AC Fundamental-II

UNIT-III
e

Definition of Alternating Quantity

 e
 An alternating quantity changes
continuously in magnitude and
alternates in direction at regular
intervals of time. Important
terms associated with an
π/2 π 3π/2 2π ωt alternating quantity
Time Period (T)
 It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating
quantity Instantaneous Value

Frequency (f)
 It is the value of the quantity at any instant Frequency (f)

 It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz or
cycles/sec. The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as
follows.

 Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f
second

 T = 1/f
 Peak Value
 The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one
cycle is called its Peak value. It is also known as the maximum value
or amplitude or crest value.

 The sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains its peak value at 90 degrees

 The peak values of alternating voltage and current is represented by

Em and Im respectively
 Average Value
The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating
voltage and currents over one complete cycle is called Average
Value.
. If we consider symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current or
voltage waveform, the positive half cycle will be exactly equal to
the negative half cycle. Therefore, the average value over a
complete cycle will be zero
 only positive half cycle is considered to determine the
average value of alternating quantities of sinusoidal
waves. Let us take an example to understand it.
 Divide the positive half cycle into (n) number of equal
parts as shown in the above figure
 Let i1, i2, i3…….. in be the mid ordinates
 The Average value of current Iav = mean of the mid
ordinates
 RMS or Effective Value

 That steady current which, when flows through a resistor of known

resistance for a given period of time than as a result the same quantity
of heat is produced by the alternating current when flows through the
same resistor for the same period of time is called R.M.S or effective
value of the alternating current.
 In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of
means of squares of instantaneous values.
 Let I be the alternating current flowing through a resistor R for time t
seconds, which produces the same amount of heat as produced by
the direct current (Ieff). The base of one alteration is divided into n
equal parts so that each interval is of t/n seconds
 Let i1, i2, i3,………..in be the mid ordinates

 Then the heat produced in

Since I eff is considered as the effective value of this current, then the total heat
produced by this current will be

Now, equating equation (1) and (2) we will get

 Ieff
= square root of mean of squares of instantaneous values =
R.M.S value
 Root Mean Square is the actual value of an alternating
quantity which tells us an energy transfer capability of an AC
source.
 The ammeter records the RMS value of alternating current
and voltmeter record’s the root mean square (R.M.S) value of
alternating voltage. The domestic single-phase AC supply is
230 V, 50 hertz, where 230 V is the R.M.S value of
alternating voltage.
 The values of voltage and the current system in a DC circuit is
constant, so there is no issue in evaluating their magnitudes,
but in an AC system, the alternating voltage and current vary
from time to time and hence it is necessary to evaluate their
magnitudes.

 The following three ways (peak value, Average value and

R.M.S value) given above are adopted to express the
magnitude of the voltage and current.
 Peak Factor

 Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of maximum

value to the R.M.S value of an alternating quantity.
The alternating quantities can be voltage or current.
The maximum value is the peak value or the crest
value or the amplitude of the voltage or current.
 The root mean square value is the amount of heat
produced by the alternating current will be same
when the direct supply of current is passed through
the same resistance in the same given time.
 Mathematically it is expressed as:
 Where,
Im and Em are the maximum value of the current
and the voltage respectively, and Ir.m.s and Er.m.s are
the roots mean square value of the alternating
current and the voltage respectively.

 For the current varying sinusoidally, the peak

factor is given as:
 Form Factor

 The ratio of the root mean square value to the average

value of an alternating quantity (current or voltage) is
called Form Factor. The average of all the instantaneous
values of current and voltage over one complete cycle is
known as the average value of the alternating
quantities.
 Mathematically, it is expressed as:
Ir.m.s and Er.m.s are the roots mean square values of the
current and the voltage respectively, and Iav and Eav are
the average values of the alternating current and the
voltage respectively.
For the current varying sinusoidally, the Form Factor is
given as:
The value of Form Factor is 1.11
 Phasor
 A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating
line called a Phasor
 An alternating quantity can be represented using
1. Waveform
2. Equations
3. Phasor
 TYPES OF PHASOR

1. Phase
2. Phase Difference
3. In Phase
Phase
 Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period
or cycle through which the quantity has advanced
from the selected zero position of reference

 Phase of +Em is π/2 rad or T/4

sec
 Phase of -Em is 3π/2 rad or 3T/4
sec
Phase Difference
• When two alternating
quantities of the same
frequency have different zero
points,
• they are said to have a
phase difference. The
angle between the zero
points is the angle of
phase difference.
 In Phase
 Twowaveforms are said to be in phase, when the
phase difference between them is zero. That is the
zero points of both the waveforms are same. The
waveform, phasor and equation representation of
two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as
shown.
 Lagging

 thezero point of the current waveform is

after the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is lagging
behind the voltage. The waveform, phasor
and equation representation
 Leading

the zero point of the current waveform is

before the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is leading the
voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation
=

AC circuit with a pure resistance

 =

Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the

figure. The alternating voltage v is
given by
V= vm s i n w t … … … . ( 1 )

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage

across the resistor is given as VR which is the same v.
Using ohms law, we can write the following relations
 i = imsinwt ………………(2)
 From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive
circuit, the voltage and current are in phase. Hence the voltage
and current waveforms and phasors can be
 AC circuit with a pure inductance

Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown

in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

v =Vm sinwt…………..(1)
 i = Isin(wt - p / 2)……………(2)
From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in
a pure inductive circuit, the current lags
behind the voltage by 90⁰.Hence the voltage
and current waveforms and phasors can be
drawn as below.
The inductive reactance XL is given as

wL= 2pfL
AC circuit with a pure capacitance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure capacitance C as shown in the figure. The
alternating voltage v is given by

V= vm sinwt………..(1)

The current flowing in the circuit

i = Im sin(wt + p / 2)………….(2)

From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure capacitive circuit, the
current leads the voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms
and phasors can be drawn as below.
 Power
In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as

1. 1.Real or Active power

2. 2.Reactive power
3. 3.Apparent power
 Real Power
 The power due to the active component of current is called
as the active power or real power. It is denoted by P.

 P = V x ICosΦ = I2R

 Real power is the power that does useful power. It is the

power that is consumed by the resistance. The unit for
real power in Watt(W).
 Reactive Power

 The power due to the reactive component of current is

called as the reactive power. It is denoted by Q.

 Q = V x ISinΦ = I2XL

 Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the

circulating power in th L and C components. The unit for
reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR).
 Apparent Power

 The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is

denoted by S.
 S = V x I = I2Z

S =

 The unit for apparent power is Volt Amperes (VA).

 Power factor

 Power factor (PF) is the ratio of working power, measured in

kilowatts (kW), to apparent power, measured in kilovolt amperes
(kVA). ... It is found by multiplying (kVA = V x A). The result is
expressed as kVA units. PF expresses the ratio of true power used
in a circuit to the apparent power delivered to the circuit.
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