CEng 112n: Building Technologies

Lesson 05: METALS AND Lesson Summary:

This lesson discusses metals
METAL WORKING and how they are used as building
material. This also includes
discussion on the types of metals,
• Metals • Metal Fasteners as well as their types, production,
and products.
• Ferrous Metal Screw
Bolts
Learning Objectives:
History of Ferrous Metal Rivets
Soldering, Brazing, Welding • Identify the different metals
Development
that are used in building
Types of Ferrous Metal
Advantages and • Structural Steel construction.
Disadvantages • Discuss the different products
Construction
Production of ferrous and non-ferrous
Types of Steel Types of Steel Connections metals utilized as building
Steel Products Types of Steel Frame Construction materials.
• Discuss the different methods
• Nonferrous Metals of fastening metals.
• Understand what steel
Zinc construction is.
Tin
Chromium
Magnesium
Titanium
Aluminum
Copper

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METALS
Elementary substances which are crystalline when solid, characterized by opacity, ductility,
conductivity, and luster

FERROUS METALS
a metal having iron as base metal

A. HISTORY OF FERROUS METAL DEVELOPMENT

1000 B.C Wrought Iron was used for sculptures and weapons
5th – 15th
Development of blast furnace.
Century
End of 15th
Cast iron was developed for cannons.
Century
1700’s Invention of Coke (Coal-Cake)
1784 Wrought iron was further developed by Henry Cort.
1856 Bessemer Process was introduce and began the mass production of Steel

B. TYPES OF FERROUS METALS

a. Cast Iron – hard, brittle, non-malleable (non-shapeable or formed by hammering or pressure) iron
based alloy with carbon, 2.0% - 4.5%, and silicon, casted in sand mold and machined.
Malleable Cast Iron – cast iron annealed by transforming the carbon content into graphite or
removing it completely
b. Wrought Iron – a tough, malleable, relatively soft iron that is readily forged and welded, having a
fibrous structure containing approximately 0.2% carbon and small amount of uniformly distributed
slag
c. Steel – iron-based alloys having a carbon content less than that of cast iron and more than that of
wrought iron

C. ADVANTAGES D. DISADVANTAGES
a. Sturdy and rigid a. Low tolerance to heat which requires fire proofing
b. Durable b. High production cost
c. Recyclable material c. Deteriorates by oxidation
d. Time saving d. Heavy (7850 kg/m3)
e. High strength to weight ratio e. High thermal expansion
f. Versatile

E. PRODUCTION OF STEEL
DIRECT ELECTRIC
REDUCTION ARC
Output: Solid,
Raw Iron Metallic Iron
FURNACE
RAW MATERIALS

Coal Ore
+ STEEL
Undergoes Recycled Metal REFINING
Destructive Coke
Used as Output: Molten Steel
FACILITY
distillation
on coke fuel
oven BLAST BASIC
+ OXYGEN
FURNACE
Limestone Hot air is blasted for FURNACE
Used as a flux or cleaning,
smelting Blast-Furnace
flowing or purifying agent
Output: Pig Iron Slag
SMELTING PROCESS
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STEEL WORKING PROCESS

Continuous
Casting Sheets, Plates, Strips,
SLABS
Pipes and Tubes

CASTING AFTER
BILLETS Bars, Rods, Wires,
PROCESS Pipes and Tubes PRODUCTION
TREATMENT
Mold Casting (Optional)
Output: Ingots Structural Steel/
BLOOMS Section, Seamless
Pipes and Tubes

Pig Iron – crude iron that is drawn from a blast furnace and cast into pigs in preparation for conversion
into cast iron, wrought iron or steel
Ingot – a mass of metal cast into convenient shape for storage or transportation before further
processing
Blooms - Round or square, more than 230 cm2 in cross-sectional area (≈15cm x 15cm)
Billets - Round or square, less than 230 cm2 in cross-sectional area (≈15cm x 15cm)

Steel Working Methods

a. Hot-Working – metal working at a temperature b. Cold-Working – metal working below the
high enough to permit the metal to recrystallize, temperature at which recrystallization
to acquire a new granular structure with new occur.
crystals because of plastic deformation. 1. Cold-Rolled – roll metal at a
1. Hot- Rolled – roll metal at high temperature below recrystallization;
temperature; with dark, oxidized, and increases tensile strength or improve
relatively rough finish. surface finish.
2. Casting – pouring molten metal into a form. 2. Extrusion – forming a metal with a
3. Die Casting – forcing molten metal into a desired cross section by forcing it
metallic mold under hydraulic pressure. through a die with a pressure ram.
4. Forge – form metal by heating and 3. Cold-Drawn – metal drawn through a
hammering. set of dies to reduce its cross sectional
area without pre-heating.

After Production Treatment – process by which formed or worked metals are treated for additional
strength or for corrosion resistance.

Methods of Treating Metals

a. Heat Treatment – controlled heating and cooling of a metal to develop desired physical and
mechanical properties.
1. Annealed – heating below recrystallization and gradually cooled; removes internal stresses and
adds ductility to the metal.
2. Quench – rapid cooling or the immersion to water of a heated metal; increases hardness.
3. Tempered – reheating at a lower temperature and slow cooling of the metal.
4. Case-Hardening – outside surface hardened by carburization which unites iron to carbon;
interior is tough and ductile.

b. Cladding/Plating – bonding one metal to another; usually used to protect the inner metal from
corrosion.
Corrosion – gradual deterioration of metal, by chemical reaction, when exposed to weather,
moisture, or other corroding agents.

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Methods of Cladding Metals Types of Cladding
1. Electroplating – to plate with an Sacrificial Anode
adherent metallic coating by Anodize (by Electrolysis) Aluminum or Magnesium
electrolysis. Chrome Plate Chromium
2. Dipped/Dipping – to plate a base Galvanize or Hot-Dip
metal by dipping it into a tank Zinc
Galvanize
containing a sacrificial anode. Tin Plate Tin
80% Lead
Terne Plate Terne
20% Tin

F. TYPES OF STEEL
a. Carbon Steel – unalloyed steel with residual Types of Carbon Steel Carbon content
elements, such as carbon, manganese, 1. Mild steel or soft steel 0.15% - 0.25%
phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon, are controlled 2. Medium steel 0.25% - 0.45%
Carbon Strength and Hardness 3. Hard steel 0.45% - 0.85%

Content Ductility and Weldability 4. Spring steel 0.85% - 1.80%

b. Alloy Steel
Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Manganese,
Carbon Steel +
Molybdenium, Nickel, Tungsten, or Vanadium

Types of Alloy Steel

1. Stainless Steel – 12% chromium, highly resistant to corrosion
2. High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel – low-carbon steel (mild steel), less than 2% alloys, for
increased strength, ductility, and resistance to corrosion
3. Weathering Steel – high-strength, low-alloy steel (forms an oxide coating which adheres
firmly the base metal)

G. STEEL PRODUCTS
a. Merchant Bars – common steel shapes that consists of rounds, squares, flats, strips, angles and
channels, which fabricators, steel service centers and manufacturers cut, bend and shape into
products

I-Beam Wide Flange HP-Shape Channel

Equal Angle Unequal Angle Structural Tee Zee Bar

Square Bar Flat/Rectangular Bar Round Bar

Square Tube Rectangular Tube Pipe

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Types of Merchant Bars
1. S-Shape or I-Beam – hot-rolled section having an I-shape with slope inner flange designated
by letter S
2. Wide Flange or W-Shape – hot-rolled section having an H-shape with parallel flanges
3. HP-Shape – hot-rolled section similar to W-shape having flange and web of the same thickness
4. Channel (designation: C) – hot-rolled section having a rectangular C-shape
5. Angle or Angle Iron – hot-rolled section having an L-shape
6. Structural Tee – section cut from W- or S-shapes to make a T-shape sections
7. Zee or Z-Bar – rolled metal bar having a Z-shaped cross section with internal right angles
8. Bars – a long, solid piece of metal, esp. one having a square, rectangular or other simple cross-
sectional shape
9. Structural Tube/Pipe – hollow shape of square, rectangular or circular cross-section.
Designated by prefix TS
Types of Structural Pipe:
Standard (Pipe Standard) Standard weight and wall thickness
Extra Strong (Pipe X-Strong) Increased weight and wall thickness
Double-Extra Strong (Pipe XX-Strong) Wall thickness greater than x-strong

b. Reinforcements – a system of steel bars, strands or wires for absorbing tensile, shearing, and
sometimes the compressive stress in a concrete member or structure
1. Deformed Reinforcing Bar (Rebar) – a reinforcing bar hot-rolled with surface deformations
to develop greater bond with concrete

Standard Rebar Sizes

Rebar Diameter
Uses
size inches mm
#3 3/8 10 Temperature bars, stirrups, ties
#4 4/8 or 1/2 12 Slabs, bundled bars stirrups
#5 5/8 16 Minimum bars for column, beams, footing
#6 6/8 or 3/4 20
#8 8/8 or 1 25
#9 9/8 28
#10 10/8 or 1 1/4 32
#11 11/8 36 Maximum bar for bundles

Rebar Identification Markers

Color Code Rebar Color Coding
Main Rib/ White for Grade 33
Lug Yellow for Grade 40
Green for Grade 60
Producing Red for Weldable Rebar
Mill Symbol

Bar Size Steel Types

“S” for Billet Carbon Steel
Steel Type “W” for Low-Alloy Steel
“R” for Rail Steel
Grade Mark
“A” for Axle Steel

2. Threaded Steel Bars – threaded plain or deformed bars for easy splicing
3. Wire Fabric – mesh manufactured with either plain or deformed, sometimes welded or woven

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 CEng 112n: Building Technologies
4. Corrosion-Resistant Reinforcement – reinforcements treated to protect steel reinforcements
a.) Epoxy-Coated d.) Cathode Protection
b.) Galvanized e.) Chemical and Mineral Protection
c.) Stainless
5. Prestressing Materials – used for pre-stressed concrete
a.) Seven Strand Wire b.) Wire c.) Bars

c. Metal Sheets – metal in thin sheets or plates. Used in manufacture of ductwork, flashing, and
roofing.
Sheets are equal or less than 6 mm while Plates are more than 6 mm.
1. Plain sheets or Flat Sheets
2. Corrugated Metal – drawn or rolled into parallel ridges and furrows Corrugated Types
for additional mechanical strength
3. Metal Decking – strengthened for use on floor or root decking by
cold-rolling a series of ribs or flutes into it, usually galvanized. Span
capability depends on the thickness and depth of corrugations
Rib Types

Types of Metal Decking

a.) Form Decking – serves as permanent formwork for a reinforced
concrete slab until the slab can support itself
b.) Composite Decking – serves as permanent formwork and Form Decking
tensile reinforcement for a concrete slab bonded Depth: ½” to 2 ½”
c.) Roof Decking – decking used to cover the roof, usually used as
base for roof insulation
d.) Cellular Decking – manufactured by welding a corrugated steel
sheet to a flat steel sheet, forming a series of raceways for
Composite Decking
electrical wires and cables Depth: ½” to 3”
e.) Acoustic Decking – contain glass fiber between the perforated
webs of ribbed decking or in the perforated cells of cellular
decking, used as a sound-absorbing cells

Roof Decking
Depth: 1 ½” to 7”

Composite Cellular Roof Cellular Acoustic Decking

4. Expanded Metal – sheet metal slotted and stretched into a stiff,

open mesh or lattice, used especially as lath
5. Checkered Plate – steel or cast-iron plate having a waffle like
pattern
6. Black Plate – cold-rolled sheet steel before pickling or cleaning,
Checkered Plate
used for coating zinc, tin, or terne metal.

Metal Sheet Gauge

THK THK THK THK
Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
8 4.37 14 1.98 20 0.95 26 0.48
9 3.97 15 1.76 21 0.87 27 0.44
10 3.57 16 1.59 22 0.80 28 0.40
11 3.18 17 1.43 23 0.71 29 0.36
12 2.78 18 1.27 24 0.64 30 0.32
13 2.38 19 1.11 25 0.56 31 0.28

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d. Light Gauge Metals – metal sheets rolled to produce different profiles for different uses
Profiles (Sections)
1. Steel Studs – used to support wall; light wall construction, usually vertical
Return Web Flange Return
1 5/8” 1 1/4” 3/8”
2 1/2” 2” 1/2”
Length: 3.00 m or more
3 5/8” 3” 5/8”
4” 1”
Web Flange 6”

a.) Web – load bearing member

b.) Flange – cladding anchorage surface, also, load bearing member
c.) Return – stiffener
d.) Knockout – pre-punched holes for electrical conduits, mechanical, and piping

2. Steel Tracks – used to brace steel studs horizontally, usually used as top and bottom runners
or as head and sill plates at openings
Web Leg
1 5/8” 1 1/4”
2 1/2” 2”
Length: 3.00 m or more
3 5/8” 3”
Web Leg 4”
6”
a.) Leg – larger legs are used for or as structural support, which may be slotted

3. Steel Furring – used to raise a surface for 4. Channel 5. Ceiling Runner

damp prevention or for surface leveling

U Channel
Tee Runner
Hat Furring Zee Furring
Depth: 1” – 1 1/2” Depth: 1” – 2”

C Channel
Wall Angle

NONFERROUS METALS
Metals containing little or no iron

A. ZINC (Zn) – blue-white metal that is low in strength, relatively brittle and moderately hard

B. TIN (Sn) – soft, ductile silvery metal that forms a self-protecting oxide layer

C. CHROMIUM (Cr) – very hard metal that can be polished to a brilliant mirror finish; does not corrode
in air

D. MAGNESIUM (Mn) – strong, remarkably lightweight metal (less than ¼ of steel density)

E. TITANIUM (Ti) – low in density (1/2 of steel density), very strong, and one of the most corrosion-
resistant metal; relatively expensive

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8293) it shall be unlawful for anybody to copy and reproduce these manual whether in part or in whole without the written consent of
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F. ALUMINUM (Al) – ductile, malleable, silver-white metallic element that is used in forming many
hard, light alloys, often anodized for better corrosion resistance, color and surface hardness

Production of Aluminum
BAUXITE - Principal ore of Aluminum consisting of 45% - 68% Aluminum Oxide, Ferric Oxide
and various other impurities

BAYER PROCESS – Process generally employed to refine Alumina from Bauxite

ALUMINA (Aluminum Oxide) - Natural or Synthetic Oxide of Aluminum, used in Aluminum

production, Ceramics and Electrical insulation

REDUCTION – Process of bringing to the metallic state by removing nonmetallic

constituent
ALUMINUM
Aluminum Products
a. Heat-Treatable Alloy – aluminum alloy capable of gaining strength by heat treatment

b. Non-Heat-Treatable or Common Alloy – aluminum alloy capable of gaining strength by cold-

working

c. Alclad – aluminum product with an aluminum alloy that is anodic to the core alloy, thus protecting
it physically and electrolytically against corrosion

d. Duralumin – light, strong alloy of aluminum, copper, manganese, and magnesium

G. COPPER (Cu) – ductile, malleable, reddish-brown metallic element that is an excellent conductor of
heat and electricity

Types of Copper
a. Brass = Copper + Zinc
Name Copper Zinc Others
Common 65% 35%
Red 77 - 86% Balanced
Aluminum 75% Balanced 2% aluminum
Naval 60% 40%
Alpha-beta (Muntz metal) 55 - 61% 39 - 45%
Manganese 55% 40% 3.5% manganese

b. Bronze = Copper + Tin (little or none)

Name Copper Tin Other
Common 90% 10%
Architectural 57% 0.25% 40% zinc, 2.75% lead
Silicon 97% 3% silicon
Gold 90% 2% 5% zinc, 3% lead
9% antimony
Phosphor 80% 10%
1% phosphorus
Huge 5-11% aluminum, iron, nickel,
Aluminum (Albronze)
percent manganese

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METAL FASTENERS
A material, device, or method to hold together or uniting two or more parts or members by clamping,
adhesive or by welding or soldering

A. SCREW – tapered, helically threaded, shank and a slotted head, designed to

be driven into wood or the like by turning

B. BOLT – threaded metal pin or rod, usually having a head at one end,
designed to be inserted through holes in assembled parts and secured
by a mating nut

C. RIVET – metal pin having a head at one end, used for uniting two or more plates by passing the shank
through a hole in each piece and hammering down the plain end to form a second head

Hot steel rivet is inserted through holes in the two members to be joined

The head is placed in the cup-shaped depression of a heavy, hand-held hammer

A pneumatic hammer drives a rivet set repeatedly against the body to form the second
head

The rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing the members tightly together

D. SOLDERING, BRAZING, WELDING

a. Soldering – use of non-ferrous soldiers usually tin-lead alloy, at a temperature below 427°C

b. Brazing – use of non-ferrous solders usually copper-zinc alloy, at a temperature above 427°C
without having the metals at molten state

c. Welding – heating and allowing the metals to flow together, sometimes with pressure and the
addition of an intermediate or filler metal

Filler Metal – metal added during a welding, brazing or soldering

process, having a melting point the same or below the metal to unite

Arc or Electric Arc – sustained luminous discharge of electricity across

a gap in a circuit or between electrodes

Base Metal – principal metal to be fused

Bead or Weld Bead – continuous deposit of fused metal

Toe – junction between the base metal and face of the weld

Throat – distance from the roof of a weld to the face of the base metal

Root – the point at which the back or bottom of a weld meets the base
metal
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Welding Methods
1. Arc Welding – utilize the heat of an arc between an electrode and the base metal
a. Shielded Metal or “Stick” (SMAW) d. Flux-Core (FCAW)
b. Gas-Metal (GMAW) e. Submerged (SAW)
c. Gas-Tungsten (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

2. Gas Welded or “Oxy-Fuel” – utilize the heat produced by the combustion of oxygen and
fuel gas

Weld Types by Attachment

1. Lap Weld – at the seams of overlapping 2. Butt Weld – between two pieces of metal
pieces of metal butted together

Full Penetration Partial Penetration

Weld Types by Technique
1. Spot or Tack Weld – 2. Puddle Weld – burning a 3. Full Weld – welding metals
circular or point weld of hole in a piece of sheet from one end to another or at
metals metal and filling with a a certain length
small pool of molten metal

Weld Type by Joint

1. Fillet 2. Bevel

Single Double Single Double

3. V or Vee 4. J or U

Single Double Single Double

Welding Symbols
Field Weld Weld All-Around Backup Bar Spacer

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STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION

A. TYPES OF STEEL CONNECTION
a. Simple Connection – designed as a flexible connection where
connections are assumed to rotate freely. It is the connection that
primarily supports vertical shear forces and in turn requires a
separate bracing system for lateral stability.
1. Shear End Plate – a plate welded perpendicular to the end
of the supports web and attached to a supporting member.
2. Single Angle – one leg of an angle bar is attached to the
Shear End Plate Single Angle
web of the supported beam and the other leg to the flange or
web of the supporting member.
3. Seated – an angle is mounted with one leg vertical against
the supporting column, and the other leg serves as a seat
upon which the beam is mounted. A stabilizer connection is
also provided at the top.
4. Tee – a structural tee section is connected to the supporting
member and the flange attached to the supporting member.
Seated Tee

b. Moment Connection – designed as rigid connection which allows little or no rotation. It supports
both moment and vertical shear forces.
1. Fully Restrained
a.) Bolted-Extended End Plate –a plate is welded to the
flanges and web of the supported member and bolted
with high-strength bolts to the supporting column.
b.) Welded Flange – complete-joint-penetration groove
welds directly connect the top and bottom flanges of
the supported member to the supporting column. Bolted-Extended Welded Flange
End Plate

c. Partially Restrained
1. Wind Resistant – a double angle simple connection
transfers vertical shear force while top and bottom flange
plates resist moment forces produced by wind.
2. Top and Bottom Angle with Shear End Plate – angles
are bolted or welded to the top and bottom flanges of the
supported member and to the supporting column. A shear
end plate on the web is used to transfer vertical shear Wind Resistant Top and Bottom
forces. Angle

B. TYPES OF STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION

a. Rigid Frame – a framing system utilizing only vertical columns and
horizontal beams. Connections used in rigid frames are the moment
connections.

b. Braced Frame – a framing system that uses the principle of triangular

configuration where an additional diagonal brace is added to support
lateral forces. Connections used in braced frames are that of simple
connections. Braced connections may be concentric or eccentric
framing.
Rigid Frame

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Types of Braced Frame
1. Single Diagonal Bracing – a system that utilizes a single brace oriented diagonally.
2. Chevron Bracing – a system utilizing two non-intersecting diagonal braces that starts at
opposite lower corners of a frame and then meets at the center of the next beam.
3. X-Bracing – a system that utilizes two intersecting diagonals that starts at the lower corner of
the frame then ends at the opposite upper corner of the frame.

Single Diagonal Chevron X-Brace

c. Combination Frame – a framing system that uses a rigid frame together with one or more braced
frames system.

Combination Frame

Book References:
Ching, Francis D.K., A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, Second Edition, 2014
Ching, Francis D.K., Building Construction Illustrated, Fifth Edition, 2014
Harris, Cyril M., Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, Fourth Edition, 2006
Allen, Edward & Iano, Joseph, Fundamentals of Building Construction, Fifth Edition, 2009
National Structural Code of the Philippines

Web References:

The contents and compilation of the following pages are instruments of the profession and under the Intellectual Property Law (R.A. 83
8293) it shall be unlawful for anybody to copy and reproduce these manual whether in part or in whole without the written consent
of the one who prepared these manual, the author.