GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 REVIEWER

COUPLED REACTION
Energy Coupling Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Is when an EXERGONIC REACTION Is the energy currency of the cell
directly linked with an ENDERGONIC It is a molecule that stores energy within
REACTION which is done by sharing its bond and is highly unstable
intermediate product.
Components
Endergonic vs. Exergonic Reaction
❖ Adenine
In an endergonic reaction, energy is ❖ Ribose
absorbed from the surroundings during the ❖ Chain of phosphate group
reaction while exergonic reaction release
energy into the environment. Energy can
be in the form of light energy or heat
energy.
Example of Exergonic reaction is cell
respiration and catabolism
Example of Endergonic reaction is active
transport, cell movements, and CHLOROPHYLL AND OTHER
anabolism PIGMENTS
Pigments
Coupled Reaction-ATP
Are chemical compounds that are
The exergonic hydrolysis of ATP is
responsible for giving an organism their
coupled with the endergonic dehydration
characteristic color. They can absorb lights
process by transferring a phosphate group
of certain wavelengths.
to another molecule.
NOTE: The wavelengths that are absorbed are
the correct energy to excite electrons and
produce cellular energy. Reflected lights, the color
we can see, are wavelengths that are not enough
to excite electrons and is therefore reflected.
Pigments in plants
❖ Chlorophyll
❖ Carotenoid
❖ Phycobilin

Chlorophyll
Is the greenish pigment which is
responsible for capturing sunlight energy.
It has 2 types: chlorophyll a and b

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 REVIEWER
Chlorophyll a
It is the most abundant pigment in plant
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
which absorbs blue and red while
reflecting green.

Chlorophyll b Photosynthesis: Metabolic pathway that

Structurally similar to chlorophyll a but is uses light energy to turn carbon dioxide
less abundant. It helps increase the range (CO2) and water (H2O) into carbohydrates
of light a plant can use for energy since it (sugar)
can absorb light of 453nm and 642nm. • Also creates OXYGEN!

Carotenoids
They appear as red, orange, or yellow
pigments that absorbs light energy that
The process is cyclical, the products from
transfers it then to chlorophyll
one reaction are the reactants for the next
They are accessory pigments
reaction
Beta carotene is the most important
Photosynthesis has 2 parts
carotenoids
o Light-dependent: converts light
energy into chemical energy;
Phycobilin
produces oxygen and ATP to be
Cyanobacteria and algae are commonly
used in light-independent reaction
known to possess such pigment
o Light-independent: does not
It absorbs wavelengths that chlorophyll a
require light energy, uses CO2 and
cannot absorb
H2O to build sugars; powered by
Pigments in the Human Body ATP and NADPH also called the
CALVIN CYCLE
❖ Melanin
❖ Rhodopsin
❖ Hemoglobin
Melanin
is the main pigment in the skin where it is
made by cells called melanocytes.
2 forms: Eumelanin (appears brown or
brown black) and Pheomelanin (yellow to
red)
Rhodopsin
Located in the rods of retina which is the
light-sensitive layer at the back of the
eyeball.
Hemoglobin
Is a red protein and pigment inside the
erythrocytes that transports oxygen
around the body

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 REVIEWER
ions and one-half oxygen molecules. The H+
ions are released in the thylakoid space. The
Chloroplasts electrons replenish the electrons that is lost in
Thylakoid membrane: Highly folded PSII. The oxygen will combine to another one-
into stacks of interconnected half molecule of oxygen to form 1 molecule
thylakoids [Light-dependent reactions] and eventually exit the cycle a s a byproduct
• Folds in this membrane form disks in which it is now the oxygen that we breath
called thylakoids from the atmosphere.
• The membrane encloses a single, 4. The electron passes thru the ETC. They carry
continuous internal space out redox reaction as electrons flows down the
Stroma: Cytoplasm-like fluid inside ETC and releases energy that is used to pump
the chloroplast[Light-independent] H+ ions to the thylakoid space, contributing to
• thylakoid membrane, ribosomes, a proton gradient.
and chloroplast’s DNA are 5. The potential energy in the gradient is used to
suspended in the stroma make ATP thru the process of chemiosmosis.
6. Light energy is transferred to the PS I
Light-dependent Reactions pigments to the PS I reaction center complex,
exciting an electron of the P700 pair of
1. Light absorption in photosystem II
chlorophyll. Then this excited electron is
2. ATP synthesis
transferred to the PS I primary acceptor
3. Light absorption in photosystem I
forming a hole. This hole serves as a electron
4. NADPH formation
acceptor that came from the PS II thru the
ETC.
7. Electrons passed thru the protein
ferredoxin.
8. The NADP reductase catalyzes the transfer
of the electrons from the Fs to NADP in which
2 electrons are required for its reduction to
NADPH

1. Chlorophyll in the PSII will absorb the light

thru its light-harvesting complex. Electrons in
nearby pigment is raised to an excited state
with the energy relayed to each pigment until
it reaches the P680 pairs of chlorophyll a.
2. The electron is transferred from the excited
P680 to the primary acceptor.
3. Splitting of water. An enzyme catalyzes the
splitting of water into 2 electrons, 2 hydrogen

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 REVIEWER
Calvin Cycle • Electrons from NADPH reduce the carboxyl
group of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to the aldehyde
ATP and NADPH produced by the group of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).
light reactions are used in the Calvin - The product, G3P, stores more
cycle to reduce carbon dioxide to potential energy than the initial
sugar. reactant, 3-phosphoglycerate.
- G3P is the same three-carbon sugar
For the Calvin cycle to synthesize one produced when glycolysis splits glucose.
molecule of sugar (G3P), three • For every three CO2 molecules that enter the
molecules of CO2 Must enter the cycle. Calvin cycle, six G3P molecules are produced,
The cycle may be divided into three only one of which can be counted as net gain. -
phases: The cycle begins with three five-carbon RuBP
1. CARBON FIXATION molecules – a total of 15 carbons.
2. REDUCTION - The six G3P molecules produced
3. REGENERATION OF RUBP contain 18 carbons, a net gain of three
Phase 1: Carbon Fixation. The Calvin cycle carbons from CO2.
begins when each molecule of CO2 is attached - One G3P molecule exits the cycle;
to a five-carbon sugar, ribulose bisphosphate the other five are recycled to
(RuBP). regenerate three molecules of
• This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP.
RuBP carboxylase (rubisco) - the most abundant
protein on Earth! Phase 3: Regeneration of Starting Material
• The product of this reaction is an unstable six- (RuBP). A complex series of reactions
carbon intermediate that immediately splits into rearranges the carbon skeletons of five G3P
two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate. • For molecules into three RuBP molecules.
every three CO2 molecules that enter the Calvin • These reactions require three ATP molecules.
cycle via rubisco, three RuBP molecules are • RuBP is thus regenerated to begin the cycle
carboxylated forming six molecules of 3- again.
phosphoglycerate. For the net synthesis of one G3P molecule, the
Calvin cycle uses the products of the light
Phase 2: Reduction. This endergonic reactions:
reduction phase is a two-step process that - 9 ATP molecules
couples ATP hydrolysis with the reduction of - 6 NADPH molecules
3-phosphoglycerate to glyceraldehyde G3P produced by the Calvin cycle is the
phosphate. raw material used to synthesize glucose
• An enzyme phosphorylates 3- and other carbohydrates.
phosphoglycerate by transferring a phosphate • The Calvin cycle uses 18 ATP and 12
group from ATP. This reaction: NADPH molecules to produce one glucose
- produces 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate. molecule.
- uses six ATP molecules to produce six
molecules of SUMMARY OF
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- primes 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate • The Light Reactions capture the energy in
for the addition of high-energy sunlight and convert it to chemical energy
electrons from NADPH. in the form of ATP and NADPH using
photosystems, electron transport chains,
and chemiosmosis.
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 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 REVIEWER
• The Calvin Cycle uses the energy Anaerobic respirations use relatively less
transformed by the light reactions along amount of energy as the glucose is not
with carbon dioxide to produce organic completely broken down as compared to
compounds. aerobic cellular respiration due to the
presence of oxygen in the process of
Photosynthetic Equation respiration.

Aerobic Anaerobic
Respiration Respiration
Definition Aerobic Anaerobic
respiration respiration
involves involves
energy energy
production, production,
by breaking by breaking
down the down the
glucose glucose
using without
oxygen. using
AEROBIC vs. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION oxygen.
Requirements It involves It involves
the presence the presence
Aerobic respiration process is dependent on
of oxygen of only
oxygen whereas the anaerobic respiration and glucose oxygen for
does not depend on oxygen for energy for the the process
production. The process of cellular respiration process to to take
either happens in the mitochondria or in the take place. place.
cytoplasm by either the Aerobic or the End Products Carbon Ethanol,
Anaerobic Respiration mechanism. Dioxide and Lactic acid
Aerobic Respiration is the sub-category of Water are and Carbon
cellular respiration that uses oxygen to produced as dioxide are
produce energy from food. The term Aerobic the produced as
is derived from the word Oxygen itself. The byproducts the
by-product of aerobic cellular respiration is of the byproducts.
carbon dioxide and Adenosine triphosphate process.
Amount of It involves a It involves a
(ATP).
Energy high amount relatively
Anaerobic Respiration is the sub-category of Production of energy low amount
cellular respiration that does not use oxygen production of energy
to produce energy from food. The term due to the production
Anaerobic is derived from the word Not presence of due to the
Oxygen itself. The by-product of oxygen to absence of
anaerobic cellular respiration is lactic acid and completely oxygen to
ATP. Keep in mind that ATP is the energy breakdown completely
currency of all the cells. glucose. breakdown
glucose.

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