakers and pastry cooks.

BAKING IS ONE of the oldest occupations

of the human race. Since early prehistoric human
beings made the transition from nomadic hunters
to settled gatherers and farmers, grains have been
the most important foods to sustain human life,
often nearly the only foods. The profession that
today includes baking artisan sourdough breads
and assembling elegant pastries and desserts
began thousands of years ago with the harvesting
of wild grass seeds and the grinding of those
seeds between stones.

Today, the professions of baker and pastry chef are growing quickly and
changing rapidly. Thousands of skilled people are needed every year. Baking offers
ambitious men and women the opportunity to find satisfying work in an industry that is
both challenging and rewarding.

BAKING: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The student studying the baking and pastry arts is entering a world rich in cultural
heritage. Knowledge of this heritage is an important part of a culinary education, one
that serves as a source of professional pride. Bakers and pastry chefs tap this long
history for inspiration for recipes, ingredients and techniques.

Bread Making since Ancient Times

The first bread products humans consumed were firm porridges made from grasses and
grains cooked on flat stones heated by an open fire. The earliest form of wheat used for
bread making, Triticum dioccum, thrived in the fertile basin of the Nile River valley.
The use of a stone oven for bread making dates to the Neolithic period (4000 b.c.e.).
Remarkably, the ovens discovered in archaeological ruins from that time closely
resemble the domed beehive-shaped ovens still used today. It is believed that the
Egyptians discovered the effect of wild yeast organisms in leavening bread and
perfected bread making to achieve consistent results. (This discovery also led to the
development of beer.) What historians interpret as organized bakeries are depicted in

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hieroglyphics, sculptures and tomb paintings

discovered throughout Egypt, where as many as 70
kinds of bread were consumed in the first
millennia b.c.e

Most historians believe that the development of

organized societies began with the evolution of
agriculture. Once plants and grains could be
consistently produced and animals raised
systematically, humans were no longer forced to hunt
and forage for food. The time saved allowed them to
concentrate on perfecting other skills and crafts such
as the way food was prepared. Bread making and
confectionery were the first labor activities organized
into specialized trades. Pharaohs employed skilled Ancient Egyptian wall painting
bakers to provide bread for their private consumption. depicting the preparation of
Among the trades recognized by the highly organized batter for bread.
Greek society of the fourth and third centuries
b.c.e. were the wafer makers (oblaten) and the confectionery transforming sugar
pastry cooks. The religion of ancient Greece into sweets; also refers to the trade
focused on the worship of multiple deities and of candy making.
included the offering of gifts to these gods,
especially around critical times, to ensure plentiful harvests, adequate rain and
prosperity. As is customary today, certain breads and sweets were eaten to
commemorate special occasions. Historians credit the ancient Greeks with spreading
the profession of the skilled baker throughout the Mediterranean basin. According to the
Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the fourth century b.c.e., bakers accompanied
roving Greek armies on their raids. When Roman armies conquered them, Greek
soldiers and bakers remained in what is now Italy. Roman occupation then helped
spread the techniques for cultivating grains, milling and baking bread products
throughout the western world. Bread rapidly became the staple food essential for
human survival, a position it held in most western societies until the 20th century

Bread baking and pastry making found a fertile home on the European continent.
In the northern regions including Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia and
Great Britain, where a cool, damp climate was inhospitable to wheat growing, rye grain
products took hold. In the 17th century, the Dutch and British debuted the use of pans in
which to bake bread, paving the way for the development of the sandwich.

Until the process for milling flour was perfected in the 1830s, white flour was
expensive and most bread was made from assorted and relatively coarse ground
grains. These grains, such as emmer and spelt, baked into rough-textured solid loaves
quite unlike their light and crusty descendants eaten today. The milling process was
labor intensive, involving grinding the grain between millstones and then sifting the flour
manually through cloth to remove the coarse bran. The finest and whitest flour, the

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smallest quantity produced after many stages of sifting, made the softest products and
was available only to the wealthy.

In the mid-19th century, advances were made in the production of a stable form
of yeast to leaven bread. Once perfected by a Viennese distiller, this yeast paste
popularized the production of a wider variety of breads. Simultaneously, improved
mechanical kneading machinery appeared, making the task of large-scale bread mixing
possible.

Refined Sugar and the Art of Confectionery

Humans share a strong appetite for sweet foods; it is the only universally innate taste
preference. If, for millennia, the consumption of bread ensured sustenance and survival,
eating sweet foods ensured satisfaction and pleasure. For much of prehistory, historians
assume that fruits were humans’ primary source of sweet foods. Sweet pastes
made from dates and figs and syrups made from the juices of fruits such as grapes and
berries were also used to sweeten foods. Tree sap from maple and birch trees
sweetened foods as did syrups from cooked grains such as sorghum. Honey was the
first concentrated sweetener to be widely used. In ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome,
honey was used to season both savory and sweet dishes and as a preservative.
Egyptian hieroglyphs from the 15th century b.c.e. depicting clay beehives document the
cultivation of bees for their honey.

Though many candies and sweet confections can be made from honey, not until
refined sugar became readily available did the pastry and confectionery trades evolve.
Without refined sugar, many of the candies and sweets widely consumed today would
not be possible. Sugarcane produces a liquid syrup that hardens and crystallizes
when boiled.

The process of extracting sugar from a large tropical grass now known as
sugarcane began in India around 500 b.c.e. Arabs perfected the cultivation and
refining of sugar around 600 b.c.e. Arab conquests of the Mediterranean region,
international trade and the travels of the crusaders spread the use of refined sugar
throughout Europe during the 13th through 15th centuries. (The island of Crete takes its
name from the Arabic quandi, meaning “crystalized sugar”; it was the site of possibly
the world’s first sugar refinery, built by the Arabs around 1000 c.e.) Sugar remained an
expensive luxury until the ability to extract and refine sugarcane became more common.
Venice was one of the first European cities to set up its own sugar refineries in the 15th
century, making refined cane sugar available throughout the region. Many confections
from that time, such as sugared fruits, sugared almonds and marzipan, are still
prepared in the same manner today

During his travels to the New World, Columbus carried sugarcane from the
Canary Islands to Santo Domingo, where it flourished in the tropical climate of the
island that now comprises the Dominican Republic and Haiti. As sugarcane became
more dispersed geographically, the cost of production dropped, causing sugar to lose

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sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) a plant

status as a luxury item while increasing its
importance as a basic nutrient. During the 16th
with a high concentration of sucrose
through 19th centuries sugar confectionery
in its root; a major source of refined
began to take hold in Europe.
sugar.
Another source of refined sugar is the
sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), the second most important source of sugar in the world. In
the 18th century, German chemists discovered how to extract sugar from the root
of beets and built a refinery to do this commercially in 1800. When cane sugar
supplies were cut off during the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon ordered the cultivation of
sugar beets on a large scale, creating a viable sugar beet industry. Today, much of the
sugar consumed in northern countries comes from sugar beets, and about half of the
sugar produced in the United States comes from sugar beets.

The Birth of the Bakery and Restaurant

The culinary crafts evolved during the Middle Ages under the European guild system.
The guild system was a method of organizing the production and sale of goods
produced outside the home. Guilds ensured quality manufacturing methods and
consistent pricing. Each guild had a monopoly on preparing certain items. For example,
during the reign of Henri IV of France (1553–1610), there were separate culinary guilds
for rôtisseurs (who cooked la grosse viande, the main cuts of meat), pâtissiers (who
cooked poultry, pies and tarts), tamisiers (who baked breads) and traiteurs (who made
ragoûts). By the end of the 17th century, according to culinary historian Barbara
Wheaton, Paris bakeshops sold a remarkable variety: “rye bread and milk rolls, fine
bread and coarse bread, soup breads, a variety of little rolls . . . leavened with brewer’s
yeast (pain de levure), others with a sourdough starter (pain de levain).”

The French claim that the first modern restaurant opened one day in 1765 when
a Parisian tavern keeper, a Monsieur Boulanger, hung a sign advertising the sale of
his special restorative, a dish of sheep feet in white sauce. Boulanger’s establishment
differed from the inns and taverns that had existed throughout Europe for centuries.
These inns and taverns served foods prepared (usually off premises) by the appropriate
guild. The food—of which there was little choice—was offered by the innkeeper as
incidental to the establishment’s primary function: providing sleeping accommodations
or drink. Customers were served family style and ate at communal tables. Boulanger’s
contribution to the food service industry was to serve a variety of foods prepared on
premises to customers whose primary interest was dining.

The French Revolution (1789–1799) had a significant effect on the budding

restaurant industry. Along with the aristocracy, guilds and their monopolies were
generally abolished. The revolution also allowed the public access to the skills and
creativity of the well-trained, sophisticated chefs and pâtissiers who had worked in the
aristocracy’s private kitchens. Although many of the aristocracy’s chefs either left the
country or lost their jobs (and some their heads), a few opened restaurants catering to
the growing urbanized middle class.

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As the 19th century progressed, more restaurants opened, serving a greater

selection of items and catering to a wider clientele. By midcentury, several large, grand
restaurants in Paris were serving elaborate meals, decidedly reminiscent of the grande
cuisine (also known as haute cuisine) of the aristocracy. Grande cuisine, which
arguably reached its peak of perfection in the hands of Antonin Carême, was
characterized by meals consisting of dozens of courses of elaborately and intricately
prepared, presented, garnished and sauced foods. Carême was known for advancing
the art of the pâtissier by creating elaborate showpieces made with pastillage and pulled
sugar. A great innovator, he is credited with perfecting nougat, meringue,
croquembouche and millefeuille.

The Late 19th Century—Escoffier and Cuisine Classique

Following the lead set by the French in both

classic cuisine a late 19th- and early 20th-
culinary style and the restaurant business, century refinement and simplification of
restaurants opened in the United States and French grande cuisine. Classic (or
throughout Europe during the 19th century. classical) cuisine relies on the thorough
Charles Ranhofer (1836–1899) was the first exploration of culinary principles and
internationally renowned chef of an American techniques and emphasizes the refined
restaurant, Delmonico’s in New York City. In preparation and presentation of superb
1893, Ranhofer published his “francoamerican” ingredients
encyclopedia of cooking, The Epicurean,
containing more than 3500 recipes including recipes for flannel cakes and brandy
snaps.

One of the finest restaurants outside France was the dining room at London’s
Savoy Hotel, opened in 1898 under the direction of César Ritz (1850–1918) and
Auguste Escoffier. Escoffier is generally credited with refining the grande cuisine of
Carême to create cuisine classique or classic cuisine. By doing so, he brought French
cuisine into the 20th century.

The Mid-20th Century—Point and Nouvelle Cuisine

The mid-20th century witnessed a trend toward lighter, more

nouvelle cuisine
naturally flavored and more simply prepared foods. Fernand
French for “new
cooking”; a mid-20th-
Point was a master practitioner of this movement. But this
century movement master’s goal of simplicity and refinement was carried to even
away from many greater heights by a generation of chefs Point trained:
classic cuisine principally, Paul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, Alain
principles and toward Chapel, François Bise and Louis Outhier. They, along with
a lighter cuisine based Michel Guérard and Roger Vergé, were the pioneers of
on natural flavors, nouvelle cuisine in the early 1970s. In the world of the
shortened cooking pâtissier, Gaston Lenôtre made inroads by taking the classic
times and innovative pastries of grande cuisine and adapting them to a brighter,
combinations fresher style of pastry making.

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Their culinary philosophy was principled on the rejection of overly rich,

needlessly complicated dishes. These chefs emphasized healthful eating, using high-
quality fresh ingredients and simple cooking methods. The accompaniments and
garnishes must be light and contribute to an overall harmony; the completed plates
must be elegantly designed and decorated. Following these guidelines, pastry chefs
began to plate desserts in the kitchen, mimicking the creative and fanciful style of the
chefs’ savory food presentations. These early plated desserts often paired fresh fruit
sorbets and sauces with artfully presented cakes, mousses or tarts.

Return to Craftsmanship and the Artisan Bread Movement

During this period, a number of Parisian bread bakers, artisan a person who
notably Lionel Poilâne, sought to return simplicity to works in a skilled craft
quality bread making. The bread most often associated with or trade; one who
France—the long, golden-brown baguette with the white fluffy works with his or her
interior—is a 20th-century invention. In the 1920s a new mixing hands. Applied to
technique was introduced, which produced lighter, softer bread bread bakers and
than what had been available previously. During World War II, confectioners who
severe shortages forced bread rationing in France. The prepare foods using
scarce bread that was available during the war was made from traditional methods
whole grains extended with inferior ingredients such as ground
beans. According to French historian Jérôme Assire, this bread’s offensive taste
made the longing for pure white bread even more intense. Following the war, the
demand for fluffy white bread was greater than ever. New dough-mixing methods and
rack ovens capable of handling large numbers of loaves produced plenty of bread to
meet this demand.

In the 1960s Lionel Poilâne began working at his father’s bakery, where he
learned to make an old-style loaf of bread like that sold by bakers in 18th-century
Paris. Using a blend of whole-meal flours and long fermentation (rising) times, he
learned to bake breads on the stone floor of a wood-fired oven. Following his lead, other
bakers in Paris were similarly inspired to rediscover traditional ways of making flavorful
bread. These bakers inspired an international interest in producing what is called
artisan bread, bread made in traditional ways with the purest of ingredients.

The Late 20th and Early 21st Century – An American Culinary Revolution

During the last 40 years, broad changes have affected the culinary landscape in the
United States. During this period, restaurateurs and chefs began Americanizing the
principles of French nouvelle cuisine. When Alice Waters opened Chez Panisse in
Berkeley, California, in 1971, her goal was to serve fresh food, simply prepared.
Rejecting the growing popularity of processed and packaged foods, Waters wanted to
use fresh, seasonal and locally grown produce in simple preparations that preserved
and emphasized the foods’ natural flavors. Chez Panisse and the many chefs who

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passed through its kitchen launched a new style of new American cuisine a
cuisine that became known as new American late20th-century movement
cuisine. that began in California but has
spread across the United States;
As Waters’s culinary philosophy spread across it stresses the use of fresh,
the United States, farmers and chefs began working locally grown, seasonal produce
together to make fresh, locally grown foods available, and high-quality ingredients
and producers and suppliers began developing simply prepared in a fashion
domestic sources for some of the high-quality that preserves and emphasizes
ingredients that were once available only from natural flavors
overseas. European-style cultured butter from Vermont
and goat cheese from Sonoma, California, are just two examples.

Pastry chefs and bakers followed Waters’s lead. Those who fell under her
direct influence, including Lindsey Shere and Steve Sullivan, and others such as Nancy
Silverton, traveled to France to study as Waters had done. They returned with European
skills and a desire to serve desserts with freshness and simplicity. Pastry chefs and
bakers, exposed on their travels to the work of
fusion cuisine the blending or use of
Lenôtre and Poilâne, brought these influences into
ingredients and/or preparation
kitchens throughout this country. Combining
methods from various ethnic, regional ingredients and/or preparation methods, they
or national cuisines in the same dish; created a new American way with pastry.
also known as transnational cuisine
Others worked to rediscover American cooking
farm-to-table movement an and baking traditions. Lacking professional
awareness of the source of reference texts on the subject, professionals
ingredients with an emphasis on turned to cookbooks written for home consumers
serving locally grown and minimally for inspiration. Talented pastry chefs such as
processed fresh food in season Maida Heatter, whose 1974 book Maida Heatter’s
Book of Great Desserts became a well-thumbed
molecular gastronomy a culinary reference in professional kitchens in the 1970s
movement that investigates the use and 1980s, introduced the restaurant public to
of chemistry, physics and scientific homey desserts including Palm Beach Brownies
principles in restaurant cooking and Sweet Potato Pecan Pie.

By the mid-1980s, American chefs began a period of bold experimentation. They

began to combine ingredients or preparation methods of a variety of cuisines. Their
work resulted in fusion cuisine. With fusion cuisine, ingredients or preparation methods
associated with one ethnic or regional cuisine are combined with those of another.
French pastry cream flavored with star anise served with a banana spring roll and kiwi
Napoleon are examples of fusion-style preparations.

The culinary influences felt since the American food revolution began in the
1970s, now firmly rooted, have intensified. In these early decades of the 21st century,
there is a farm-to-table movement as chefs work in tandem with farmers to bring fresh
flavors while preserving local agriculture and heirloom varieties. The interest in locally

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raised ingredients has materialized into restaurants where chefs serve seasonal foods
such as spring berries or autumn apples found within a few miles of the establishment.

Pastry chefs are also experimenting in novel ways, defying conventional kitchen
wisdom and employing techniques more common in industrial manufacturing than in
classic kitchens. Inspired and influenced by modernist, experimental cuisine or
molecular gastronomy, a movement with roots in Spain and France, pastry chefs such
as Elizabeth Falkner, Will Goldfarb, Pierre Hermé and Johnny Iuzzini are reinventing the
notion of pastry and dessert, often with the use of dry ice and vacuum machines as well
as the freshest local ingredients.

For further readings and hereabouts, below is the link to visit for a TIMELINE of Bread
History:
https://www.preceden.com/timelines/284041-history-of-bread
https://www.dovesfarm.co.uk/hints-tips/bread-making/the-history-of-bread

BAKING AND PASTRY CAREERS

SINCE THE BEGINNING of the twenty-first century, the popularity of fine breads and
pastries has been growing faster than new chefs can be trained to support it. Those
entering careers in baking or pastry making today will find opportunities in many areas,
from small bakeshops and neighborhood restaurants to large hotels and wholesale
bakeries.

Restaurant and Hotel Food Service

As you learned earlier in this chapter, one of

Escoffier’s important achievements was the
reorganization of the kitchen. He divided the
kitchen into departments, or stations, based on
the kinds of foods they produced. A station chef
was placed in charge of each department. This
system, with many variations, is still in use today,
especially in large hotels offering traditional kinds
of food service. In a small operation, the station
chef may be the only worker in the department.
But in a large kitchen, each station chef might
have several assistants.

Station chefs in large kitchens include the

sauce chef (saucier), who is responsible for
sauces and sautéed items; the fish chef
(poissonier); the roast chef (rôtisseur); and the
pantry chef (chef garde manger). Desserts and
pastries are prepared by the pastry chef

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(pâtissier). Station chefs report to the executive chef, or chef de cuisine, who is in
charge of food production. In the largest kitchens, the duties of the executive chef are
mostly managerial. The executive chef may, in fact, do little or no cooking personally.
The sous chef assists the executive chef and is directly in charge of the cooking during
production.
The pastry department is usually separated physically from the hot kitchen, for at
least two important reasons. First, and most obvious, is that many desserts and
confections must be prepared in a cool environment. Second, the division helps prevent
creams, icings, and batters from absorbing the aromas of roasted, grilled, and sautéed
foods.

In a small to medium-size restaurant, the pastry chef may work alone, preparing
all the dessert items. Often he or she starts work early in the morning and finishes
before the dinner service starts. Another cook or the dining room staff then assembles
and plates the desserts during service.

In large restaurants and hotels, the chef in charge of baking and desserts is the
executive pastry chef. This is a management position comparable to the executive chef
in the hot kitchen. The executive pastry chef supervises workers in the department,
including specialists such as the bread baker (boulanger), who prepares yeast goods
including such breakfast items as brioche, croissants, and Danish pastry; the ice cream
maker (glacier), who makes frozen desserts; the confectioner or candy maker
(confiseur); and the decorator (décorateur), who prepares showpieces, sugar work,
and decorated cakes.

In hotels, the work of the baking and pastry department can be extensive,
including preparing not only desserts and breads for all the on-premise restaurants,
cafés, and room service, but also breakfast breads and pastries and all baked goods,
including specialty cakes and decorative work, for the banquet and catering
departments. Such large operations provide many opportunities for the baker wishing to
gain a wide range of experience.

Caterers, institutional volume-feeding operations (e.g., schools, hospitals, and

employee lunchrooms), executive dining rooms, and private clubs may also require the
services of bakers and pastry chefs. The required skills vary from one establishment to
another. Some prepare all their baked goods in-house, while others rely on convenience
products and finished wholesale bakery foods.

Bakeries

Retail bakeries include independent bakeshops as well as in-store bakery departments

in grocery stores and supermarkets. High-end supermarkets, in particular, have opened
many new opportunities for creative bakers and pastry chefs. A few grocery stores have
even installed wood-burning hearth ovens for baking handcrafted artisan breads.

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The head baker is the professional in charge of the production in a retail bakery.
He or she is in charge of a staff that may range from a few bakers who share most tasks
to, in a larger bakery, many specialists who work in different departments, such as
breads and yeast goods, cakes, and decorated items. Even bread-making tasks may be
divided among different workers, with some mixing, proofing, and making up the
doughs, and others baking the items and managing the ovens.
Although most independent bakeshops offer a full range of products, from breads
to cakes and pastries, some make their reputations on one or two specialty items, such
as cupcakes or artisan breads, and concentrate on those products. More specialized yet
are shops whose entire business consists of preparing and decorating celebration
cakes, such as for weddings, birthdays, and the like.

Wholesale bakeries accomplish the same tasks as retail bakeries, but their
production facilities may be more automated and industrialized. In them, equipment
such as mixers and ovens handle large volumes of doughs and baked goods. In
addition to finished items, wholesale bakeries may produce unfinished products such as
cake layers, cookie dough, and puff pastry dough for sale to restaurants, hotels,
caterers, supermarkets, and other food service operations.

Professional Requirements

What does it take to be a qualified baker or pastry chef?

The emphasis of a food service education, whether in baking and pastry or in the
hot kitchen, is on learning a set of skills. But in many ways, attitudes are more
important than skills because a good attitude will help you not only learn skills but also
to persevere and overcome the difficulties you may face in your career.

Mastery of skills is, of course, essential to success. There are, in addition, a

number of general personal qualities that are equally important for the new pastry chef
or baker just graduated from school who wants to advance in the industry. The following
sections describe a few of these important characteristics.

 Eagerness to Work
 Baking professionally is demanding, both physically and mentally. By the time
students graduate, they realize that those of their fellow students who have
been the hardest working— especially those who sought extra work and
additional opportunities to learn—are the most successful. Once they have
graduated, bakers and chefs who continue to give the greatest effort are the
ones who advance the fastest.

 Commitment to Learning
 A strong work ethic is empowered by knowledge, so it is important that you,
as a baking professional, make a commitment to your ongoing education:
Never stop learning. Read. Study. Experiment. Take continuing education
courses. Network with other chefs. Share information. Join appropriate

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professional associations, like the American Culinary Federation or the Retail

Bakers of America. Join the alumni association of your school and stay in
touch with your fellow graduates. Enter competitions, to hone your skills and
to learn from your competitors. Learn management and business skills. Keep
up with the latest developments in technology, baking techniques, and food
trends while you refresh your basic skills. Remember that learning to bake
and cook and manage a kitchen is a lifelong process.

 Dedication to Service
 Food service, as its name implies, is about serving others. Baking and
cooking professionally mean bringing enjoyment and a sense of well-being to
your guests. Providing good service requires sourcing high-quality ingredients
and handling them with care and respect; guarding the health of guests and
coworkers, paying full attention to food safety and sanitation; treating others
with respect; making guests feel welcome and coworkers feel valued; and
maintaining a clean, attractive work environment. Look after others, and your
own success will follow.

 Professional Pride
 Professionals take pride in their work, and want to make sure it is something
they can be proud of. A professional cook maintains a positive attitude, works
efficiently, neatly, and safely, and always aims for high quality. Although it
may sound like a contradiction, professional pride should be balanced with a
strong dose of humility, for it is humility that leads chefs to dedicate
themselves to hard work, perpetual learning, and commitment to service. A
professional who takes pride in his or her work recognizes the talent of others
in the field and is inspired and stimulated by their achievements. A good
baker or pastry chef also demonstrates pride by, in turn, setting a good
example for others.

VIDEO GUIDE:
For some thoughts about bakeries, let’s check this Documentary:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1Xg3EVFnJY&list=PLh0XpRR1ecilL0yMD
F1MOKuKlsufsjD-8&index=2

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Describe the influences on the baker and pastry chef in the 21st century.
2. Many contemporary confections and pastries are rooted in ancient recipes.
Use the Internet and library resources to research an early product such as
a cake, cookie or candy and discuss how its taste and preparation
technique has evolved over time.
3. Briefly describe how commercial kitchens were organized after the
invention of the stove in the eighteenth century.
4. Describe the organization of a large, modern hotel kitchen. Name and
describe specialty positions that may be found in large bakeries.

REFERENCE/S:
 ON BAKING: A TEXTBOOK OF BAKING AND PASTRY FUNDAMENTALS: THIRD
EDITION by: SARAH R. LABENSKY, PRICILLA A. MARTEL AND EDDY VAN DAMME

 PROFESSIONAL BAKING SIXTH EDITION BY: WAYNE GISSLEN

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