AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Subject Teachers: Mr. Ankit Kumar

Mr. Kapil Kumar

UNIT-1
Lecture – 01
Introduction to Automobile Engineering
 Contents
• Introduction
• Definition
• Classification of vehicles
• Layout of automobile chassis
• Components of automobile
• Functions of major components of an automobile
 Introduction
• Automobile engineering is the one of the stream
of mechanical engineering.
• It deals with the various types of automobiles,
their mechanism of transmission systems and its
applications.
• Automobiles are the different types of vehicles
used for transportation of passengers, goods, etc.
• Basically all the types of vehicles works on the
principle of internal combustion processes or
some times the engines are called as internal
combustion engines.
 Introduction contd..
• Different types of fuels are burnt inside the
cylinder at higher temperature to get the
transmission motion in the vehicles.
• Most of the automobiles are internal
combustion engine vehicles only.
• Therefore, every mechanical and automobile
engineer should have the knowledge of
automobile engineering its mechanism and its
various applications.
 Definition
• The automobile is a self propelled vehicle that
travels on land
• An automobile is a wheeled vehicle carrying
its own motive power unit
• Motorized vehicle consisting of four wheels &
powered by an internal engine.
• Automobile Engineering is a branch of
engineering which deals with designing,
manufacturing & operating of automobiles.
• The automobile carries people primarily for
their personal transportation.
 Classification of Automobiles
1. Based on Purpose :
– Passenger vehicles: e.g: Buses, Cars, passenger
trains.
– Goods vehicles: e.g: Goods lorry, Goods carrier.
– Special Purpose: Ambulance, Fire engines, Army
Vehicles.
2. Based on Load Capacity:
– Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor
vehicle (HMV), e.g. trucks, buses, etc.
– Light transport vehicle (LTV) e.g. pickup, station
wagon, etc.
– Light motor vehicle (LMV), e.g. cars, jeeps, etc.
3. Based on fuel used:
– Petrol engine vehicles - motorcycle, scooter, cars,
etc.
– Diesel engine vehicles - trucks, buses, etc.
– Gas vehicles (CNG) - LPG and CNG vehicles, where
LPG is liquefied petroleum gas and CNG is
compressed natural gas
– Electric vehicles - battery drive
– Steam Engine vehicles e.g: Steamboat, steam
locomotive, steam wagon.
5. Based on number of wheels and axles:
– Two wheeler : motorcycles, scooters
– Three-wheelers : Tempo, auto-rickshaws
– Four wheeler : car, Jeep, Bus, truck
– Six-wheelers : Buses and trucks have six tires out
of which four are carried on the rear wheels for
additional reaction.
– Six axle wheeler : Dodge(10 tire) vehicle
6. Based on type of transmission:
– Automatic transmission vehicles - gears are not
required to be changed manually.
• It is automatically changes as per speed of the
automobile.
– Manual transmission vehicles (or) Conventional
vehicles) e.g. car with 5 gears.
– Semi-automatic transmission vehicles: Vehicles
that facilitate manual gear changing with a clutch
pedal (a modified shift lever)
Semi-automatic transmission vehicles:
7. Based on Suspension system used:
– Convectional – Leaf Spring
– Independent – Coil spring, Torsion bar, Pneumatic.

8. Based on Utility:
– Sports car
– Luxury car
– Special Vehicle (Bulldozer, earth scrappers etc)
9. Based on body:
– Sedan with two doors
– Sedan with four doors
– Station wagon
– Convertible, e.g. jeep, etc.
– Van
– Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van,
etc.
10. Based on Position of Engine
• Engine in Front : Most of the vehicles have
engine in the front. Example : most of the cars,
buses, trucks in India.
• Engine in the Rear Side: Very few vehicles have
engine located in the rear. Example : Nano car.
– Rear Engine front wheel drive: appeared in 1932; used
only by a few prototypes
– Rear Engine rear wheel drive: very common in transit
buses and coaches due to the elimination of the drive
shaft with low-floor bus.
Engine positions-(Front)
Engine positions-(Rear)
Layout of an Automobile
 Main components of an Automobile
• The basic structure - body fitted on chassis (It
supports the engine, wheels, body, braking
system, steering, etc.)
• The engine or the power plant- source of power
• The transmission system
• The auxiliaries or accessories including light, air
conditioner/heater, stereo, wiper, etc.
• The controls
• The super structure
1. The Basic Structure
• It is a unit on which the remaining units are
built to make a complete automobile.
• It consists of:
– Frame
– The suspension system
– Axles
– Wheels
1.1 Frame
• A frame is the main structure of the chassis of a motor
vehicle. All other components fasten to it.
The Functions of the Chassis frame are:
1. To carry all the stationary loads attached to it and loads of
passenger and cargo carried in it
2. To withstand torsional vibration caused by the movement
of the vehicle
3. To withstand the centrifugal force caused by cornering of
the vehicle
4. To control the vibration caused by the running of the
vehicle
5. To withstand bending stresses due to rise and fall of the
front and rear axles.
1.1.1 Classification of frames
• Conventional frame: square or box shaped
steel frame. The body is superimposed on it
• Integral frame or frameless construction: The
body structure is designed in such a manner
that it combines the function of body and
frame
1.1.2 Types of Frames
• Ladder frame : It is now seen mainly on trucks
– Ladder frames offers good beam resistance- so it’s
generally preferred for towing or carrying heavy
loads and for aggressive off-road driving.
– It’s also easier to modify these vehicles’
suspensions to make room for additional wheel
travel or larger tires and wheels
– poor resistance to torsion
• Unibody (or unitized body or frameless)
– in which the body of the vehicle, its floor plan and
chassis form a single structure
– is generally lighter and more rigid than a vehicle
having a separate body and frame.
– Ex- SUVs,
• This setup integrates the frame into the body
construction so it’s a single piece.
• Because it doesn’t rely on heavy steel rails like
those of a body-on-frame vehicle, unibody
construction cuts significant weight out of the
vehicle, allowing for better fuel economy.
• It also offers better handling and ride comfort
and is safer, since the entire body can absorb
the energy forces in a crash.
• X-frame
– This is the design used for the full-size American
models of General Motors in the late 1950s.
– It was specifically chosen to decrease the overall
height of the vehicles
– It did not provide adequate side-impact and
collision protection
• Perimeter frame (similar to ladder)
– In addition to a lowered roof, it allows lower
seating positions, and offers better safety in the
event of a side impact
– the design lacks stiffness
• Platform frame
– modification of the perimeter frame
– luggage compartment floor have been integrated
– the most well-known of this is the Volkswagen
Beetle
• Space frame
– chassis, suspension, engine, and body panels are
attached to a three-dimensional skeletal frame of
tubes
– to maximise rigidity and minimise weight, the
design makes maximum use of triangles
– Jaguar C-Type racing sports car
• Subframe
– the rigid subframe can handle high chassis forces
– are used to attach the suspension to the vehicle
– The Lamborghini Aventador
Comparison of Conventional Frame
and Frameless construction
1.1.3 Advantages of frameless construction

• Light in weight & hence fuel efficient

• Manufacturing cost is less
• Safe for passengers during collision
• More stable automobile can be made because
of the lower body construction.
1.1.4. Disadvantages of frameless
• Less strength and durability
• Cost of repair is high
• Economical only if adopted in mass production
• Cars without roof are difficult to design
1.2 Suspension System
• Springs, shock absorbers and related parts
between the wheels and the car body makeup
the suspension system
Functions:
• Prevent road shocks from being transmitted
• To preserve the stability of vehicle
• Maintain proper steering geometry
• Provide good road holding while braking etc.
1.2.1 Classification of Suspension System

• Rigid (non-independent) system: Road springs

are attached to a rigid beam axle
• Independent system: It does not have a rigid
axle. In this each wheel is free to move
vertically without any reaction on its mating
wheel.
1.3 Axles
• These are the shafts on which road wheels are
mounted.
Loads:
• Vertical load at spring center due to weight of
vehicle
• Torque reactions due to drive or brakes
1.4 Wheels
• Used to take the load of vehicle
• Produce tractive force to move the vehicle
• Also used for retardation/stopping the vehicle
2. The Engine or Power Plant
• It provides power to drive the automobile
 Engine or Power Plant contd..

• The engine is the power plant of the vehicle

• In general, internal combustion engine with
petrol or diesel fuel is used to run a vehicle
• An engine may be either a two-stroke engine or a
four-stroke engine
• An engine consists of a cylinder, piston, valves,
valve operating mechanism, carburetor (or MPFI
in modern cars), fan, fuel feed pump and oil
pump, etc.
• Besides this, an engine requires ignition system
for burning fuel in the engine cylinder.
That’s all for this lecture…
~THANK YOU~
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT-1
Lecture – 02
 Contents
• Components and their function in an
automobile continued
• Anatomy of an automobile
• Advantages and disadvantages of front & rear
wheel drive
• Introduction to four-wheel drive
• Application of I.C. Engine
3. The Transmission System
• Used to carry power from the engine to the drive
wheels
• Transmission system must do three jobs :
– It must provide varying gear ratios. Number of gear
ratio are equal to number of gears in a vehicle
– It must provide a reverse gear for moving vehicle in
reverse direction
– It must provide a neutral or disconnecting
arrangement so that the engine can be uncoupled
from the wheels of the vehicle
Note: In a conventional transmission
system, there is a clutch, a manually
operated transmission (gear box), a
propeller shaft and a differential or final
drive.
Major parts:
– Clutch
– Gear box (also called transmission)
– Propeller shaft (or drive shaft)
– Differential
Main functions of transmission system:

• Disconnect engine from road wheels when

desired
• Connect engine to driving wheels without
shock
• Reduce engine speed in a fixed ratio
• To protect engine from overload when starting
3.1 Clutches
• Manual transmission have a clutch
• It temporarily disconnect the engine from
wheels
3.2 Gear Box
• Provides necessary variation to the torque
applied by the engine to the wheels
3.3 Propeller Shaft
• It connects the gear box and the differential
unit
• Universal joints
– These provide for the relative movement between
the engine and the driving wheel due to flexing of
road springs
• Bevel pinion
– Used to turn the drive round through 90o
– Also provides a permanent reduction in speed
3.4 Differential
• It is to split power received from the propeller
shaft to the rear axle shaft
• It allows the rear wheels to be driven at
different speeds when the vehicle take turn
 There are 3-types of Drive Trains
• Rear wheel drive vehicle
– Engine has longitudinal mounting
• Front wheel drive vehicles
– Engine mounts sideways (transverse)
• Four wheel drive vehicles
– There is a transfer case (or box) which divides the
torque equally between front and rear axles
Advantages of Rear wheel drive (RWD)

• Weight distribution is even

• During heavy acceleration, it improves traction
• No torque steer- this means an unequal amount of
stress is put upon the drive shafts by the engine torque
and that's what causes the car to pull to one side
• Better handling and braking
• Drive train components on a RWD vehicle are modular
and do not involve packing as many parts in to a small
space as in FWD
➢ Thus, requiring less disassembly
Disadvantages of RWD

• Under heavy acceleration, over-steer may occur

– have a tendency to turn more sharply than intended
• On a snow, ice and sand RWD loses its traction
• Have less front leg room
– Often no seat for a centre rear passenger
• Increased weight
• High initial purchase price
• Long propeller shaft

• Note: Corvette and Camaro (sports cars) are RWD and

are more exciting to drive
Advantages Front Wheel Drive

• Vehicle may be less expensive for consumers

• Better fuel mileage
• Get better traction in snow and rain
Disadvantages of Front Wheel Drive

• Handling suffers
– handling the vehicle around corners and curves
isn’t as strong especially at faster speeds
Note: On winding roads, you’ll likely notice a
difference between the two
• Lack of weight shifting limit the acceleration
– Weight shifts back during acceleration giving more
traction to rear wheel
➢Reason for all racing cars are RWD
Advantages of Four Wheel Drive
• Traction is nearly doubled
• It provides the versatility and power to take
on any terrain or weather condition
Disadvantages of Four Wheel Drive
• Require more machinery & complex
transmission components, so cost is high
• Rotational inertia & power transmission is
high so reduction in performance in ideal dry
condition
• Hand brakes cannot be used as drive train
couples the front & rear axle together
 All-Wheel Drive (AWD) vs. Four-Wheel Drive (4WD)
• There is no difference except that AWD has
become an accepted description for a car that
drives all of the wheels, all of the time
• When 4WD vehicles are driven on normal road
surfaces, 4x4 must be deselected and the vehicle
driven in two wheel drive
• 4WD is generally accepted as a car or more
typically a larger SUV
➢ Example: All-Wheel Drive car- Subaru Foreste,
Honda CR-V
All-Wheel Drive (AWD) vs. Four-Wheel Drive (4WD)---
Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rHMDtEPeuQM
4. The Auxiliaries
• It refers to electrical equipments
– Supply system: A car has two sources of electricity
• Battery & alternator in the charging system
– Starting motor: Requires electricity to crank the
engine
– Ignition system: Requires electricity to deliver
spark to the cylinder
– Ancillary devices: Lights, horns, radio & air-
conditioner
5. The Controls
• 5.1 Steering system
– Manual steering: uses a rack and pinion to turn
the rotational movement of the steering wheel
into the back-and-forth movement
– Power Steering: uses an engine-mounted pump
to pressurize a two-way ram
– There are three main power steering components-
• power steering pump
• power steering fluid reservoir
• steering gear box
5.1.1 Manual Steering System

• There are two steering systems in common

use - the rack and pinion and the steering box
– Rack and pinion
• A universal joint in the
steering column allows
it to connect with the
rack without angling
5.1.2 Steering Box System

• At the base of the steering column there is

a worm gear inside a box
• The steering-box system has many moving
parts, so is less precise than the rack system
Animation of Manual Steering
System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b0DKNIQFuzg&t=4s
 5.2 Power Steering System
• The engine drives a pump that supplies oil under
high pressure to the rack or the steering box
• Valves in the steering rack or box open whenever
the driver turns the wheel, allowing oil into the
cylinder
• The oil works a piston that helps to push the
steering in the appropriate direction
• As soon as the driver stops turning the wheel, the
valve shuts and the pushing action of the piston
stops
• The power only assists the steering - the steering wheel is still
linked to the road wheels in the usual way.
• So if the power fails, the driver can still steer but the steering
becomes much heavier.
5.2.1 Types of Power Steering

• Hydraulic power steering

– Use hydraulic fluid
• Electric power hydraulic steering (EPHS)
– Drive belts and pulleys that drive a power steering
pump, are replaced by a brushless motor
– It is driven by an electric motor and thus also
reduces the amount of power taken from engine
 5.2.2 Electric power
hydraulic steering (EPHS)
Electric power hydraulic steering
(EPHS)-Overview
5.2.3 Fully electric power steering(EPS)
– In these systems, the steering movement
is assisted by an electric motor
– The electric motor is either attached to
the steering rack or to the steering
column
– The very important component is the
electronic control unit (ECU) that controls
the steering dynamics
➢ EPS are often preferred for the fuel
economy and lower emission
5.2.4 Next-Generation Electric Power Steering

• Ford, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Honda and GM

are introducing steering systems with variable
ratios on some platforms
• Some automakers are also calling this adaptive
steering
➢The ratio continually changes with vehicle
speed, optimizing the steering response in all
conditions
5.3 Braking System
• Brakes are used to slow down or stop the vehicle
• Hydraulic brakes are generally used in automobiles,
where brakes are applied by pressure on a fluid
• Mechanical brakes are also used in some vehicles.
These brakes are operated by means of leavers,
linkages, pedals, cams, etc.
• Hand brake or parking brake is known usually
mechanical brake. These are used for parking the
vehicles on sloppy surfaces and also in case of
emergency.
• Types of brakes:
– Drum Brakes
– Disc Brakes
– Combination of two
6. The Super Structure
• A vehicle body superstructure includes a first
side rail member, a second side rail member, a
roof member, and a gusset.
• The roof side surface extends along a
breadthways direction of the vehicle body and is
connected to the roof member
• Main purpose is to provide accommodation for
the driver & passenger with suitable protection
against wind & weather
• The degree of comfort provided depends upon
the type of car & its cost
 APPLICATION OF I. C. ENGINE :

• Road vehicles * Aircraft * Locomotive * Construction Equipment

Pumping set * several Industries
• Small Two Stroke Petrol Engine : Used when operation is simple
and requirement of low cost of prime mover (scooters, pumping
sets etc.)
• Small Four Stroke Petrol Engine : Used in automobiles, generators,
pumping set.
• Two Stroke Diesel Engine : High power, generally used in ship
propulsion.
• Four Stroke Diesel Engine : Mostly used engine, have diameter 50
to 600 mm, speed ranges from 100 to 4400 rpm, power developed
is 1 to 1000 kW. Used in pumping sets, construction machinery,
drilling rigs, tractors, diesel electric locomotive, mobile & stationary
electric generation plants
That’s all for this lecture…
~THANK YOU~
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT-1
Lecture – 03
POWER & TORQUE
CHARACTERISTICS
Lecture-03
 Contents
• Engine performance
• Various types of power analysis w.r.t. engine
• Dynamometer
• Engine power and torque curves
Engine Performance
• How its input varies over the entire range of
its operation
• To see how effectively the conversion from
fuel energy to engine power is carried out
• The efficiency & specific fuel consumption
curves are also studied
– The main variables considered are: speed, load,
mean effective pressure & air-fuel ratio
Power
• Power is the rate at which work is done
– It considers the length of working hours or days
• There are factors that is affecting the power
such as mass, momentum, inertia, torque,
work and energy
• There are also ways to measure those factors
Engine Power
• Most common unit power: Horse Power (hp)
– Measure of the rate at which a horse can work
• 1 hp = 746 Watts = 0.746kW
• 1 kW = 1.34 hp
• Horse power can be calculated as:
hp = (torque * rpm)/ 5252
– This formula is used when measuring engine performance
with a chassis or engine dynamometer
Various types of Powers Available w.r.t. Engine

• Indicated horse-power (ihp)

• Brake horse-power (bhp)
• Frictional horse-power (fhp)
• Taxable horse-power (Thp)
• Drawbar horse-power (Dhp)
1. Indicated Horsepower
• Power developed inside the combustion chambers
during combustion
• Power generated in the cylinder & received by piston
• It is determined by measuring the pressure in the
engine cylinder
• It is essentially a measure of the total potential horse
power the engine is capable of developing
• Pm = indicated mean effective pressure, kPa
• L = length of stroke, m
• A = area of cylinder cross section, m2
• n = no. of working strokes per second, rps
• K = no. of engine cylinders

Some of the power developed is lost in overcoming

the internal friction in the engine
2. Brake Horse-Power (or belt horse power)
• Actual usable horsepower available at the engine
crank-shaft to do work
• It does not remains constant with changes in engine
speed
• The available power of an engine, assessed by
measuring the “force needed to brake it”
• The amount of power tells how fast work can be
done
• Brake horsepower is measured using a Dynamometer
• When N is in rpm & T is in kgf-m

• When N is in rps & T is in Nm

3. Frictional Horsepower
• Power required to overcome the friction of the
internal moving parts
• Major cause of friction loss is piston-ring friction
(account almost 75% of all friction losses)
• Fhp = ihp - bhp
4. Taxable Horsepower (or SAE Horsepower)
• It was an early system by which taxation rates
for automobiles were reckoned in some European
countries
• It helps in categorizing engines on a uniform basis of
their displacements
• Although the formula does not give an accurate
indication of the actual horsepower developed
5. Drawbar Horsepower
• A large proportion of horsepower goes waste in
overcoming various resistances such as road,
gradients & wind resistance
• Rest of the power is utilized to propel the vehicle
called Drawbar-horsepower
• dhp = bhp - resistances
Engine Torque
• Engine torque results from combustion pressures
pushing down on the pistons
• The torque at the crankshaft is produced by the force
applied on the conrod journal through the
connecting rod
• The magnitude of the force F depends on the
combustion pressure within the cylinder.
• The higher the pressure in the cylinder, the higher
the force on the crankshaft, the higher the output
torque
• The dynamometer measures the engine’s torque by
recording the force it exerts against the resistance of
brake
• The length of the lever arm has impact on the
overall engine balance
• Increasing it too much can lead to engine
imbalance, which results in higher forces in
the crankshaft journals
Engine dynamometer
• Engine speed is measured using a sensor on
the crankshaft (flywheel)
– Technically, this is possible but not applied in the
automotive industry
– Because of the operating conditions of the
crankshaft (temperatures, vibrations)
• Therefore, engine torque is measured on the full
range of speed and load, using a dynamometer (test
bench), and mapped (stored) into the engine control
unit.

• The dynamometer is basically a brake (mechanical,

hydraulic or electrical) which absorbs the power
produced by the engine
• Electric dynamometer is actually an electric machine
that can be operated as a generator or motor
• By varying the generator’s load torque, the engine
can be put in any operating point (speed and torque)
• Also, with the engine at fuel cut (no fuel injection),
the generator can be run as an electric motor to spin
the engine
• This way engine friction and pumping torque losses
can be measured
• The rotor is connected to the crankshaft
• The link between rotor and stator is electromagnetic
• The stator is fixed through a lever arm to a load cell
• To balance the rotor, the stator will push against the load cell
• The torque T is calculated by multiplying the force F measured
in the load cell with the length of the lever arm (a)
• What comes out from a dynamometer engine test
are torque maps (surfaces) which give the value of
the engine torque at a specific engine speed and load
(stationary operating points)
• The load of the engine is equivalent to the position
of the accelerator pedal
Other mechanism of Dynamometer

• The electronic control module (ECM) of an ICE has

the torque map stored in the memory
• It calculates (interpolates) the engine torque function
of the current engine speed and load
• In the ECM, the load is expressed as intake manifold
pressure for gasoline (spark ignition, SI) engines and
injection time or fuel mass for diesel (compression
ignition, CI) engines
Plotting the torque and power data, function of engine speed
and load, gives the following surfaces:

• For SI Engine For CI Engine

For SI Engine
For CI Engine
For a better interpretation of the torque and power maps, a 2-D
torque line can be plotted for a fixed value of the accelerator
pedal position.
• There is a linear relationship between the engine
torque (T) and its brake mean effective pressure
(bmep)

• Thus, the bmep is directly proportional to the engine

torque and is independent of the engine speed
Engine Power & Torque Curves

• Torque and power of an IC engine depend on

both engine speed and load
• Usually, engine manufacturers are publishing
the torque and curve characteristics (curves)
at full load (100% accelerator pedal position)
• Full load torque and power curves highlight the maximum
torque and power distribution through the whole range of
engine speed
• The shape of the above torque and power curves are
not from a real engine, the scope being to explain
the main parameters
• The horsepower does not start at zero because an
engine will not run at zero speed
• Horsepower increases as the engine speed and load
increases
• Engine reaches its max horsepower of Pmax at NPmax
rpm
– An engine can run faster than this but, horsepower begins
to decrease afterwards
• Engine speed Ne [rpm] is characterized by four
main points:
Nmin – is the minimum stable engine speed at full load
NTmax – is the engine speed at maximum engine torque
NPmax – is the engine speed at maximum engine power; also
called rated engine speed
Nmax – is the maximum stable engine speed
• At minimum speed, the engine should run smoothly,
without oscillations or stalling
• The full load engine torque curve Te is characterized by
four points:
– T0 – engine torque at minimum engine speed
Tmax – maximum engine torque (peak torque or rated torque)
TP – engine torque at maximum engine power
TM – engine torque at maximum engine speed
• Depending on the type of intake air (atmospheric or
turbocharged) the peak torque can be either a point or a
line
• For turbocharged or supercharged engines, maximum
torque can be kept constant between two engine speed
values
• The full load engine power curve Pe is characterized
by four points:
– P0 – engine power at minimum engine speed
Pmax – maximum engine power (peak power or rated
power)
PT – engine power at maximum engine torque
PM – engine power at maximum engine speed
Low End Torque Zone

• The higher the torque in this area, the better the

launch/acceleration capabilities of the vehicle
• When the engine is operating in this area, at full
load, if the road resistance increase, the engine
speed will decrease, which will result in a drop of
engine torque and an engine stall
• For this reason, this area is also called unstable
torque zone
Power Band Zone

• During vehicle acceleration, for best performance,

the gearshift (up) should be performed at maximum
engine power
• Depending on the gear ratios of the gearbox, after
the gearshift, the selected gear will drop the engine
speed at maximum torque, which will give optimum
acceleration
• Shifting the gears at maximum engine power will
keep the engine speed within the power band
• When the engine speed is kept between NTmax and
Nmax, if the vehicle road resistance increases, the
engine speed will drop and the output torque will
increase, thus compensating for the road load
increase
• For this reason, this area is called the stable torque
region.
High End Torque Zone

• Higher torque results in higher output power,

which translates in higher maximum vehicle
speed and better acceleration at high speed
That’s all for this lecture…

~THANK YOU~
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT-1
Lecture – 04
Specific Fuel Consumption
• Specific fuel consumption is the amount of fuel
consumed by a vehicle for each unit of power output
• The specific fuel consumption of an engine is the rate
of fuel burnt to produce a unit of thrust
• Depending upon the amount of power used (viz.
indicated or brake), the consumption is termed as
– Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption- can be defined as a
generic function of relative spark timing, mixture
air/fuel ratio and exhaust gas recirculation rate.
Brake-specific fuel consumption
• It is a measure of the fuel efficiency of any prime
mover that burns fuel and produces rotational, or
shaft power
• It is typically used for comparing the efficiency
of internal combustion engines with a shaft output
– It is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the
power produced.
– To calculate the actual efficiency of an engine, the energy
density of the fuel being used
• The lower the brake specific fuel consumption, the
more efficient is the engine
• For spark ignition engine the BSFC is around 250
g/kWh and for compression ignition engine
around 200 g/kWh
Engine efficiency function of BSFC

• Fossil fuel like gasoline and diesel are characterized

by a very high energy density
• Due to the combustion process and principle of
working of the internal combustion engine, only a
fraction of the total fuel energy ends up as
mechanical energy at the crankshaft
Overview of the energy losses in an ICE powered vehicle
Overview of the energy losses in an ICE
powered vehicle
• After combustion, around 30% of the energy is lost
through heat, in the engine components
• Another 30% of the energy is lost in the exhaust
gases
• This gives around 40% as indicated energy from
which we extract the friction and pumping loses
• The overall efficiency of the engine ends up to be
around between 25% – 40%
• The efficiency of an internal combustion engine can
be calculated function of the brake specific fuel
consumption and the lower heating value (LHV) of
the fuel

– ηf – fuel conversion efficiency (engine efficiency)

– BSFC [g/kWh] – brake specific fuel consumption
– QHV [kWh/g] – fuel lower heating value
Summary of BSFC

• If the load is increased whilst the engine speed

remains constant, the fuel efficiency decreases due
to:
– The spark being retarded as the engine becomes knock
limited
• If the engine speed is increased whilst the load
remains constant, the fuel efficiency is dominated by
the:
– Increasing engine friction
Summary Contd…

• If the load is decreased whilst the engine speed

remains constant, the fuel efficiency is dominated by
the:
– Increasing pumping work
• If the engine speed is decreased whilst the load
remains constant, the fuel efficiency is dominated by
the:
– Increasing heat losses
Volumetric Efficiency

• The ratio of the volume of the air or gaseous

mixture inducted in a given time into the cylinder at
atmospheric condition surrounding the engine, to
the total piston displacement of all the induction
strokes during same time
• For a supercharged engine, the volumetric efficiency
is based on the temperature & pressure conditions in
the intake manifold
• With the increase in engine speed, charge velocity is
increased, which decreases the charge inducted as a
higher pressure drop is then required
• However, the ramming effect caused by the inertia
of the charge, increases the charge inducted
• As the two effects vary differently with speed, the
volume of the charge inducted in a given time
increases, attains a maximum & then decreases
– And so is the volumetric efficiency derived
• For un-supercharged engines, the maximum volumetric
efficiency is about 80% at specific speed
• Volumetric efficiency depends upon the engine speed
and load as well as layout of the inlet and the exhaust
systems, sizes of the ports & valve timing
 Resistance Forces on A Vehicle
A vehicle faces various types of resistances while
attempting to move from a stall condition or while
accelerating
• To sustain motion, this resistance must be overcome
by the powerplant of the engine
• Power produced < Resistance to motion
– Vehicle will gradually slow down
• Vehicle slows down- if we go uphill or if wind blows
from front or a poorly inflated tyre
• These are the resistances that force the vehicle to
slow down under their effect.
Broadly, the resistances can be categorized into:
The major components of the resisting forces to motion
are comprised of :
• Inertia (FI) or Acceleration resistance
• Aerodynamic or Air resistance (Fa)
• Gradeability requirements (Fg)
• Rolling resistance (Frr )
F = Fa + FI + Frr + Fg
Note: Inertia (FI)- This comes into the picture only when
a vehicle accelerates or decelerates, while the other
three always offer a resistance when the vehicle is
moving at a constant speed
Air Resistance/Aerodynamic drag

• When a body travels with in a dense medium, the

molecules of the medium collides with the moving
object and thereby absorb some of the energy
• If the medium is denser, then the resistance is more
• Also, when the object moves at a faster speed, the
resistance increases proportionately
• Mathematically
Pressure distribution above and below the body structure
Gradient Resistance
• When the vehicle travels uphill, a component of its
weight works in a direction opposite to its motion
• If some energy is not supplied to overcome this
backward force, then the vehicle would slow down,
stall and roll backwards
• If a vehicle is trading uphill at a slope θ, then the
weight of the vehicle, W has two components
– Perpendicular to the road surface
– Along the road surface
• The component along the road surface is the one
that tries to restrict the motion
• The gradient resistance is given by
F = W Sinθ
Rolling Resistance
• When a vehicle rolls, it rolls with its tires in contact
with the road surface
• Relative motion of two hard surfaces produces a
friction
• Neither the road nor the tire are perfectly rigid,
hence both flex under the load slightly
• As there is gradual deformation at the contact
between the road and the tire, the slip of the tire
w.r.t. the road produces another type of loss of
energy which results in a resistance
Rolling resistance is composed of the following
components:
• Tyre rolling resistance (FR,T)
• Road rolling resistance (FR,Tr)
• Resistance due to tyre slip angle (FR,α)
• Resistance due to bearing friction and residual
braking (FR,fr)
• Hence the rolling resistance offered may be written
as:
FRR = (FR,T) + (FR,Tr) + (FR,α) + (FR,fr)
• The tyre rolling resistance FR,T is a result of the
resistance due to flexure of the tyre, air resistance on
the tyre and friction of the tyre with the road
That’s all for this lecture…

~THANK YOU~
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT - 1
Lecture 05

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 Contents
• Introduction to gear box
• Purpose of gear box
• Types of transmission system

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Gear Box
• The gearbox is the second stage in the
transmission system, after the clutch
• It is usually bolted to the rear of the engine ,
with the clutch between them
• Modern cars with manual transmissions have
four or five forward speeds and one reverse,
as well as a neutral position.

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• The gear lever , operated by the driver, is connected
to a series of selector rods in the top or side of the
gearbox. The selector rods lie parallel with shafts
carrying the gears.
• Number of gears needed depends on:
– Engine torque
– Load to be moved
– Speed of the vehicle

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Purpose of Gear Box
• It produces a mechanical advantage
– Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque
while reducing the speed of a prime mover output
shaft (e.g. a motor crankshaft).
– This means that the output shaft of a gearbox rotates
at a slower rate than the input shaft, and this
reduction in speed produces a mechanical advantage,
increasing torque.
– The transmission provide the torque needed to move
the vehicle under a variety of road & load conditions

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• The low gears covering a shorter distance and
are useful when speed is low
• It can be shifted into reverse, so the vehicle
can move backwards
• It can be shifted into neutral for starting the
engine & running it without turning the drive
wheels
• To provide a means to take power away from
the gearbox to power auxiliary components

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Types of Transmissions
• Manual Transmission

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• The simplest and oldest type of transmission
still in use is the trusty manual.
• This gearbox uses a friction clutch modulated
by the driver’s foot to connect the engine’s
rotational energy to the transmission’s input
shaft
– From there, a fixed set of gears are engaged using
a synchro and gear-selector fork connected to the
shifter operated by the driver’s left hand (or right,
in certain countries).

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• Note: Aside from its inherent simplicity,
performance, and fuel economy, perhaps the most
compelling case for the venerable stick shift is the
driving experience itself
– For true driving enthusiasts, nothing can beat the feeling
of a perfectly timed shift on a good old manual.
– This type of transmission is also known as a "stick shift" or
a "standard" transmission.
– They also offer the best fuel economy and manual
transmission vehicles are typically a bit cheaper.

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• Automatic Transmission

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• Manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, but
they are more complex to use
• Many drivers either don’t know how to drive a
manual transmission or do not like the extra work
involved
• For such drivers, the best type of transmission is an
automatic transmission
• This type of transmission can automatically change
gear ratios as the vehicle moves, meaning the driver
does not have to shift gears manually

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• It uses a highly-complex torque converter to
transmit the engine’s rotational energy, while gear
shifts are controlled by the vehicle’s computer and
accomplished with a planetary gear set and a series
of clutches and brakes
• Though most automatics can’t match a manual
transmission for performance or fuel economy,
modern examples are much closer than previous
generations

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 Available automatic transmission cars in India

• MARUTI SUZUKI CELERIO

• TATA NEXON
• TOYOTA YARIS
• HONDA AMAZE
• MARUTI SUZUKI VITARA BREZZA
• MARUTI SUZUKI DESIRE
• HUNDAI VERNA

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• Continuously variable transmission (CVT)

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• The CVT offers a similar driving experience to an
automatic, but operates using a completely
different mechanism
• In fact, the CVT doesn’t have gears at all — instead,
it uses a system of belts and pulleys to produce an
infinite range of ratios
• The car’s computer decides how to adjust the pulleys
to create the optimal ratio for the particular driving
situation

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• This creates the CVT’s primary advantage: fuel
economy
– a CVT can keep the engine in its optimum power
range, thereby increasing efficiency and gas mileage
• Since they’re not as complicated as automatics, CVTs
are less prone to failure (though not as much so as
manuals)
• Their biggest drawback may be a subjective one —
the driving experience
– Since there are no gearshifts, just smooth and seamless
acceleration, CVTs may leave a true driving enthusiast
feeling like he or she is operating an appliance instead of
driving a car

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• Note:- The CVT’s belt-driven design offers
approximately 88% efficiency, which is lower than
that of a manual transmission, but this can be offset
by lower production cost and by enabling the engine
to run at its most efficient speed for a range of
output speeds.

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Available CVT automatic transmission cars in India

• Maruti Suzuki Baleno

• Nissan Micra XL CVT
• Honda Amaze VX CVT
• Honda City SV CVT
• Toyota Corolla Altis CVT

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Pros of CVT vs Automatic Transmission

• A key benefit of the CVT is its ability to change its

gear ratio continuously as the engine speed changes
– This means the engine is always operating at its peak
efficiency
• A CVT draws top engine power from a small engine,
which gives drivers quicker acceleration than
standard automatic transmissions
• Because of their greater ability to control the engine
speed range, CVTs produce fewer emissions

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• CVTs are also lighter weight than traditional
automatic transmissions
– You get better fuel economy, especially in city driving
• As for the driving experience, some drivers comment
that the CVT car ride is extremely smooth compared
to normal automatic transmissions
– They like that they notice RPM or engine speed changes
only when the car is cruising or accelerating.

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Cons of CVTs vs. Automatics
• CVT-equipped vehicles can make it seem like the
engine is droning loudly under hard acceleration
• Servicing a CVT is different from servicing an
automatic transmission
– CVTs need special oil, transmission fluid, and parts
• CVT-equipped vehicles find transmission repair is
more expensive than compared to automatic
transmission repair or replacement

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• Other common problems CVT-equipped vehicle
include the occasional sudden loss of acceleration
and overheating
• Drivers complain of jerking, slipping, and shuddering
• CVT belts can suffer excessive stretching and wear
• Some owners have experienced transmission failure

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Department of Mechanical Engineering,
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Helical Gear vs Spur Gear
• Because of the angle of cut, helical gear teeth have a
much more gradual engagement with each other
– They operate more smoothly and quietly than
spur gears
• Helical can transmit more torque
– At any time, more number of teeth are in mesh
• Helical gears also exerts undesirable axial thrust
– To prevent this, double helical gears are used

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Department of Mechanical Engineering,
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In Unit -1

• We will study 3 types of gearboxes used in vehicles:

– Sliding mesh type
– Constant mesh type
– Synchromesh type
• In vehicles mostly constant mesh and synchromesh is
used
• Sliding mesh is used in low speed vehicles
– where there is less chance of damage to gear teeth
• For High speed vehicles use synchromesh type
gearbox
• For passenger cars or commercial vehicles (like 3-
wheelers) mostly use constant mesh gearbox
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Sliding Mesh Type Gear Box

• It is the simplest type of gearbox

• The arrangement of gears is in a neutral position
– (The gear housing and bearing are not shown)
• The clutch gear is fixed to the clutch shaft
– It remains always connected to the drive gear of
the counter-shaft

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Department of Mechanical Engineering,
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• Three other gears like first speed, second speed and
reverse speed gear are also rigidly fixed to the
countershaft or also known as lay-shaft
• Two gears mounted on the splined main shaft which
can slide by the shifter yoke when the shaft lever is
operated

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When Gear is neutral

• In this position of the gear, the engine power is

not transmitted to the gear axle
– The clutch gear is transmitting the power to gear on
the countershaft and the countershaft further not
transmitting line power to main shaft
• Remember that in a neutral position, just the
clutch shaft gear is engaged to the countershaft
gear
– Other gears are free, and therefore the transmission
main shaft is not rotating

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Sliding Mesh Gear Box Working

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Department of Mechanical Engineering,
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Department of Mechanical Engineering,
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Department of Mechanical Engineering,
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Department of Mechanical Engineering,
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Application
• It is the oldest type of gearbox used in early
19s models of cars
– Alfa 12HP used sliding mesh gearbox with 4 -
speed manual transmission
– Fiat 6HP used 3-speed manual transmission
– Mercedes 35HP used 4-speed manual
transmission
– Renault Voiturette used manual 3-speed
transmission
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Animation of Sliding Mesh Gear Box
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1EvThvz-8k

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• Advantages
– Simple in design
– Low cost components, hence cheap
• Disadvantages
– Changing of gears is not easy
– Mechanical efficiency is very low
– It has spur gears which are noisy

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

192
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That’s all for this lecture…

~THANK YOU~

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

193
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AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT - 1
Lecture 06
Constant Mesh Gear Box

• Constant Mesh Gearbox was invented to overcome

the limitations of the sliding mesh gearbox.
• In this gearbox, all the gears are always in mesh.
• The gear remains fixed and not slide like the sliding
mesh gearbox.
• A constant mesh gearbox usually comes with 4-speed
1-reverse manual transmission configuration.
• Constant gear mesh gearbox employed helical gears
for power transmission.
• The gears are rigidly fixed in the lay shaft.
• The gears in output shaft rotates freely without engaging with
shaft, thus not transmitting power.
• To engage the gears with output shaft dog clutch is used.
• The dog clutch is shifted by the selector fork moved by gear
lever.
• To provide reverse gearing a idler gear is used.
• Sliding dog clutches are provided on the main shaft
– Dog clutch slides on the main shaft to rotates with it
• When the gear lever is pushed, the gear selector fork pushes the
dog clutch.
• The dog clutch engages the gear and the output shaft, thus
power from lay shaft now transmitted to output shaft.
Constant Mesh Gear Box
Main Parts of Constant Mesh Gearbox:

1. Shafts – There are 3 shafts present in this gear box which are :
• Main Shaft- It is also known as output shaft.
– It is the splined shaft over which the dog clutches along with gears are mounted.
– Gears on this shaft are free to rotate.
• Lay Shaft or Counter Shaft-
– It is an intermediate shaft between the Main Shaft and Clutch Shaft.
– The gears of counter shaft are in constant mesh with gears of main shaft.
– Also the gears of counter-shaft are not free to rotate as they are directly connected to the
Counter Shaft.
• Clutch Shaft-
– The clutch shaft carries the engine output to the gearbox but act as input for the gearbox.
– It is also known as input shaft.
2. Dog Clutch

• The dog clutch couples the lay shaft and main

shaft by interference and not by friction.
• It is a device for coupling two shafts in order to
transmit motion
– One part having teeth which engage with slots in another

• Dog clutches are used where slip is undesirable

• There are usually two dog clutches in a
Constant Mesh Gear Box.
Dog Clutch Animation
Dog Clutch Animation
 Links for Constant Mesh Animation

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K2IfBlea9
cc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Y7rcikX
GyE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wCu9W9
xNwtI
3. Gears:
– Gears of constant mesh gearbox come in pairs.
– All gears of lay shaft or counter shaft are always paired
with gears of main shaft or output shaft.
– This paired gears of counter shaft and main shaft
provide different gear ratio which can be transmitted to
main shaft by engaging dog clutch with appropriate gear
ratio required.
– Two type of gears are used in constant mesh gearbox:-
• Helical Gears: These gears have angular cut teeth over cylindrical cross-section metal
body.
• Bevel Gears: These gears have angular cut teeth over conical cross-section metal
body.
Advantages

• Utilization of helical gears

– The double helical gears and the helical gears are
extremely beneficial owing to their quieter
operating capabilities
• Any harm is suffered entirely by the dog
clutch teeth
– The teeth belonging to the gear wheels remain
intact
Disadvantages

• It is less efficient than the others due to higher

mesh teeth
– Skill is required for it
• The double clutch mesh is required
– This is required to have the spinning movements
of the shaft
 Construction of Constant Mesh
Gearbox:
• The output of the engine is carried by clutch
shaft.
• The gear in clutch shaft is in constant mesh with
the gear of lay shaft.
• There are 5 gears in lay shaft, one of which is
connected to gear of clutch shaft and the other 4
are connected with gears of main shaft.
• All four gears are of different sizes to obtain
different gear ratios.
• An idler gear is present between the gear of lay
shaft and gear of main shaft to form reverse gear.
Working of Constant Mesh Gearbox:

• When the dog clutch is engaged with different gears of main

shaft, different gear ratios are obtained as gears of main shaft
are always paired with gears of counter shaft to form different
gear ratios.
• If the dog clutch is not in contact with any gear of main shaft the
gears of main shaft rotates freely and does not rotates the main
shaft as they are connected with main shaft using bearings.
• The main shaft rotates only when one of the dog clutch is
engaged with any of the gear of the main shaft.
• Reverse gear is obtained in this gearbox using the same
technique that was in sliding gearbox i.e using the idle gear
between main shaft gear and counter shaft gear.
Different gear ratios in Constant Mesh Gearbox:

• First Gear:
– First gear is obtained in constant mesh gearbox when dog clutch
gets engage by interference with the largest gear of main shaft
which is in constant mesh with smallest gear of main shaft.
– This gear provides maximum torque and minimum speed to the
main shaft.
• Second Gear:
– Second Gear is obtained when dog clutch gets engage with second
largest gear of main shaft which is in a constant mesh with second
smallest gear of lay shaft.
– This gear provides higher speed and lower torque than first gear.
• Third Gear:
– Third gear is obtained when dog clutch engages with second smallest gear of main shaft
which is in constant mesh with second largest gear of lay shaft.
– This gear more speed and less torque than second gear.
• Fourth Gear:
– This gear provides the highest or maximum speed in a vehicle using constant mesh
gearbox.
– This gear is obtained when dog clutch engages with smallest gear of main shaft which is in
constant mesh with largest gear of lay shaft.
• Reverse Gear:
– In this gear the vehicle goes in reverse direction.
– Like sliding mesh gearbox, an idler gear is also used in constant mesh gearbox between
the main shaft gear and lay shaft gear to form reverse gear.
– Reverse gear is obtained when dog clutch engages with gear in main shaft which is paired
with idler gear.
 Advantages of Constant Mesh Gearbox:
• Constant Mesh Gearbox are quieter because helical or
herringbone gears can be used in this gearbox instead of spur
gears.
• Since the gears are engaged by dog clutches, if any damage
occurs while engaging the gears, the dog unit members get
damaged and not the gear wheels.
• Application:
– Constant mesh gearbox was mainly used in farm trucks, motor
bikes and heavy machinery.
– It is also used in cars like Ford Model
– Constant Mesh Box was used in motor bikes before the
introduction of synchromesh gearbox in 1928 by General Motors.
What problems of Sliding Mesh Gearbox were solved by
Constant Mesh Gearbox ?

• The shifting of gears was very noisy process as spur gears were used
but in constant mesh gearbox the gear shifting process becomes very
less noisy as helical gears and bevel gears are used.
• In sliding mesh gearbox, gears to be messed were in continuous
rotation, so the meshing of gears can cause breakage of gear teeth or
wear and tear of gears.
– This problems was solved by constant mesh gearbox by introducing dog
clutches.
• Shifting was not an easy task for drivers and requires special skill to
change gears using double-de-clutching technique.
– But changing gears become easy for drivers after introduction of constant
mesh gearbox.
 Synchromesh Gear Box

• The Synchromesh gear box is similar to the constant mesh type in that
all the genes on the main shaft are in constant mesh with
corresponding gear on the layshaft.
• The gears or the layshaft are fixed to it while those on the main-shaft
are free to rotate on the same.
• It’s working is also similar to the constant mesh type, but in the former
there is one definite improvement over the later.
– This is the provision of synchromesh device which avoids the necessity of
double declutching.
• The parts which ultimately are to be engaged, are first bought into
frictional contact which equalizes their speed, after which there may
be engaged smoothly.
• Recapping the process,(of last point in previous slide) downshifting
from fourth to third:
1. Press in the clutch pedal.
2. Place the shifter in neutral.
3. Release the clutch.
4. Tap the throttle.
5. Press in the clutch pedal once more.
6. Place the shifter into third gear.
7. Release the clutch pedal.
Synchromesh Gear Box contd..

• It is the latest version of Constant mesh type

• It is a manually operated transmission in
which, change of gears takes place between
gears that are already revolving at the same
speed
• In this type of gearbox, gears can rotate freely
or locked on layout shafts
• Synchromesh is really an improvement on
dog clutch
• The synchronizer is the main part of
this gearbox that stabilizes the speed
– kind of clutch which lets components
turning at different speeds
• This synchronizer consists two parts:
– Synchro cone
– Baulk ring
• Cone is the part of a gear and ring is the part of
the synchronizer
• The baulk ring prevents the gears engaging
before they are rotating at correct speeds
• While engaging, the ring will gradually slide into
the cone and the friction will slow or speeds up
the gear wheel
• Finally, it stabilizes the speed of synchronizer gear
and thus revolves at the same speed
• The gears on the lay-shaft are fixed to it while
those on the main shaft are free to rotate on the
same
 Synchromesh Gearbox Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=slH9-02NbYg
Advantages

• Smooth and Noise free shifting of gears which

is most suitable for cars
• No loss of torque transmission from the
engine to the driving wheels during gear shifts
• Double clutching is not required
• Less vibration
• Quick shifting of gears without the risk of
damaging the gears
Disadvantages

• It is extortionate due to its high manufacturing

cost and the number of moving parts
• When teeth make contact with the gear, the
teeth will fail to engage as they are spinning at
different speeds which causes a loud grinding
sound as they clatter together
• Improper handling of gear may easily prone to
damage
• Cannot handle higher loads
• Historically, heavy-duty freight truck
transmissions do not have synchronizers.
That’s all for this lecture…

~THANK YOU~