General Science Grade-7 PDF

General Science
Student text book
Grade 7
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regional

1
State Education Bureau
General Science Grade 7
General Science
Students Textbook
Grade 7
Authors:
Goshu Asab (M.Sc.)
Michael Getachew (M.Sc.)
Andualem Beka (B.Sc.)
Editors and Evaluators:

Getahun Getachew
Muluneh T/Birhan
Ali Kemal
Adopters:
Degu Zewdie
Getahun Tadese
Mulu Waketola
Developed by Adiss Abeba Education Bureau, and Adopted by Southern

Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regional State Education Bureau
Students Textbook
Table of Content
Unit 1: Basic Concepts of Science ....................................................................... 1

1.1. The Nature of Science and its Branches ..................................................... 2
1.2. Common Laboratory Equipment, Uses, Safety Rules and Procedures in
Science Laboratories ......................................................................................... 12
Review Exercise ............................................................................................... 22
Unit 2: Matter in Our Surrounding .................................................................. 23
2.1. Characteristics and Nature of Matter ....................................................... 25
2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter ............................................ 36
2.3. Classification of substances ..................................................................... 41
2.4. Changes around Us: Physical and Chemical Changes ............................... 53
2.5. Separation of Mixtures and its Application periods ................................. 59
Review Exercise ............................................................................................... 72
Unit 3: Elements, Compound and Chemical Reaction .......................................... 76
3.1. Elements and their representation ............................................................ 77
3.2. Compounds and their representation ........................................................ 81
3.3. Simple chemical reactions and equations ................................................. 90
3.4. Uses Of Chemical Reactions in Every Day Situation ............................... 99
Review Exercise ............................................................................................. 103
UNIT 4: CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE ....................................................... 106
4.1. Microscope ............................................................................................ 107
4.2. Cell ........................................................................................................ 116
Review Exercise ............................................................................................. 133
Unit 5: Living Things and Their Diversity ......................................................... 137
5.1. Living Things ........................................................................................ 139
Students Textbook
5.2. The kingdom of life ............................................................................... 149

Review Exercise ............................................................................................. 169
Unit 6: Earth in Space .................................................................................... 174
6.3. Earth’s movements ................................................................................ 192
6.4. Systems & Cycles (effects, measurement ideas/estimation) ................... 196
REVIEW EXERCISE ..................................................................................... 206
UNIT 7: MOTION, FORCE, ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES ........... 210
7.1. Definition and types of motion .............................................................. 212
7.2. Definition of Force and Gravitational Force .......................................... 216
7.3. Effects of force ...................................................................................... 221
7.4. Measuring forces ................................................................................... 223
7.6. Forms and Conversion of Energy .......................................................... 227
7.8. Wise use & Conservation of energy ....................................................... 233
7.9. Resource depletion and environmental degradation ............................... 235
Review Exercise ............................................................................................. 240
Students Textbook
Unit 1: Basic Concepts of Science

Unit Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:

 Define science as a body of knowledge and the
processes and practices used to add to that
body of knowledge
 Describe the main branches of science and
explain their relationship
 Relate how science and technology affect one
Main Contents ‘s beliefs, practices, and ways of thinking.
 Appreciate the contributions of outstanding
1.1. The Nature of Science and
scientists to science and technology.
its Branches
1.1.1. Definition of science  Discuss the importance of scientific values in
1.1.2. Branches of science decision making and problem solving.
1.1.3. Science and technology  Relate how science and technology affect
1.1.4. Scientists and ethical one‘s beliefs, practices, and ways of thinking.
discipline  Identify the significant contributions of
1.2. Common laboratory Ethiopian Scientists in science and technology.
equipment,  Identify different laboratory tools
1.2.1. uses, safety rules and  Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in
procedures in science the laboratory.
laboratories  Practice precautionary measures in the
1.2.2. Common laboratory laboratory
apparatus  Exhibit knowledge of lab safety rules and
1.2.3. Laboratory safety rules procedures.
1.2.4. Science Laboratory  Identify potential hazards and implement
safety symbol and hazard appropriate safety procedures when working
signs, and meanings in the laboratory
resources Steps to write
Laboratory report
Page 1
1.1. The Nature of Science and its Branches
Learning Competency: By the end of this section you should be able to:
 Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes and practices used to
add to that body of knowledge
 Describe the main branches of science and explain their relationship
 Relate how science and technology affect one‘s beliefs, practices, and ways of
thinking.
 Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to science and
technology.
 Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision making and problem
solving.
 Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian Scientists in science and
technology.
Introduction
In the lower grades, you have learnt about science in general. For example,
environmental science. In this and next grade you will learn about general science
which deals with things related to our day to day life.
1.1.1. Definition of Science
Activity 1.1
Form a group and discuss the following questions. Then share your ideas to the
class. You can use reference books and the internet to augment your current ideas
i. Describe science by your own words
ii. Investigate the ways in which the major areas of science are further divided.
iii. Differentiate Indigenous Science and Conventional Science
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The word science comes from the Latin word ‘Scientia’,

which means’ Knowledge’. But science is not just about
having knowledge: Science is a systematic method of
gaining knowledge about the physical and natural world
and the social aspect of human society. It provides an
ordered way of learning about the nature of things,
based on observation and evidence. Through science, we
explore our environment, gather knowledge and develop
ideas that help us interpret and explain what we see.
Science may be indigenous or conventional.
Indigenous science: is process by which Indigenous people build their empirical

knowledge of their natural environment. It is knowledge based on the social,
physical and spiritual understandings.
Conventional science: is the system of knowledge which relies on certain laws

that have been established through the application of the scientific method to
phenomena in the world around us.
Indigenous Science incorporating local people‘s knowledge and Indigenous
perspectives, while conventional scientific approaches are commonly recognized
as Western science.
Activity 1.2
Find some practical indigenous knowledge in your community that solves
community problems and present your finding to your class
Q. Why teach Indigenous Knowledge in science?
There are two main reasons to include Indigenous Knowledge in the science:
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Firstly, to increase awareness of original culture and identity

Secondly, in modern day environmental problems have social and cultural
dimensions which benefit from perspectives other than Western science.
Ethiopia is one of the countries where a wide variety indigenous knowledge
practiced for a long time to solve practical problem that exist in different areas
like: -
 Extractions of medicinal chemicals from plants to treat disease and fight
infections. The common medicinal plants used for treating curing various
disease are: Hagenia Abyssinica (Kosso tree), Eucalyptus globulus (bahrzaf),
Ocimumlamiifolium Hochst (Damakese) etc
 Preserving meat by adding a salt and smoke drying
1.1.2. Branches of science
Activity 1.3
Form a group and discuss the following questions. Then share your ideas to the class
1. 1. What are the major branches of science?
2. 2. Give short descriptions of physics, biology and geology.
Science has two major categories, which are natural science and social science.
Again, natural science has three branches which are Biology, chemistry and
physics. It as shown below in figure 1.1
Natural science is the study of nature and natural laws. It includes fields such as
chemistry, biology, physics and geology. These fields of study in natural science
are closely interrelated. There are no distinct boundaries between them.
 Biology is a branch of natural science which studies about living things.

 Chemistry is a branch of natural science which deals with the properties,
composition, structure and transformation of substances.
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 Physics is the branch of natural science. It is the study of the nature of

matter, energy and their interactions.
There is no clear boarder line between the different branches of natural sciences.
Knowledge of natural sciences overlaps with each other .For example, chemistry
and physics knowledge are studied as a subject called physical science/physical
chemistry. It is the study of properties of materials and their interaction.
 Biophysics: combination of biology and physics.

Biophysics is the study of physical phenomena and physical processes in living
things, on scales spanning molecules, cells, tissues and organisms.
 Biochemistry: combination of biology and Chemistry
Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes
within and related to living organisms. It involves the study of chemical reaction
in living things.
Figure1.1. The relationships between some fields of Natural Science
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Key words
Science: a systematic method of gaining knowledge about the physical and natural
world.
Technology: is the use of scientific knowledge to help human beings work easier
and live better or putting scientific knowledge into practice.
Exercise 1.1
I. Give short answer for the followings questions

1. What is science?
2. List the three branch of natural science
3. Which field of science is study of matter and energy?
1.1.3. Science and Technology
You have already seen what science is. Now, you will see what a technology is.
Technology: is the use of scientific knowledge to help human beings work easier
and live better as well as enjoy their environment more. It includes the use of
materials, tools, techniques, and sources of power to make life easier or more
pleasant and work more productive. Things such as automobiles, TV sets, radio,
bulb, microchip, computer, airplane and home tools (appliances) are the products
of technology.
A person who studies technology is called a technologist.

Technologists apply Science and mathematical knowledge and skills to produce a
very useful tool.
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Figure 1.2 Relationship of science and technology
Science and technology is integrally connected; but they are different fields driven
by different concepts and processes. Science generates knowledge for its own sake,
proposing and testing explanations. Technology, on the other hand, develops
human-made solutions to real-world problems. Of course, science uses technology
to generate knowledge and technology uses scientific knowledge to generate
solutions.
Uses of Science and technology for the society
Science and technology plays an important role in our daily life. It is mainly
concerned with the production of new materials of desirable properties and
qualities to satisfy social needs and plays an important role in agriculture, in the
production of medicines and drugs, in environment and population control, in the
construction industry, in manufacturing various products such as cosmetics,
textiles, dyes, soaps and detergents, plastics, rubber and a variety of metals, non-
metals, alcoholic beverages, dry cells and car batteries
Activity 1.4
From their background information let them discuss in group about the importance
of scientific values in decision making and problem solving.
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Science can and should be important for all major decisions in life. Science is often
used to support decisions that have profound economic, social and environmental
impacts. Good decision-making follows from having clear favorites for what is to
be achieved and using science to evaluate potential means of reaching those aims.
Mostly decisions are or should be based on two pillars: beliefs and values. A
decision maker’s beliefs are a reflection of his or her perceptions of reality,
including facts, opinions, and uncertainties surrounding them whereas its values
reflect his or her sense of what to strive for or to achieve, including goals,
objectives, and associated negotiations.
Obviously, science can help identify unexpected consequences or causal
relationships where ethical values or principles are relevant. In addition,
individuals need reliable knowledge for making informed decisions. Science is
valued by society because the application of scientific knowledge helps to satisfy
many basic human needs and improve living standards.
At a more general level, science can and should be important for all major
decisions in life. For example,
 Science can help us learn which products are safe to use or which foods are
healthy to eat.
 Doctors use science to decide how to diagnose and treat disease(.Finding a
cure for disease)
 Governments may use science to decide which rules to make and how to
enforce them.
 Forecasting weather condition (rainy, cloudy, sunny) are some examples.
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1.1.4. Scientists and ethical discipline

Famous scientists in world and Ethiopia
A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence,
to make hypothesis and test them, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
Some of the world and Ethiopian scientists and their contribution are listed below.
Fig1.3 some world known scientist and their works
Activities 1.3
Form a group and the following activity
Choose one of the scientists and create a role-play for the press release
following the news of his/her discovery. Various roles to consider would
include: the scientist; media; fellow scientists; and the general public.
Alternatively, you could choose an Ethiopian scientist and create a cartoon
strip showing their discovery.
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Dr. Aklilu Lemma (1935-1997) made his

Prof. Yalemtsehay Mekonnen was
most important scientific discovery very early
born in Asela, Ethiopia on May
in his career, in 1964, when he discovered a
30,1955. She work on human
natural treatment to schistosomiasis, also
physiology, the impact of pesticides
known as snail fever disease or bilharzia. He
on human health, the use of plants as
found that berries from the endod plant, which
medicinal against human and animal
is commonly used to make soap and shampoos
disease and as the first female
in many parts of Africa, is a potent,
professor of Addis Ababa university.
inexpensive and safe molluscicide, to prevent
the spread of the parasitic worm. This
discovery made the plant an object of scientific
research in many parts of the world.
Gebisa Ejeta (born 1950) is

an Ethiopian plant breeder,
geneticist and Professor at
Dr. TewoldeBerhan GebreEgziabher is an Purdue University. In 2009, he
Ethiopian scientist, who has worked to ensure won the World Food Prize for his
biodiversity and the rights of communities to their major contributions in the
production of sorghum.
genetic resources.
Fig1.3 some Ethiopia known scientist and their works
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Ethical principle in science

Activity 1.4
Form a group and discuss on the following questions then present your opinion to
the class
i. Do you think ethical discipline is important for science?

ii. List down same ethical disciplines in science
Ethics is an integral part of science. Like science, it requires to be consistent and

empirically justified in our interpretation the action of scientists. Things are always
get in front of us either right or wrong, good or bad, but we have to decide that
what we actually want to do through our ethical point of view.
The following are some of ethical principles that various codes address in science.
Those are:
 Honesty  Competence
 Responsibility  Legality
 Objectivity  Non-Discrimination
 Openness  Carefulness.
Exercise 1.1
Choose the best answers for the following questions.
1. The natural science disciplines are
A. interacting C. Interrelated
B. overlapping D. all of the above
2. The branches of natural science studying the composition of compounds,
and the processes taking place in organisms, respectively, are:
A. Chemistry and biology C. Biology and physics
B. Physics and geology D. Biology and geology
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3. Which one of the following is true about Science?

A. It is the study of physical and natural world.
B. It comes from Latin word “Scientia meaning 'knowledge'
C. It is the system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method
D. All
4. Which one of the following is true about Indigenous knowledge?
A. It is based on scientific method
B. The knowledge derived from western countries
C. It incorporates local people’s knowledge’s
D. It has universal perspective and commonly recognized as western
science
5. World famous scientists who discover law of motion and gravity
A. Michael Faraday C. Isaac Newton
B. Marie Curie D. Albert Einstein
1.2. Common Laboratory Equipment, Uses, Safety Rules and Procedures in

Science Laboratories
Learning Competency: At the end of this topic, students will be able to: -
 Identify different laboratory tools (such as Balance, Beaker, Tongs, Bunsen
burner, Test tubes, Petri dishes, etc.), and describe their uses
 Prepare some laboratory equipment/tools from locally available materials
 Demonstrate knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures.
 Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory
 Identify potential hazards when working in the laboratory
 Implement appropriate safety procedures when working in the laboratory
 Demonstrate the appropriate use of personal protective equipment for a
given laboratory activity.
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1.2.1. Common Laboratory Apparatus
Activities 1.4
Form a group and perform the following task.

From locally available materials produce laboratory tools such as beaker,
measuring cylinder, balance, tong, etc. and present its use to the class.
i. List down some laboratory safety rule
ii. Discuss hazard symbols on chemical bottles, electrical gadgets and
other materials found in the laboratory
Laboratory equipment comprises different sets of apparatus, which are designed to

perform various tasks in the laboratory by students, teachers and scientists.
The students can conduct laboratory work smoothly and more efficiently only
when they are familiar with the apparatus commonly used in the laboratory. Some
apparatuses are shown in tables 1 described here below.
Table 1 Different laboratory tools and their use

Name Picture Use Practice
Triple-beam Obtaining the mass of an Using this tool

measure mass of
balance object your
book, balls, some
stones --- etc.
Beaker Holding water (also used

to heat liquids)
Tongs Transport a hot beaker;

remove lid from crucible
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Thermometer Used to measure Using this tool

temperature practice how to
measure temperature
of some body
Test tubes Holds small amounts of

liquids for mixing or
heating.
Petri dish Used to grow micro-

organisms (like bacteria
and fungi)
Graduated Marked with milliliter

cylinder (ml) scale and is used to
measure volume
Bunsen burner Heating (flame-safe)

contents in the lab
Fuse A safety device consisting

of a strip of wire that melts
and breaks an electric circuit
if the current exceeds a safe
level.
Syringe Used for sucking in and

ejecting liquid in a thin
stream
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Key words
Laboratory Equipment: refers to the various tools and equipment used by
students, teachers and scientists working in laboratory
Laboratory Report: is how you explain what you did in experiment, what you
learnt and what the result mean
Making laboratory equipment/tools from locally available materials

Based on the availability of laboratory tools in their locality, encourage to do some
Some laboratory tools.
Project work
Prepare laboratory tools
Dear students, prepare some laboratory equipment’s or tools such as beaker,
measuring cylinder, balance, tongs, etc. from the locally available materials
1.2.2. Laboratory Safety Rules
Laboratory may be considered as a place of discovery and learning. However, by

the very nature of laboratory work, it can be a place of danger if proper common-
sense precautions are not taken.
Follow the followings laboratory safety rules precautions when you perform an
activity in laboratory.
 Dress appropriately (wear, goggles, gloves, shoes and laboratory coats).
 Tie back loose hair.
 Know the locations of safety equipment like fire extinguisher.
 Know what to do in case of an accident.
 Do not taste or smell chemicals.
 Do not eat or drink in laboratory.
 Never add water to concentrated acid solutions. Always add acid into water.
Follow the Amharic AW! Not WA! (A-acid, W-water)
 Carry out only the experiments assigned by your teacher.
 Dispose of all chemical wastes properly.
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Basic Safety Rules
Basic safety rules for laboratory conduct should be observed whenever working in
a laboratory. Many of the most common safety rules are listed below.
 Know locations of laboratory safety showers, eyewash stations, and fire

extinguishers.
 Know emergency exit routes.
 Avoid skin and eye contact with all chemicals.
 Minimize all chemical exposures.
 No play will be tolerated.
 Assume that all chemicals of unknown toxicity are highly toxic.
 Avoid distracting or upsetting persons working in the laboratory.
 All containers must have appropriate labels. Unlabeled chemicals should
never be used.
 Do not taste or intentionally sniff chemicals.
 Use equipment only for its designated purpose.
 Combine reagents in their appropriate order, such as adding acid to water.
 Avoid adding solids to hot liquids.
 Never leave containers of chemicals open.
 Never consume and/or store food or beverages or apply cosmetics in areas
where hazardous chemicals are used or stored.
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Points/procedures before starting an experiment.
 Know the location of the lab safety equipment and understand how to use it.
In particular, know the location of the emergency exit, fire extinguisher,
eyewash station, and safety shower.
 Read through the experiment before going to the lab. Make sure you
understand the steps of the experiment. Jot down any questions you have so
that you can ask them before starting the lab.
 Understand disposal procedures for the chemicals and other items used in
your experiment. Don't throw items in the trash or dump liquids down the
drain or in waste disposal containers until you are certain it is acceptable to
do so.
 Be prepared to take data in the lab. Bring your notebook, a pen, and a
calculator.
 Have personal safety gear, such as a lab coat and goggles, clean and ready to
use before the lab.
1.2.3. Science laboratory safety symbol and hazard signs, Meanings
Depending upon the scientific investigation being conducted, a lab can be filled
with dangerous chemicals, Biological specimen, sharp instrument, breakable
objects. In order to safe workplace and avoid accidents, lab safety symbols and
signs need to be posted throughout the workplace. The following laboratory
safety symbols warn of possible dangerous in laboratory user to help keep safe
and informed.
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Figure: 1. 4 A) hazard signs B) Laboratory safety symbols
1.2.4. Writing a Laboratory Report

Laboratory is the places where experiments in science performed; students learn
and develop their power of observation, skill in handling apparatus varies kinds
and independent thinking.
A laboratory report is a written composition of the results of an experiment. It
should be written precisely and clearly, using good grammar and punctuation. Each
report must include: title, objective, theory, materials and (equipment) used,
procedure, observation, result, discussion, and conclusion.
Exercise 1.2
Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. Which one of the following is NOT allowed in science laboratory?
A. Knowing the hazards of the materials being used
B. Reading the labels on the reagent bottle carefully
C. Wearing any type of cloth and shoes
D. Never use laboratory glassware for eating or drinking purposes.
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2. Which of the following laboratory tools used for the approximate

measurements of volume of liquids?
A. Test tube B. thermometer C. measuring cylinder D. dropper
3. The type of laboratory equipment categorized under measuring equipment is
A. Bunsen burner B. Triple-beam balance C. Flask D. Stand and clamp
Unit Review Check List
Check List Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit by
students. You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√) mark
under “Yes” column if you are able to perform the competency or under “No”
column if you are unable to perform the competency. This would help to evaluate
yourself and you can revise the parts of topics for which the competencies are not
met.
No. Can I Yes No

1. Define science as a body of knowledge and the processes
and practices used to add to that body of knowledge
2. Describe the main branches of science and explain their
relationship
3. Relate how science and technology affect one‘s beliefs,
practices, and ways of thinking.
4. Appreciate the contributions of outstanding scientists to
science and technology.
5. Discuss the importance of scientific values in decision
making and problem solving.
6. Relate how science and technology affect one‘s beliefs,
practices, and ways of thinking.
7. Identify the significant contributions of Ethiopian
Scientists in science and technology.
8. Identify different laboratory tools
9. Demonstrate safe ways of using apparatus in the
laboratory.
19
10. Practice precautionary measures in the laboratory
11. Exhibit knowledge of lab safety rules and procedures.

12. Identify potential hazards and implement appropriate
safety procedures when conducting laboratory
Key terms
Science Technology
Conventional science Ethics
Indigenous science Laboratory equipment
Safety rule Laboratory
Technologist Scientist
Natural science Hazard sign
Unit Summary
 Science is a systematic method of gaining knowledge about the physical and
natural world and the social aspect of human society.
 Science may be conventional or indigenous.
 Indigenous science is process by which Indigenous people build their
empirical knowledge of their natural environment
 Conventional science is the system of knowledge which relies on certain
laws that have been established through the application of the scientific
method to phenomena in the world around us.
 Science has two major categories, which are natural science and social
science.
 Natural science has three branches which are Biology, chemistry and physics
20
 Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to help human beings work

easier and live better as well as enjoy their environment more.
 A person who studies technology is called a technologist
 Science and technology plays an important role in our daily life
 Mostly decisions are or should be based on two pillars: beliefs and values. A
decision maker’s beliefs are a reflection of his or her perceptions of reality,
including facts, opinions, and uncertainties surrounding them whereas its
values reflect his or her sense of what to strive for or to achieve, including
goals, objectives, and associated compromises.
 Some famous scientists in Ethiopia are Dr.Aklilu Lemma, Engineer Kitew
Ejigu, Dr.GebisaEjeta, Prof. Yalemtsehay Mekonnen and
 Famous scientists from the world Albert Einstein, Michael Faraday. Marie
Curie and Isaac Newton etc.
 Laboratory equipment comprises different sets of apparatus, which are
designed to perform various tasks in the laboratory.
 Knowing Laboratory safety rule is very important to reduce risks faced
during laboratory investigation
21
Review Exercise
Part I. Write ‘True’ for the correct statements and ‘False’ for the wrong
statements.
1. Natural science is the study of nature and natural laws.

2. Biology, Physics and chemistry do not share common areas of study.
3. Technology makes life easier or more pleasant and work more productive.
Part II: Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. The study of living things is the concern of

A. Chemistry C. Biology
B. Physics D. Geology
2. ___________ is a branch of natural science which studies the nature of
matter, energy and their interaction.
A. Chemistry C. Biology
B. Physics D. Geology
3. The famous Ethiopian scientist who discovered a natural treatment to
schistosomiasis or bilharzia disease.
A. Eng. Kitew Ejigu C. Dr. Gebisa Ejeta
B. Dr. Aklilu Lemma D. Prof. Yalemtsehay Mekonen
4. Which of the following is NOT a laboratory safety rule?
A. You should tieback loose hair
B. You should add water to Acid.
C. Do not suck solution in the pipette by mouth
D. When lighting a Bunsen burner, you should light the match stick
before turning on the gas
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5. __________ is a branch of Knowledge and the systematic study of universe

and it’s all encompasses, one that based upon facts, observation and
experiments
A. Theory B. Natural law C. Dogma D. Science
Part III; Match the items in column ‘A’ with items in column 'B'
“A’’ “B”
1. Biochemistry A. combination of biology and physics
2. Physical chemistry B. combination of Geology and physics
3. Biophysics C. combination of biology and chemistry
4. Geo physics D. combination of chemistry and physics
Part IV; Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms.

1. _____________is the places where experiments in science is performed.
2. A person who study about technology is called___________________
3. Who is the famous Ethiopian scientist has involved in development of
African commercial hybrid strains of sorghum_______?
Part V: Give short answer to the following questions.
1. Define technology
2. What is the difference between science and technology?
3. List and explain the functions of some common laboratory apparatus
(equipment’s).
4. Mention the steps to write laboratory report.
5. Why ethics in science is important?
6. Explain the two pillars of science.
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Unit 2: Matter in Our Surrounding

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Use particles theory‘s postulates to explain
properties and behavior of materials.
 Classify matter as an element, compound,
Main Contents
homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous
2.1. Characteristics and nature mixture with regard to its physical properties.
of matter  Describe the structure of solids, liquids and
gases in terms of particle separation,
2.2. Physical and chemical
arrangement and types of motion.
properties of matter
 Differentiate between physical and chemical
2.3 Classification of substances properties and changes of matter.
(in terms of composition and  Appreciate that matter can be classified based
observable properties on physical or chemical properties.
 Use properties of matter to identify substances
2.4. Physical and Chemical
and to separate them.
Changes of Substances
 Demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this
2.5 Separation of mixtures and unit: observing, classifying, comparing and
its application contrasting, making mode, inferring,
communicating, asking questions, designing
experiments, drawing conclusions, applying
concepts.
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Introduction
The objects around us, called matter, exist in three physical forms or states. These
are solids, liquids and gases. For example, water can exist as ice (solid), water
(liquid) and steam (gas). The physical state of a given sample of matter depend on
temperature and pressure. Energy must be added or removed to change one form or
state of substance into another.
The idea that matter is made up of tiny particles is called the Particulate nature of
matter.
Most of the changes that occur in our surrounding are either physical or chemical.
A physical change is a change in the form of matter but not in its chemical identity.
A chemical change, or chemical reaction, is a change in which one or more kinds
of matter are transformed into a new kind of matter.
There are two principal ways of classifying matter: by its physical state as a solid,
liquid or gas and by its chemical constitution as pure substance and mixture.
Mixtures can be separated using a variety of techniques . Some of the methods used
to separate mixtures are separation by hand, sieving, filtration, evaporation,
magnetic separation, decantation and distillation.
2.1. Characteristics and Nature of Matter

After completing this section, you will be able to
 Define matter with examples from day today life.
 Demonstrate that matter is made up of tiny particles.
 State the postulates of the particle theory of matter.
 Infer the particulate nature of matter from demonstration /investigation.
 Apply particle nature of matter in explaining diffusion and every day effect of
diffusion.
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 Describe and/or make a representation of the arrangement, relative spacing, and

relative motion of the particles in each of the three states of matter.
 Describe and explain compression in terms of distance between particles.
 Use the terms melting, evaporating, condensing, and freezing/ solidification to
describe changes of state.
 Use the particulate nature of matter to explain: melting, freezing/Solidification,
Evaporation, Condensation.
Activity 2.1
Form a group and discuss the following questions and share your ideas with
the rest of the class.
1. Describe matter by your own words?
2. Consider the followings: air, light, soil, plant, water, sound, table and
heat. Try to classify them as matter and non-matter.
2.1.1. Meaning and Properties of matter

Q. What is matter?
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. The term mass refers to the
amount of matter present in a sample. Matter includes all things both living and
nonliving that can be seen (such as plants, water, soil, rocks, table and even this
book), as well as things that cannot be seen by our naked eye (such as air and
bacteria). Unlike matter, energy is known and recognized by its effect. It cannot be
seen, touched, smell or weighed. Therefore, various forms of energy such as heat,
light, and sound are not considered to be matter.
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Exercise 2.1
1. Classify each of the following as matter or energy (non-matter).
a. Air e. Gold i. Silver
b. Pizza f. Virus j. Cake
c. Sound g. Heat k. Water
d. Light h. Bacteria l. Magnetism
2.1.2. Particulate nature of matter.
Activity 2.2
Form a group and perform the following activity. Then present your finding to
the class.
1. Inflate a balloon and observe its shape in the class room
2. Make observations while wind blowing leaves, or dust in your surroundings.
Based on the above activity
a. What do you think that matter is made of?
b. How do the particles move around in space
The particle model of matter states that all matter is made up of tiny, moving
particles with spaces between them. Matter is made of particles too small to be
seen that move freely around in space. The inflation and shape of balloon indicates
that it is filled with a small particle of gas such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide,
oxygen, or air. On other hand, from the effect of wind blowing leaves or dust it is
possible to understand the particle matter is in continuous motion.
The idea that matter is made up of tiny particles is called the Particulate nature of
matter.
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Activity 2.3
Perform the following activities
Fill in the blank by using the following words
{Increase, less, faster, cold, temperature, water, particles, moving, more, energy}
1. Everything is made of ____________.
2. Particles are always__________________.
3. An increase in ____________makes particles move _________.
4. An increase in____________ is the same thing as an _________ in energy.
5. The particles in hot water have _________energy than _________water.
6. The particles in ice move ____________ than particles in ___________.
2.1.3. Particle theory of matter (Particle model of matter)
Particulate nature of matter means that all matter is made up of discrete tiny
particles. Many years later, scientists came back to Democritus’ idea and added
to it. The theory they developed is called the particle model of matter.
The followings are main ideas (postulate) in the particle model of matter:
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles.
2. The particles of matter move continuously.
3. The particles have spaces between them.
4. Adding heat to matter makes the particles move faster.
5. There are forces between the particles.
6. Particles of one substance differ from the particles of other substance.
Scientists find the particle model useful for two reasons. First, it provides a
reasonable explanation for the behavior of matter. Second, it presents a very
important idea i.e. the particles of matter are always moving. The air you
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breathe, your books, your desk, and even your body all consist of particles
that are in constant motion. Thus, the particle model can be used to explain
the properties of solids, liquids, and gases
Exercise 2.2
I. Give short answers

1. List the postulates of particle theory.
2. Describe the particulate nature of matter
Diffusion
Experiment: 2.1
Title: simple experiment on diffusion

Objective: To discover what is meant by diffusion
Materials: Perfume, ink, beaker, pipette, Water (H2O)
Procedure
Perfume - Take a bottle of perfume and open it in one corner of the room and
record how long it takes to reach to different students at different distances to
smell it.
Ink – add 2 or 3 drop ink into a beaker of water using a pipette and watch the
ink diffuse to color the water. Write your result/conclusion from the above
experiments
The mixing and spreading out of a substance with another substance due to the
movement or motion of its particles is called diffusion. It is also defined as the net
movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. Concentration is the way of measuring how much or how many
particles of a substance in that place.
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Diffusion in gases: is very fast. This is because the particles move very quickly in
all direction. Example: The smell of hot sizzling food reaches us even when we are
at considerable distance. When someone opens a bottle of perfume in one corner of
room, its smell spreads in the whole room quickly.
Diffusion in liquids: is slower than that in gas. This is because the particles in
liquids move slower as compared to particles in gases. Example: If a drop of ink is
put into a beaker of water, then the color of ink spreads into the whole water of the
beaker.
Diffusion in solids: is very slow process because the particles of solids are highly
restricted to motion.
Diffusion in Daily Life
Diffusion is everywhere around us in our everyday life. The followings are some
common effect of diffusion in day to day activities.
Tea: A tea bag placed in a cup of hot water will diffuse into the water.
Perfume: When perfume is produced in one part of a room, it spreads to the rest
through diffusion. There are fewer of the scent-producing chemicals in the further
parts of the room, so the molecules naturally spread out.
Food Coloring: A drop of food coloring in a glass of water colors the water
through diffusion. The dye molecules slowly spread evenly through the liquid,
creating one particular shade.
Soda: Leave a soda bottle open and the carbon dioxide bubble will diffuse and
leave it flat. Air has a lower concentration of that bubbly carbon dioxide than the
drink does, so the CO2 molecules depart the beverage and spread into the air.
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Exercise 2.3
1. Complete the blank space from the word box

Diffusion, low, scent, high
You can smell axe in the classroom after someone sprays it in the hallway because
the ________ moves from _____ concentration in the hallway to _________
concentration in the classroom. This is an example of ______
2. Arrange increasing order of the rate of diffusion of solids, liquids and gases.
2.1.4. Properties of solids, liquids and gases
Activity 2.4
Copy the table in your exercise book and complete it using objects around you.
Discuss your reasons for each decision with your group.
Substance solids, liquids and gases I know this is because….
Water liquid I can pour it.
According to Kinetic (particle) theory, all matter is composed of tiny particles

(atoms, molecule, and ions). These particles are arranged differently in solids,
liquids and gases.
Solids
In solids the particles are arranged in fixed pattern. The particles held together
strongly and are tightly packed. Particles in solid can vibrate but stay in the same
place. Solids have definite shape and definite volume. Examples of Solids are
Stones, wood, metals etc.
Pattern of solids Microscopic view of solids
Figure 2.1: pattern and microscopic view of solids

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Liquids
The particles in a liquid are separated by spaces that are large enough to allow the
particles to slide past each other. It takes the shape of its container because the
particles can move around more freely than they can in a solid. At room
temperature water, ethanol, benzene, oil are liquids.
Pattern of liquids Microscopic view of liquids

Figure 2.2: pattern and microscopic view of liquids
Gases
The particles in a gas are separated by much larger spaces than the particles in a
liquid or a solid. Therefore, a gas is mostly empty space. For example, air,
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are gases
Pattern of gas Microscopic view of gases
Figure 2.3 pattern and microscopic view of gases

Table Properties of solids, liquids and gases
Properties Physical states
Gases Liquids Solids
-disorderly arranged •Less orderly •Orderly arranged
Arrangement of -particles are very far -Arranged particles are (regular pattern)
apart relatively close to each •Particles are very
particles
-almost no attractive other close to each other
force between -Have relative attractive
particles force between particles
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Motion of -flow(move) freely flow together in -Do not flow or

particles -flow together in random motion move
random motion -are known as fluids -Vibrate in a fixed
-are known as fluids position
compressibility Highly and easily Compressible to a very Not compressible
compressible small extent
Volume -Have no definite -Have no definite -Have definite
and shape Shape and volume Shape Shape and volume
-Assume the shape of -Assume the shape of
the container and the container
entirely fill it.
Density Have very low density - Have low density than - Denser than all
than liquids and solids solids -Condensed state
-Condensed state than all
compared to gases
Pressure Exert pressure equally Exert pressure towards Exert pressure
in all direction depth. towards gravity
Diffusion Diffuse spontaneously Diffuse very slowly in Difficult to diffuse
in all directions with random motion
random motion
Diagram
Exercise 2.4

1. What is the three state of matter?
2. List the properties of solids
3. Name a property of liquids that do not share with solids
4. Name a property of gas that do not share with liquids
5. Give a characteristic that is the same for liquids and solids
6. Give a characteristic that is the same for gases and liquids
7. Which state of matter cannot have poured?
8. Which state of matter can be compressed easily?
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II. Multiple choice questions

1. Which state of matter are fluids?
A. solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. B and C
2. In which state of matter is particles close together?
A. solid B. Liquid C. Gas D. all
2.1.6. Changes in state
Activity 2.5
Copy the flow chart. The arrows represent the process involved when matter
change state.
Write the name for each process on the arrow to your flow chart.
Solid liquid gas
A B
solid liquid gss
D C
A change of state is the change of a substance from one physical form of matter to
another. A change in physical state is the most common type of physical change.
Melting, freezing, evaporation, and condensation are all changes of state. The three
states of matter can be inter-converted without changing the composition of the
substance. To change a substance from one state to another, energy must be added
or removed.
Q. What happens when matter changes state?
During a change of state, the motion of the particles changes. Particles can break
away from each other and gain more freedom to move, or they may attract each
other more strongly and have less freedom to move. During a change of state, a
substance gains energy from or loses energy to the environment, but the total
amount of energy is conserved.
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Q. How do solids and liquids change state?
When a solid is warmed, its particles gain energy and speed up, and the attraction
between them decreases. Eventually they slide past one another. The process in
which a solid substance changes into a liquid on heating is called melting (or
fusion).
The process of changing a liquid into a solid is called freezing (or solidification).
When a liquid is cooled, its particles have less energy, they slow down, and they
lock into the fixed arrangement of a solid. The temperature at which a liquid
substance changes into a solid is the liquid’s freezing point.
Q. How do liquids and gases change state?
As a liquid is warmed, its particles gain energy. Some particles gain enough
energy that they escape from the surface of the liquid and become a gas. The
change from a liquid to a gas is called evaporation. The temperature at which a
liquid substance changes into a gas is the liquid’s boiling point.
As a gas is cooled, its particles lose energy. The attraction between particles
overcomes the speed of their motion, and a liquid forms. The change of state from
a gas to a liquid is called condensation.
Q. How do solids and gases change state?
Some solids and gases can change state without ever becoming a liquid. The
change from a solid state directly into a gas is called sublimation. Deposition is
the change in state from a gas directly to a solid. Some common substance under
go sublimation are: Iodine, ammonium chloride and solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).
When matter changes from one state to another, its physical state changes but its
chemical identity does not. During a change of state, the energy of the particles,
their movement, and the distance between them change. The mass of a substance
35
does not change when its state changes. Each state contains the same amount of
matter.
Figure 2.4: Interconversion process of the three state
2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

 Describe physical Properties.
 Use physical properties of matter to identify substances.
 Conduct experiments to identify properties of substances and make group
report.
 Identify chemical properties
 Distinguish between physical and chemical properties.
2.1.4. Physical Properties of matter

Activity 2.6
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your conclusions to the class.
Given the following physical properties of substances: odor, color, taste, melting
point, boiling point and density.
1. Which of these physical properties have constant values under specific
condition, such as temperature?
2. Which physical properties can be recognized directly by our sense organs?
3. Which of these properties are measured using instruments?
4. What will happen to ice kept in a cup in the classroom?
5. Which sense organs help us to detect color, odor and taste?
6. How do you describe the taste of lemon?
Substances are identified by their properties as well as by their composition.
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A physical property can be measured and observed without changing the

composition or identity of a substance. For example, we can measure the melting
point of ice by heating a block of ice and recording the temperature at which the
ice is converted to water. Water differs from ice only in appearance and not in
composition, so this is a physical change; we can freeze the water to recover the
original ice. Therefore, the melting point of a substance is a physical property.
Other examples of physical property is gold is a shiny yellow metal, lead has a
high density. Observations of these characteristics do not change the composition.
There are two kinds of physical properties, namely, extensive and intensive
physical properties.
Extensive physical properties: are the properties, which depend on the amount or
quantity of sample and therefore, can vary from sample to sample. Examples:
length, diameter, mass, and volume
Intensive physical properties: are properties which do not depend on the amount
of a substance present. Examples: density, color, melting point, and hardness.
Intensive properties are useful in distinguishing between different substances
because they do not vary from sample to sample.
Some Physical Properties of Substances are Listed Below

1. Physical Properties Detected by Sense Organs
Color: The color of a substance results from its interaction with light. Substances
can be identified by their colors. For example, chalk is white, water is colorless,
and gold is yellow and so on.
Odor: refers to the property of a substance perceived by the sense of smell. Terms
commonly used to describe the odor of a substance are pungent, fragrant, spicy,
37
fruity and odorless. For example, water is odorless, flowers are fragrant, and
orange smells fruity.
Caution!
Care has be taken in smelling substance as they may
be harmful
Taste: refers to physical properties that can be perceived by the taste buds of the
tongue. The taste of a substance is usually described by terms like sweet, bitter,
sour, salty, and tasteless. For example, honey is sweet, lemon is sour and table salt
tastes salty.
Caution!
Testing can be used to identify substances only if the

substance to be tasted is not harmful.
Activity 2.7
You are allowed to taste some acids in the forms of citric acid that are
found in lemon and orange or acetic acid in the form of vinegar at home
but you are never kind allowed to taste any kind of acids in the
laboratory. What is the reason?
Discuss your finding in group and present to the class
2. Physical State: Physical state is the form in which a substance is found

under a given condition such as temperature and pressure. The three
physical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. The same substance
may exist in different states at different conditions. For example, water
exists in three physical state form as a solid below 0 ºC, as a liquid
between 0 oC and 100oC, and as a vapor or gas above 100oC.
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3. Measurable Physical Properties

Measurable physical properties are the properties of a substance that can be
measured using an appropriate apparatus. These physical properties have constant
values under specific conditions. Examples are melting point, boiling point, density
and electrical conductivity.
Melting Point: is the temperature at which a solid substance changes to its liquid
state. For example, ice is the solid form of water. Ice melts to liquid (water) at 0°C.
Therefore, the melting point of ice is 0°C.
Boiling Point: is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals
the surrounding atmospheric pressure. At sea level water boils at 100°C.
Density: is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is expressed
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎
mathematically as: Density = or d=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑽
Units of density are kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3).
Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is the ability of a substance to

conduct electricity. This is a physical property mostly characteristic of metallic
substances such as copper, aluminum, iron, silver and zinc.
2.1.5. Chemical Properties of Matter
A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes the way the

substance undergoes or resists change to form a new substance. Chemical
properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching the substance; the
substance’s internal structure must be affected for its chemical properties to be
investigated.
Flammability is one example of a chemical property. Reactivity between two
substances is another chemical property of matter.
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Table 2.2: Comparison between Physical and chemical properties.

Physical properties Chemical properties
Properties can be measured or Properties that describe how a substance
observed without changing the changes (or resists change) to form a new
chemical nature of the substance. substance.
Easily identified. Cannot be determined just by viewing or

touching the substance.
The composition or identity of a The substance’s internal structure must be
substance not change. affected for its chemical properties to be
investigated.
Examples: color, density, volume, Examples: Flammability and reactivity
melting. boiling. Conductivity.
Exercise 2.5
1. Classify each of the following properties as a physical property or a
chemical property.
a. Iron metal rusts in an atmosphere of moist air.
b. Mercury metal is a liquid at room temperature.
c. Nickel metal dissolves in acid to produce a light green solution.
d. Potassium metal has a melting point of 63°C.
e. Copper metal possesses a reddish brown color.
f. Titanium metal can be drawn into thin wires.
g. Beryllium metal, when inhaled in a finely divided form, can produce
serious lung disease.
h. Silver metal shows no sign of reaction when placed in hydrochloric
acid.
i. Lead is denser than aluminum.
j. Flammability of plastics.
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2. Classify each of the following properties as intensive property or extensive

property.
a. boiling point e. density
b. length f. volume
c. mass g. melting point
d. Color
3. Categorize the following physical properties as physical properties
recognized by our sense organs or measurable physical properties
a. Density d. melting point
b. odor e. color
c. taste f. conductivity
2.3. Classification of Substances

 Use the particle theory to describe the difference between pure

substances and mixtures
 Differentiate between elements and compounds.
 Classify common elements into metals and non-metals.
 Investigate the properties of metals and non-metals and compile a list of
general properties.
 Investigate the properties of non-metals and compile a list of general
properties.
 Describe and classify mixtures as homogeneous and heterogeneous.
 Use models/ particles diagrams to show differences between
homogenous and heterogeneous.
 Describe the relationship among elements, compounds, mixtures,
homogenous mixture and heterogeneous mixtures.
41
Activity 2.8
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your findings to the
rest of the class.
1. Consider the following substances: chalk, bronze, sugar solution, iron,
water, milk, oxygen, copper, gold, sugar, table salt, cooking oil, sulfur,
air, silver, hydrogen, ink, chlorine and soil.
2. Classify them are pure substance or mixture.
3. Among pure substance ,state whether it is an element or a compound
In addition to its classification by physical state, matter can also be classified in

terms of its chemical composition into two broad categories: pure substances
and mixtures.
Figure 2.5 Matter falls into two basic classes: pure substances and mixtures.
2.3.1. A pure substance
Pure substance is a single kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds
of matter by any physical means. All samples of a pure substance contain only
that substance and nothing else. Pure water is water and nothing else. A pure
substance always has a definite and constant composition. Some other common
examples of pure substances are oxygen, sulfur, copper, silver, gold, sugar, table
salt, water and carbon dioxide. Pure substances are classified as elements and
compounds.
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Figure 2.6 a pure substance can be either an element or a compound.
2.3.2. Elements and compounds

Elements: An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical means. It is composed of only one kind of particle
(atoms), which is the smallest particle of an element. At present, 118 elements are
known. Among these elements, 92 of them occur naturally on earth while the rest
are man-made or artificial elements. Elements might be divided into metals and
non-metals.
Metals: Many chemical elements are referred to as metals. Some examples of

metals are gold, iron, silver, copper, aluminum, sodium and lead.
Metals are characterized by the following physical properties.
 They are shiny (lustrous) in nature

 They are good conductor of heat and electricity
 Their density and melting point is high
 Moldable (Malleable): malleability is the ability of a substance to be pressed
into sheets when hammered.
 Ductile: ductility is the ability to be drawn into thin wire
 Are solid at room temperature except mercury that are found in liquid state.
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Figure 2.7: Image of copper, silver & gold

Non-metals: non-metal is a chemical element that does not have metal’s properties
and are few in numbers as compared to metal. Carbon, oxygen, sulfur, fluorine and
phosphorous are some common examples of nonmetal.
Activity 2.9
Perform the following activity
Which non-metal is essential for our life?
They are characterized by the following physical properties.
These are
• They exist in two of the three states of matter at room temperature: gases
(oxygen) and solids (carbon). Only bromine exists as a liquid at room
temperature.
• They are not shiny (dull appearance), and are non-conductors of heat and
electricity
• They have relatively, low melting points and boiling points.
Figure 2.8: Images of carbon and sulfur
44
Table 2.3: Comparing properties of metals and non-metals.

Metals Non-metals
These are solids at room These exist in all three states

temperature except mercury
These are very hard except These are soft except diamond
sodium
These are malleable and ductile These are brittle and can break down into
pieces
These are shiny These are non-lustrous except iodine
Electropositive in nature Electronegative in nature
Have high densities. Have low density
Compounds
A compound is a pure substance that is made up of more than one type of atom
bonded together. A compound can be broken into two or more elements by a
chemical means. For example, Water is a compound. By means of an electric
current, water can be broken down into the gases hydrogen and oxygen, both of
which are elements. The ultimate breakdown products for any compound are
elements. Elements can combine with other elements to form compounds. Sodium
chloride is formed by the combination of sodium and chlorine elements. Such
types of compounds that are formed by the combination of two different elements
are called binary compounds. Most binary compounds contain metallic and non-
metallic elements. Some examples of binary compounds are calcium oxide (lime)
from calcium and oxygen, Carbon dioxide from carbon and oxygen, etc.
Q. What distinguishes an element from a compound?
A compound’s properties are always different from those of its component

elements, because the elements are chemically rather than physically combined in
the compound.
45
Experiment 2.2
Title: Distinguishing compounds and mixtures.
Objective:
To investigate the difference between a compound and a mixture.
Materials Required:
Small bar magnet, iron filings, powdered sulfur, test tube, Bunsen burner,
magnifying glass, test tube tong, sand, beam balance, watch glass and test
tube made from soda glass tube.
Procedure
Part I
1. Prepare a mixture containing iron powder and sulfur powder in the ratio 7:4
by mass. Do this by weighing out 7 g of iron powder and 4 g of finely
powdered sulfur onto separate pieces of filter paper (or use weighing boats).
Mix the two powders by pouring repeatedly from one piece of paper to the
other until a homogeneous mixture (by appearance) is obtained.
2. Note the appearance of the pure elements and the mixture. Demonstrate that
iron can be separated from the mixture by physical means. Do this by bring
one end of a magnet close to the mixture as shown in figure 2.9
Figure 2.9 Separating iron from a mixture of iron and sulfur
46
Questions:
i . What did you observe as you bring the magnet close to the mixture?
ii. What did you observe under the magnifying glass?
Part II
1. Place about 2 g of the mixture into a soda glass tube
2. Insert a plug of mineral wool (mineral fiber) into the mouth of the test tube.
Clamp the test tube as shown in the diagram
3. Heat the powder mixture at the base of the test tube – gently at first and then
more strongly (use a blue flame throughout). Heat until an orange glow is seen
inside the test tube. Immediately stop heating. Let the students see that the
glow continues and moves steadily through the mixture.
4. Allow the test tube to cool down.
5. Once cool, it is possible to break open the test tube to show the appearance of
the product, iron (II) sulfide. The test tube can be broken open using a pestle
and mortar. It is advisable to wear protective gloves.
47
6. Take the product formed and powder it. Examine the product under a
magnifying glass. Bring a magnet over it.
Figure 2.10: the reaction between iron and sulfur

Questions:
1 under a magnifying glass, are the iron filings and sulfur seen separately?
2 Is it possible to attract the iron or sulfur by a magnet? Why?
Observations and Analysis
I. Which part of the experiment (Part I or II) indicates a compound?
Give your reason.
II. Which part of the experiment (part I or II) indicates a mixture?
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2.3.3. Mixtures
Activities 2.10
Discuss the following ideas in groups and present your opinion to the rest of the class.
1. Suppose a teaspoon of magnesium filings and a teaspoon of powdered sulfur
are placed together in a metal beaker. Would this constitute a mixture or a pure
substance? Suppose the magnesium filings and sulfur are heated so they react
with each other, forming magnesium sulfide. Would this still be a “mixture”?
Why or why not?
2. What is the difference between pure water and a solution of sodium chloride in
water?
3. Do you think air is a pure substance or a mixture? Why?
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more pure substances in which each

substance retains its own properties. Components of a mixture retain their identity
because they are physically mixed rather than chemically combined. Consider a
mixture of small rock salt crystals and ordinary sand. Mixing these two substances
changes neither the salt nor the sand in any way. Common mixtures include: - Soil-
a mixture of different sized particles and plant material, Cooking oil – a mixture of
vegetable oils. Ink—contains a mixture of dyes, dissolved in alcohol and water,
Milk— contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, water, minerals, Air— contain
oxygen, nitrogen , carbon dioxide. Mixtures are sub classified as heterogeneous or
homogeneous.
Homogeneous Mixture
Activity 2.11: Perform the following tasks in groups and present your findings to
the rest of the class.
The following substances are given: air, milk, soil, salt solution, brass, chalk, water,
cooking oil, gold, silver, sugar solution, Pepsi. Identify which are the homogeneous
mixture
49
Homogenous mixtures are a combination of two or more substances that has the
same composition throughout and has no visible boundary. A homogeneous
mixture also called solution. For example, a mixture of table salt and water (salt
solution) is a homogeneous mixture because all the parts of the solution have the
same salt-water composition. Homogeneous mixture (solution) may exist in one of
the three states i.e. solid, liquids and gas.
Table 2.4: state and type of homogeneous mixture (solution)
Type of homogeneous Common examples
mixture (solution)
Gaseous Gas in gas Air,mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
Liquids Gas in liquid Soft drinks (Pepsi, Miranda, coca cola), beer
Liquid in liquid Alcohol in water
Solid in liquid Salt solution, sugar solution
Solids Solid in a solid brass (Zn/Cu), Bronze (cu/Sn)
Figure 2.11: Some common examples of homogeneous mixture
50
Heterogeneous Mixtures
Activity 2.12
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your findings to the rest of
the class.
Consider the following substances: ethanol alcohol, bronze, sugar solution,
iron, water, milk, oxygen, copper, gold, sugar, table salt, cooking oil, sulfur,
air, silver, charcoal, ink, chlorine and soil.
Then identify among the list of substances which are heterogeneous mixture
Heterogeneous mixtures are a combination of two or more substances that has no

uniform composition throughout and contains one or more visible boundaries
between the components. The components of a heterogeneous mixture can be
identified by our naked eyes or with the help of a microscope or a magnifying
glass. For example, a mixture of sulfur and iron filings is a heterogeneous mixture.
This is because the sulfur particles remain visible and physically separated. Others
Examples of heterogeneous mixture are blood, milk, Mixture of sand and water,
river water, muddy water, benzene and water, oil and water, dusty air, soil etc.
Figure 2.12: some common examples of heterogeneous mixtures
51
Table 2.5: Differences between homogenous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
It has a uniform composition It has a non-uniform composition
It has only one phase There are two or more phase
The constituent cannot be seen easily. The constituent can be seen easily
‘Homo’ means the same ‘Hetero’ means different
E.g. sugarsolution, soft drinks, salt Milk,soil.sand and water, oil and water
solution,
Exercise 2.6
1. Classify each of the following as a mixture or a pure substance.
a. Water b. uranium c. blood d .alcohol e. the oceans f. iron g. table salt
h. brass i. hydrogen j gold, k sugar. l. milk m. honey n. benzene
of the pure substances, which are elements and which are compounds?
2. Define and give four examples illustrating each of the following terms.
a. element b. compound c. homogeneous mixture d. heterogeneous mixture
II. Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. Which of the following is metallic liquid element at room temperature
A. bromine B. mercury c. sodium D. iron
2. Substance y is hard, lustrous solid which readily conduct heat and electricity. Y
is likely to be:
A. Salt. B. metalloid C. Metal D. non metal
3. Which of the following substance make a homogeneous mixture with water
A. benzene B. oil C. sugar D. sulfur
4. Which substance is not a mixture?
A. air B. sea water C. pure water D. brass
52
2.4. Changes around Us: Physical and Chemical Changes

 Describe physical and chemical change
 Distinguish the physical and chemical changes using their characteristic
 Conduct some simple activities to show physical and chemical changes and
write group report.
 Observe and describe physical chemical changes that are important in everyday life.
 Identify useful and harmful physical and chemical changes.
Activity 2.13
The followings are day to day activities in your home. Copy and complete the
table, by identifying which activities represent “physical change” and which one
represent “Chemical change" by giving reasons for your choice
Name of activities Physical Chemical

changes changes Reasons
Burning of charcoal
Melts of ice
Dissolving sugar in
water
Fermentation
Rusting of nail
Evaporation of water
Spoilage of food
Burning candle
Change is happening all around us all of the time. Changes are classified as either
physical or chemical changes.
53
2.4.1. Physical change

A physical change is a process in which a substance changes its physical
appearance but not its chemical composition. A new substance is never formed as a
result of a physical change. A change in physical state is
the most common type of physical change. Melting,
freezing, evaporation, and condensation are all changes of
state. In any of these processes, the composition of the
substance undergoing change remains the same even
though its physical state and appearance change. The
melting of ice does not produce a new substance; the Figure 2.13:
substance is water both before and after the change. melting of ice
Similarly, the steam produced from boiling water is still
water. Melting of ice, Grinding salt, Tearing paper into small pieces, Making an
iron bar magnetic,evaporation of water, dissolving sugar in water and breaking a
stick are common examples of physical changes.
2.4.2. Chemical change
A chemical change is a process in which a

substance undergoes a change in chemical
composition. Chemical changes always involve
conversion of the material or materials under
consideration into one or more new substances,
each of which has properties and composition
distinctly different from those of the original Figure 2.14: burning of candle
materials. Consider, for example, the rusting of iron
54
objects left exposed to moist air. Some examples of chemical changes are: Iron
nail going rusty, heating magnesium ribbon, Burning candle.
photosynthesis,fermentation,etc
Questions:
i .What did you observe as you bring the magnet close to the mixture?
ii. What did you observe under the magnifying glass?
Part II 1. Place about 2 g of the mixture into a soda glass tube
Experiment 2.3
2. Insert a plug
Title: Rusting of iron. of mineral wool (mineral fiber) into the mouth of the test
Objective: To investigate the type of change that occurs during rusting of iron
tube.
Procedure:
1.Put aClamp the shiny
few lean, test tube
ironasnails
shownintoinathe
testdiagram
tube containing some fresh tap water.
The water contains dissolved air.
6. Heat the powder mixture at the base of the test tube – gently at first and then
2.Set the test tube in a rack. After a few days observe the change that has taken
more strongly (use a blue flame throughout). Heat until an orange glow is seen
place.
inside the test tube. Immediately stop heating. Let the students see that the glow
continues and moves steadily through the mixture.
7. Allow the test tube to cool down.
8. Once cool, it is possible to break open the test tube to show the appearance of
the product, iron (II) sulfide. The test tube can be broken open using a pestle
Questions
Figure:It2.15
and mortar. rusting oftoiron
is advisable wear protective gloves.
1. What color do you observe on the iron nail?
9. 2.Take
Is thethe product
change formed
physical and powder
or chemical? Why? it. Examine the product under a
magnifying glass. Bring a magnet over it.
2.4.3. Characteristics of physical and chemical changes
Activity 2.14
Discuss the following idea in groups and present your opinion to the rest of the
class
1. List the characteristics of physical and chemical changes you know
2. Compare and contrast the characteristics of physical and chemical changes
55
Characteristics of physical change
 No new substance is formed

 The composition of substance not altered
 It is easily reversed by physical means
 Energy changes are not neccerily
 It is a change in physical property
Characteristics of Chemical change
 New substances with new properties are formed

 The composition of substance altered
 It is accompanied by Energy changes
 The change is not easily reversed
 It is a change in physical property
2.4.3. Useful and Harmful physical and Chemical Changes
Activity 2.15
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your findings to the rest
of the class.
List the important and harmful physical and chemical changes that
encounter in our live.
a. important physical changes
b. important chemical changes
c. harmful physical changes
d. harmful chemical changes
Useful effect of Physical changes

Physical changes is useful in the following ways:
 Evaporation and condensation create water cycle
56
 Freezing preserves food, medicine, and other materials

 Melting, cutting, bending and mould different tools and accessories
 To get substances in the form, shape or size we want
 To mix two or more substances together
 To separate substances from their mixtures
Harmful effect of Physical changes
Even many physical changes are useful, it may also be harmful in several way:like
cutting tree, bad weather condition, oil spills, etc.
Useful effect of chemical changes
Chemical Changes is useful in the following ways:
Photosynthesis: chemical changes which occur in plants (photosynthesis) produce

substances which enable plants to grow. We depend on plants for our food. The
change which occur in the food we consume are chemical change
Energy production: Most of the energy used nowadays, with the exception of
wind, water and nuclear energy, is chemical energy. This energy released as heat or
electricity when certain chemical change takes place.
Food & medicine production, Food digestion, Fermentation, food cooking, etc. are
also some important chemical change in our live.
To produce new substance
Harmful effect of Chemical changes
In contrast to its usefulness, some chemical change has negative impact. For
example, Rusting (rusting of car, bridges, and ships), souring food, burning of fuel,
smoke emission, plastic disposal, dumping of chemicals, etc. are harmful chemical
change in our live.
57
Exercise 2.7
1. Classify the following as physical changes or chemical changes.
a) The Cutting of wood
b) Interaction of food with saliva and digestive enzymes
c) The vigorous reaction of potassium metal with water to produce hydrogen gas is
a change.
d) Straightening a bent piece of iron with a hammer is an example of a
change.
e) The ignition and burning of a match involve a change
f) photosynthesis
g) Boiling of an egg.
h) boiling of water
i) dissolution of salt
II. Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. Change in size, shape and state of a substance is a____

A. chemical change C. cyclic change
B. Physical change D. none
2. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. Evaporation is a chemical change
B. Digestion of food is chemical change
C. Burning of paper is physical change
D. all
3. among the following which is a physical change?
A. Burning candle
B. fermentation
C. making an iron bar magnetic
D. all
58
2.5. Separation of Mixtures and its Application periods

 List methods of separation of mixtures
 Give some specific examples of mixtures that can be separated by filtration,
decantation, simple distillation, magnetic separation and using separator
funnel
 Name apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple distillation, using
separator funnel.
 Assemble apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple distillation,
separator funnel
 Conduct and report on an investigation that uses physical means such as
particle size, density, boiling point, solubility and magnetism to separation.
 Perform simple activities in group, to carry out the separation of mixtures
using local materials and write a group report.
 Compare and evaluate the different ways of separating mixtures from products
in community.
Activity 2.16: Discuss the following questions in groups and present your
conclusion to the class
1. Write the common separation methods you know for the following
common mixtures from your daily life experiences
A. Teff and peas
B. A mixture of iron filings and sulfur powder
C. A mixture of chalk particles in water
D. A mixture of cooking oil and water
E. Salt solution
F. A mixture of alcohol and water
G. a mixture of salt and sand
H. mixture of orange, banana and mango
59
2.5.1. Separation Techniques of Mixture

Most of the substances around us exist in the form of mixtures. However, these
mixtures can be separated into pure substances using various separation
techniques. The process of separating the constituent substances of a mixture by
physical methods, taking advantage of the differences in their physical properties is
called separation process.
Some of the methods used to separate mixtures are Separation by hand, sieving
filtration, evaporation, magnetic separation, decantation and distillation. Note that
the methods for the separation of mixtures into their components depend on the
differences in the size, magnetic property, melting point, boiling point, solubility,
etc. of the components. We will discuss some of the methods that are used to
separate the components of mixtures.
I. Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separation is used to separate magnetic and non-magnetic substances in a
mixture. For example, if sand is mixed with iron filings the mixture is
heterogeneous. To separate the iron filings from the sand, you can use a magnet.
The iron filings (magnetic component) are attracted by the magnet, while the sand
does notattracted.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.16 (a) the mixture contains iron fillings and sand. (b) A magnet separates
the iron fillings from the mixtures.
60
Experiment 2.4
Title: Separation of mixture using bar magnet
Objective: To separate a mixture of iron fillings and sand
Equipment/ Materials
Magnetic bar, Iron fillings, Sand, Petri dish/ plastic plate/bowl Plastic
bag/wrapper, Spatula
Other requirements: Working bench/table, Open space, Laboratory coat, Eye
goggles, Nose mask, and Hand gloves.
Experimental Procedure
1. Mix the sand with the iron filings in the plastic plate.
2. Wrap the plastic bag around the bar magnet
3. Suspend the bar magnet over the plate
4. The iron would be collected / attracted to the surface of the magnetic bar
5. Carefully remove the plastic bag around the magnetic bar and scrape off the iron
filings
Figure 2.17 mixture of sand and iron fillings
On completion of the experiment, you should answer the following questions
1. Why was the sand not attracted to the magnet? What can you
conclude from this experiment?
2. Can the same procedure be used to separate carpenter’s nails from
saw dust? Give a reason(s) for your answer.
61
II.Decantation
What type of separation method is used to get a cup of clear coffee as it is poured
from coffee pot (“jebena”) as shown in Figure 2.18?
Figure 2.18: Separation by decantation

Decantation is the process of separation of liquid from solid and other immiscible
(non-mixing) liquids, by removing the liquid layer at the top from the layer of solid
or liquid below. The process can be carried out by tilting the mixture after pouring
out the top layer. This process can also be used to separate two liquids that do not
mix with each other for e.g. cooking oil and water. When we leave the mixture of
cooking oil and water, two separate layers are formed, with water at the bottom
and oil, being lighter, at the top. We can remove the oil layer from the top by
pouring it into another vessel, which leaves us with the water layer at the bottom.
62
Figure 2.19: Decantation of solids from asolid-liquid mixture

Separating funnel: When two liquids do not mix, they form two separate layers
and are known as immiscible liquids. These two liquids can be separated by using
a separating funnel. A separating funnel is a special type of glass funnel, which
has a stop-cock in its stem to regulate the flow of liquid. It will separate the
immiscible liquids into two distinct layers depending on their densities. The
heavier liquid forms the lower layer while the lighter one forms the upper layer.
Remove the stopper and open the tap to run the lower
layer into a beaker. You will be left behind with just the
upper layer in the funnel. Collect this liquid into another
beaker.
Examples: Kerosene and water mixture is separated by
Figure 2.20:
using separating funnel method. This method is also used Separation of
to separate oil and water. immiscible liquids
using separating
III. Filtration: funnel
Filtration is a process by which insoluble solids can be
removed from a liquid by using a filter paper.A filter
paper is a special type of paper which has pores that are
tiny enough to let only liquids pass through it. If you pass
a solution through filter paper, any undissolved solid
particles will get left behind on the paper whereas the
liquid will filter through. The liquid that passes through is
called the filtrate and the undissolved solid particles are
called residue. Example: A mixture of chalk powder and
Figure 2.21:
water, soil and water, sand and salt solution, etc. can be Filtration
separated by this method. In practical application,
63
filtration is a key step in the purification of the tap water you drink.
Iv. Evaporation
Activity 2.17
Perform the following activity.

Dissolve sodium chloride (or any other soluble
salt) and water to forms a homogeneous mixture Figure 2.22: Evaporation of a
(solution).How can you recover the salt again? solution
Evaporation is a method used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid in a solution

or the process. of vaporizing the solvent to obtain the solute. It is used to separate a
mixture containing a non-volatile, soluble solid from its volatile, liquid solvent.
We can separate salt from a solution by evaporating the water from the solution.
V. Distillation:
This method is used for the separation of a mixture containing two miscible liquids
that boil without decomposing and have a large difference between their boiling
points. It also used in obtaining pure water from salt solution. Process of
conversion of a liquid into vapor by boiling, and then re-condensing the vapor into
liquid is called distillation. In simple distillation, a mixture is heated and the most
volatile component vaporizes at the lowest temperature. The vapor passes through
a cooled tube (a condenser), where it condenses back into its liquid state. The
condensate that is collected is called distillate. Figure show the simple distillation
set up
64
Figure 2.23: simple distillation set up
Notice: Laboratory display of distillation: in the above set up, each number indicates:
1. A heat source 10.Still receiver
2. Round bottomed flask 11.Heat control

3. Still head 12. Stirrer speed control
4. Thermometer/ 13. Stirrer/heat plate
5. Condenser 14. Heating (Oil/sand) bath
6. Cooling water in 15. Stirring mechanism (not shown)
7. Cooling water out e.g. boiling chips or mechanical stirrer
8. Distillate/receiving flask
9. Vacuum/gas inlet 16. Cooling bath
A mixture of two miscible liquids can also be separated by simple distillation.

Liquids which mix with each other to form a solution are called miscible liquids.
The mixture of alcohol and water, benzene and oil are some examples of miscible
liquids. Consider a mixture of alcohol and water. Ethanol, which is an alcohol boils
at 78°C, and water boils at 100°C. When the mixture is heated, the alcohol, which
has the lower boiling point vaporizes more rapidly than the water. The vapor of
alcohol passes through the condenser and then collected as a distillate in the
receiver.
Activity 2.18
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your conclusion to the class.
The following mixtures can be separated using a combination of separation
techniques. Mention all the possible separation techniques.
i Mixture of salt, sand and water
ii Mixture of common salt, iron filling and salt
iii Mixture of oil, water and sand
i. sugar and clay
65
Q. Is one separation method enough when salt and sand is mixed with water?
Sometimes to separate such mixture may require combination of two or more
techniques. For example, a mixture of common salt and sand can be separated
by using the process of dissolving, filtration and evaporation. The first stage of
separation is adding water to the mixture. The salt dissolves in water and forms
a solution, but not the sand. Then by using filtration, the sand can be separated
from the salt solution. Finally, evaporation of the filtrate will cause the water to
escape leaving the salt behind.
2.5.2. Application of separation techniques.
Activity 2.19
Perform the following tasks by asking your parents/guardians

/grandparents/elders in the neighborhood on the separation techniques used in
daily lives. Prepare a table of such activities of daily life in which sedimentation,
decantation, filtration and evaporation are used/occurs. Then present your
findings to the whole class.
Table 2.5 application of various separation techniques
No. Physical process Application

Filtration  River water is potable
 Separation of honey from its comb
Evaporation  Common salt is obtained from sea
water on large scale.
Distillation  Alcoholic beverage such as
whisky, gin, brandy, areki are
manufactured.
Magnetic separation  To separate iron and steel from non
–magnetic objects such as, glass,
plastic, aluminum, etc.
Sedimentation followed by  Drink homemade coffee,tella
decantation
66
Project Work
Separation of mixtures using local materials
There is a mixture of table salt, sulfur powder and iron filing inside a beaker.
By using any local materials that are found around you, try to separate this
mixture into their components.
Hint: Both sulfur powder and iron filing are insoluble in water whereas sodium
chloride (table salt) is soluble in water.
Write a group report: In your report indicate the separation techniques and the
materials used during the separation processes
Exercise 2.8
I. Give short answers.
1. How would you separate the following?

A. salt solution b. Common salt and sand c. iron and charcoal
d. Oil, water and sand e. nitrogen and oxygen
2. Name the separation technique shown in the diagram
C
A
B
F
D E
Unit Review
67
met.
No. Can I Yes No
1. Define matter with examples from day today life.

2 Demonstrate that matter made up of tiny particles.
3 State the postulates of the particle theory of matter
4 Infer the particulate nature of matter from
demonstration/investigation.
5 Apply particle nature of matter in explaining diffusion and
every day effect of diffusion.
6 Describe and/or make a representation of the arrangement,
relative spacing, and relative motion of the particles in each of
the three states of matter
7 Describe and explain compression in terms of distance between
particles
8 Use the terms melting, condensing, and freezing/solidification
to describe changes of stat
9 Use the particulate nature of matter to explain: Melting,
Freezing/ solidification, Evaporation, Condensation
10 Describe physical Properties
11 Use physical properties of matter to identify substances
12 Conduct experiments to identify properties of substances and
make group report.
13 Identify chemical properties
14 Distinguish between physical and chemical properties.
15 Use the particle theory to describe the difference between pure
substances and mixtures
68
16 Differentiate between elements and compounds

17 Classify common elements into metals and non-metal
18 Investigate the properties of metals and compile a list of general
properties
19 Investigate the properties of non -metals and compile a list of
general properties.
20 Describe and classify mixtures into homogenous and
heterogeneous.
21 Use models/ particles diagram to show differences between
homogenous and heterogeneous.
22 Describe the relationship among elements, compounds,
mixtures, homogenous mixture and heterogeneous mixture.
23 Describe physical and chemical change.
24 Distinguish the physical and chemical changes using their
characteristics.
25 Conduct some simple activities to show physical and chemical
changes and write group report.
26 Observe and describe physical chemical changes that are
important in everyday life.
27 Identify useful and harmful changes
28 List methods of separation of mixture
29 Give some specific examples of mixtures that can be separated
by filtration, decantation, simple distillation, magnetic
separation and using separator funnel
30 Name apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple
distillation, using separator funnel.
31 Assemble apparatuses used in decantation, filtration, simple
distillation, separator funnel.
32 Conduct and report on an investigation that uses physical means
such as particle size, density, boiling point, solubility and
magnetism to separation
33 Perform simple activities in group to carry out the separation of
mixtures using local materials and write a group report
34 Compare and evaluate the different ways of separating mixtures
69
from products in community
Key terms
Matter Magnetic separation Physical changes
Particle theory Decantation Compounds
Diffusion Pure substance Elements
Physical property Mixture Distillation
Chemical property Non metal Evaporation
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture Filtration
Sublimation Density Freezing
Boiling point Freezing point
Unit Summary
 Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It can exist in three
states: solid, liquid, and gas.
 The idea that matter is made up of tiny particles is called the Particulate
nature of matter.
 Particle theories of matter tell us the particles of matter are always moving.
 Diffusion is the mixing and spreading out of a substance with another
substance due to the movement or motion of its particles.
 The three states of matter (solids, liquids and gases) can be interconverted
without changing the composition of the substance. To change a substance
from one state to another, energy must be added or removed. Melting,
freezing, evaporation, and condensation are all changes of state.
70
 A physical property can be measured and observed without changing the

composition or identity of a substance.
 A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes the way
the substance undergoes or resists change to form a new substance.
 Matter can be classified in terms of its chemical composition into two broad
categories: pure substances and mixtures pure substances.
 A pure substance is a single kind of matter that cannot be separated into
other kinds of matter by any physical means.
 Pure substances are classified as elements and compounds.
 An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical means.
 A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements that are
combined chemically in a definite proportion by mass.
 A mixture is a physical combination of two or more pure substances in
which each substance retains its own properties.
 A homogeneous mixture (also known as solution) has a uniform
composition and properties throughout.
 Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that does not have a uniform
composition throughout.
 Changes are classified as either physical or chemical changes.
 A physical change is a process in which a substance changes its physical
appearance but not its chemical composition.
 A chemical change is a process in which a substance undergoes a change in
chemical composition.
 Mixtures can be separated using a variety of techniques. The process of
separating the constituent substances of a mixture by physical methods,
71
taking advantage of the differences in their physical properties is called

separation process.
 Some of the methods used to separate mixtures are Separation by hand,
Sieving Filtration, evaporation, magnetic separation, decantation and
distillation.
Review Exercise
Part I. Write ‘True’ for the correct statements and ‘False’ for the wrong
statements.
1. Depending upon the temperature, water can exist in solid, liquid or gas states.
2. A gas has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape.
3. Dust, smoke, bacteria, air born viral particles are component of particulate
matter.
4. Elements can be further decomposed by ordinary chemical means.
5. Heterogeneous mixture contains one phase.
Part II: Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. All of the followings are matter except

A. plant B. stone C. air D. sound
2. Which of the following decrease during the phase (state) changes of
Solids liquids gases
A. Degree of order among particles
B. Energies of particles
C. Speed of particles
D. Distance among particles
3. Which of the following is not the property of solids
A. Solids have little tendency to diffuse
72
B. Solids are extremely difficult to compress

C. Solids are fluids
D. Solids have definite volume and definite shapes
4. The particular physical state of substance depends on _
A. Temperature C. strength of intermolecular force
B. pressure D. all
5. Which of the following has no definite shape and volume?
A. Water B. carbon dioxide C. iron D. gold
6. The interaction of substance with light results
A. Taste B. odor C. color D. texture
7. Which of the following is not a physical change?
A. Sublimation of iodine C. tearing a piece of cloth
B. Burning of wax in a candle D. dissolving sugar in a tea
8. All of the following are heterogeneous mixtures except
A Soil C. salt solution
B. mixture of water and oil D. blood
9. Which of the following is not metal
A. iron B. Sulfur C. copper D. sodium
10. Which of the following has variable composition?
A. Water B. salt C. milk D. silver
11. A mixture of sand and sugar can be separated by
A. Evaporation followed by distillation
B. Filtration followed by evaporation
C. Dissolution followed by filtration and evaporation
D. Dissolution followed by evaporation and filtration.
12. The conversion of a vapor directly to solid without passing through a liquid
state is called___________
73
A. fusion C. sublimation
B. evaporation D. deposition
13.Distillation is used in the process of preparation of
A. Coffee B. Areki C. Tella D. honey
14. Identify the heterogeneous mixture among the following
A. Sea water B. blood C. bronze D. air
15. Grade 7 students in a certain school were given the task of separating, iron
fillings, sand and salt. Which of the following process is the most appropriate
order?
A. Evaporation-Dissolution - filtration- magnetic separation
B. Dissolution –magnetic separation - filtration_ evaporation
C. Magnetic separation -Dissolution - filtration –evaporation
D. Magnetic separation - Dissolution – evaporation- filtration
16. I. Physical changes are easily reversible.
II. Physical change do not produce new substance
III. Physical change do not involve change in mass.
Which of the above statement are correct?
A. I C. II and III
B. I and III D. I, II and III
17. Which two state of matter are fluids?
A. Solid and liquid C. Liquid and gas
B. Solid and gas D. Plasma and solid
18. All of the following are same process. EXCEPT
A. Condensation C. Crystallization
B. Freezing D. Solidification
74
Part III Match the items in column ‘A’ with items in column 'B'
` À`` ``B``
1. Melting (fusion) A. process of changing liquid to gas
2. Evaporation B. process of changing liquid to solid
3. Sublimation C. Process of changing solid to gas
4. Freezing D. Process of changing gas to solid
5. Deposition E. process of changing gas to liquid
6. Condensation F. Process of changing solid to liquid
Part IV; Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms.
1. Immiscible liquids can be separated by using_________

2. Separating a solid from a solution by cooling is______
3. The separation technique that involves heating a solution until the liquid
changes into a gaseous state, leaving behind a solid is known as____
4. When rain falls, this is because the water vapor in the clouds is condensing into
liquid _________?
5. I put dirty water into a funnel with a paper lining. Clean water comes out of the
funnel into my beaker and solid dirt gets left behind on the paper. This is an
example of___________
Part V: Give short answer to the following questions
1. What is diffusion?
2. Why do solids have fixed shape and volume?
3. Write the difference between extensive and intensive physical properties.
75
Unit 3: Elements, Compound and Chemical Reaction
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will able to:
 Compare elements to compounds and how they

are represented by symbols and formulae.
 Identify and write symbols of common elements
Main Contents or compounds.
 Name compounds given their formula and write
3.1. Elements and their formula given the name of the compound.
representation  Use symbols and chemical formulae as a way of
3.2 Compounds and their communicating information about elements and
representation
compounds.
3.3 Simple chemical  State and apply the Law of Mass conservation to
reactions and equations
writing balanced equations.
3.4 Uses of Chemical  Interpret chemical formulae of compounds in
Reactions in Every Day
terms of the elements present and the ratios of
Situation
their atoms.
76
Introduction
Pure substance, whether an element or compound, has its own unique name,
symbol or formula. Scientists use chemical symbols in place of the names of the
elements because it helps for scientists in writing chemical formulas and equations.
The symbols and formulas are designed in such a way that they are internationally
accepted. Therefore, they enable all scientists in the world to communicate easily.
Symbols and formulas of elements or compounds are used in certain combination-
ratios as a short hand representation of chemical reaction and these short hand
languages is known as chemical equation.
3.1. Elements and their representation
After completing this section, you will be able to:
 Define element.
 Identify symbols of some common elements.
 Write chemical symbols for common elements
Activity 3.1
Form a group and discuss the following questions and share your ideas with the
rest of the class.
1. From your previous knowledge, what is an element?
2. List some common elements you are familiar with. Try to classify them as
a. metal b. non -metal
3.1.1. Common elements

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
by ordinary chemical means. An element is composed of only one kind of matter
(atoms). There are 118 known elements.92 out of 118 elements naturally occurring
elements.
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As you have learnt in unit two, elements classified as metal and nonmetals.
Oxygen, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, hydrogen,
nitrogen, gold, silver, copper, sulfur, and chlorine are some common elements.
3.1.2. Chemical symbols
Activity 3.2
Perform the following activities in group. Then present your opinion to the
whole class
1. What is atomic symbol?
2. Explain why some symbols for examples He, Cl and Si-have two letters
Scientists use symbols as abbreviation of names of an element. An atomic symbol

is defined as shorthand way of representing elements or atoms of an element.
Every element has its own symbol. No two elements can have the same symbol.
R. How to write symbols of elements?
Chemists use chemical symbols in place of the names of the elements because they
are much easier and quicker to write symbol. A symbol for element is taken from
the first letter or the firs letter plus another letters of the common name or
Latin/Greek name of the element. If a symbol has one letter it is written in capital
letter and if it has two letters the first is in capital and the second is in small letter.
For example, S stands for sulfur, O stands for oxygen and K represents potassium.
In the case of potassium, the symbol is derived from the Latin name, Kalium.
Q. Why are not all elements symbolized by the first letter of their names?
The names of some elements such as carbon and calcium begin with the same
letter “C”. Therefore, we cannot use the letter “C” as a symbol for both elements.
Hence two letters are used for other elements except one. The first letter “C” is
assigned as a symbol for carbon. The other element calcium is represented by two
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letter symbols Ca .The same things true for hydrogen and helium. The first letter
“H” is assigned as a symbol for hydrogen while “He” symbol stands for element
helium.
Table 3.1: Name and symbols of some elements
Name of elements Symbol Name of elements Symbol
Hydrogen H Magnesium Mg
Helium. He Aluminum Al
Lithium Li Silicon Si
Beryllium Be Phosphorus P
Boron B Sulfur S
Carbon C Chlorine Cl
Nitrogen N Argon Ar
Oxygen O Calcium Ca
Fluorine F Zinc Zn
Neon Ne Bromine Br
Magnesium Mg Iodine I
Symbols of element derived from their Latin names are listed below.
Table 3.2: Symbols of element derived from Latin names

English name Latin name Symbol
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
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Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
Lead Plumbum Pb
Tin Stannum Sn
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Exercise 3.1
I. Write true for correct statement and false for wrong statement
1. Cais the symbol of sodium.
2. Water is not an element.
3. Elements are pure substance.
II. Multiple choice questions
4. Which of the following is the correct chemical symbol for silicon?
A. S B. Si C. SI D. Sl
5. “C” stands for_____ A. calcium B. Chlorine C. Carbon D. Copper
6. Fill the missing symbols and names of the elements in the following table
Name of element Symbol Name of element Symbol
Potassium Iodine
He B
Chlorine calcium
Cu Nikel
Gold H
Li silver
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3.2. Compounds and their representation

 Define compound as a substance formed when two or more elements
chemically combined together.
 Define valence numbers as the combining power of an atom
 Write the formulae of simple binary compounds using symbols and valences
 Name binary compounds
 Describe polyatomic ion
 Write the chemical formulas of common compounds that contain polyatomic
ions
 Name compounds containing polyatomic ions.
 Identify the elements and number of atoms, given a chemical formula
3.2.1. Compounds
Activity 3.3
Form a group and discuss the following questions and share your ideas with the
rest of the class.
1. From your previous knowledge, what is a compound?
2. Copy the table on your exercise book and classify the substance as element
and compound.
Substance Element Compounds
Sodium chloride(table salt)
Water
Gold
Iron
Carbon dioxide
As you have learnt in unit two, a compound is a pure substance consists of two or
more elements which have been chemically combined.For example, water is a
compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Each of its molecules contains two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. There are many different compounds. Some examples
of compounds are sodium chloride, iron sulfide, carbon dioxide, sugar, calcium
carbonate, calcium oxide, etc.
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3.2.2. Chemical formulas

It is the symbolic representationof an element or a compound. Chemical formulas
can be classified as formulas of elements and formulas of compounds.
Formulas of elements
The formula of an element consists of one kind of symbol.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that has a
stable,independent existence.
The elements helium,neon,argon,krypton,xenon and radon are collectively known
as noble gas.Because they exist uncombined as single atoms,they are also known
as monoatomic gases. Their formula are the same astheir symbols.
Example:- He for Helium,
Ne for Neon,
Ar for Argon.
Some nonmetallic elements exist as molecules containing two, four, or eight
atoms. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are
found as diatomic molecules.
Table 3.3 symbols and formulas of diatomic elements.
Name Symbol Formula
Hydrogen H H2
Nitrogen N N2
Oxygen O O2
Fluorine F F2
Chlorine Cl Cl2
Bromine Br Br2
Iodine I I2
Elemental formula also found in homopolyatomic molecules that contain more

than two atoms. Examples
Ozone-O3, Phosphorus-P4 and Sulfur-S8
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Formulas of compound
Elements combine to form compounds. Just as symbol is a shorthand way of
representing element, a chemical formula comprising two or more different
symbols, is a short hand representation of a compound. In formulas of compound,
the following points are noticed.
 In each formula, the symbol of elements which form the compound are given. Each
symbol is immediately followed by a subscript showing the number of atoms of
that element.
 Chemical formulas indicate the relative number of atoms of each element present
in the compound.
 For example, water (H2O) is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Each of its
molecules contains two hydrogen atoms (2H) and one oxygen atom (O).
Exercise 3.2
I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative.
1. Elements exists as a diatomic and polyatomic molecular form except?
A. Phosphorus B Nitrogen C Oxygen D Neon
2. For which of the following do the atom and molecule have different formula?
A. Helium B. Argon C. Nitrogen D. Neon
3.2.3. Valence number
Activity 3.4
Discuss in groups and share your ideas to the class
What is valence number?
Elements combine in accordance to the laws of nature at atomic levels. Each

element in a formula of a compound has a combining power. The combining
power of an element is called valence. If we know the combining power (valence
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number) of the elements, it is easy to write the formula of a compound. Most

common elements have valence 1, 2, or 3.
Some elements have more than one valence number, which is different combining
powers under different conditions. Common examples of these elements that have
variable valence are iron, copper, lead and tin.
Ions are atoms that have positive or negative charge. The number of negative or
positive charge an ions carries is equal to the valence number of the ion.Thus, the
valences of of Cl-, O2- and Al3+= are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The following table
shows the combining power of some common elements.
Table 3.4: valences of some common elements.
Elements Valence 1 Valence 2 Valence 3
Name symbol Name symbol Name symbol
Metals Lithium Li Magnesium Mg Aluminum Al
Sodium Na Calcium Ca Iron(III) Fe
Potassium K Iron(II) Fe
Copper(I) Cu Zinc Zn
Silver Ag Lead(II) Pb
Non-metal Chlorine Cl Oxygen O Nitrogen N
Bromine Br Sulfur S
Iodine I
Fluorine F
3.2.4. Formulas of Binary Compounds

Binary compounds are compounds formed from two different types of elements.
To write formulas of binary compounds, follow the following simple rule
i. Write the symbol of the elements
ii. Write the valence number above the symbol
iii. Criss-cross the valence numbers to conserve charge or to become the
compound electrically neutral and write below the symbols. If the valence
number is one omit the subscript.
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Examples write the formula for

a. Write the chemical formula for Potassium iodide
Solution
Step 1: K I
1 1
Step 2: K I
1 1
Step 3: K I = K1I1
Since the subscript is 1 we omit and the chemical formula for Potassium iodide is
KI.
b. Write the chemical formula for calcium chloride
Solution
Step 1 Ca Cl
2 1
Step 2: Ca Cl
1
2
Step 3 = CaCl2
Ca Cl
Therefore, the chemical formula for of
calcium chloride is CaCl2
Exercise 3.3
1. Write the chemical formula for
A. Copper (II) oxide D. Aluminum Oxide G. Silver Oxide
B. Magnesium nitride E. Iron (III) Oxide H. Calcium fluoride
C. sodium chloride F. Iron (II) bromide
2. Write the chemical name for
A. MgO ---------------------------
B. FeS ---------------------------
C. AgCl ---------------------------
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II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative

3. Which of the following is the chemical formula of aluminum nitride
A. Al5N3 B. Al3N2 C. AlN3 D. AlN
4. How many valence number for aluminum? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D.5
3.2.5. Naming Binary Compounds
Activity:3.5
Perform the following activities.
A student wrote this name for a compound made of calcium and sulfur: Sulfur
calcium. What is wrong with this name? Write the correct name for the
compound.2.
In naming a compound, the positive ion (metal) mention first followed by the
negative ion (nonmetal). Binary compound is a compound that is made of only two
different elements in a certain whole number ratio.
Rules for naming simple binary compounds.
1. If the binary compounds consist of metal and non -metal, the name of the
metal named by its elemental name while the letters of the non-metal is
replaced by the suffix-ide.
Table 3.6 Names of nonmetallic elements in binary compounds
Nonmetallic Name in Non-metallic Name in

Element Binary Element Binary
Nitrogen Nitride Bromine Bromide
Oxygen Oxide Iodine Iodide
Fluorine Fluoride Phosphorous Phosphide
Chlorine Chloride Sulfur Sulfide
2. There are metals that form more than one positive ions. In naming compounds
of metals with more than one valence number, state valence with Roman number
in bracket to indicate positive charge. Thus Fe2+ is Iron(II) (read as ‘’ iron two ‘’)
and Fe3+ is iron (III) (read as “iron three”)
Example: FeCl3 Iron (III) chloride and FeO Iron (II) oxide
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3.2.6. Polyatomic Ions

Ions are atoms or a group of atoms that have positive or negative charges. They
can be simple ions as Cl-, O2- and Al3+ or polyatomic ions as NH4+,OH-,NO3-,SO42-
And PO43-
A polyatomic ion, also called compound ion is positively or negatively charged
group of atoms. The following tables give the valence number of some polyatomic
ions. Table 3.5some common valence of polyatomic ions
Valence 1 Valence 2 Valence 3
Ammonium ion (NH4+) Sulfate ion(SO42-) Phosphate ion (PO43-)
Hydroxide ion (OH-) Carbonate ion(CO32-) Phosphite (PO33-)
Nitrate ion (NO3-) Sulfite ion (SO32-)
Nitrite (NO2-)
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-)
Hydrogen sulfate ion(HSO4-)
In writing chemical formulas of compounds that contain polyatomic ions, follow

the same steps you used for writing formulas of binary compounds and use bracket
if the valence number is different from 1 and not simplified.
Examples
1. Write the formula for ammonium chloride
Step 1 NH4+ Cl-
Step 2 NH4+ Cl-
Step 3 NH4+ Cl-
So the molecular formula for ammonium chloride is=NH4Cl
E. write the formula ammonium sulfate
Step 1 NH4+ SO42-
Step 2 NH4+ SO42-
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Step 3 NH4+ SO42-

So the molecular formula for ammonium sulfate is (NH4)2SO4
In naming compounds containing polyatomic ions, the name of metals and
ammonium ion are written first followed by the name of the polyatomic ions.
Examples: NH4Cl (ammonium chloride), Al2(SO4)3 (aluminum sulfate) and
Fe(Cl)3Iron (III)chloride,
Exercise 3.4
1. Fill in the blank by writing the formula of a compound
Ions Nitrate Sulfate Carbonate Phosphate
Na+ _________ ________ __________ ___________
Ca2+ _________ ________ __________ ___________
Al3+ _________ ________ __________ ___________
NH4 + _________ ________ __________ ___________
Fe3+ _________ ________ __________ ___________
2. Name the following compounds.
A. NH4Cl C. NaHCO3
B. Cu(NO3)2 D. FePO4
3. Which three elements are combine in magnesium carbonate
4. Which four elements are combine in ammonium sulfate.
3.2.7. Interpreting formula
Activity 3.6 Perform the following activities.
1. What information is obtained from the coefficient and subscript in a formula?
When a formula is interpreted, it will give qualitative and quantitative meanings.

Chemical symbols and formulas with numbers around them at particular positions
give specific information. Thus, symbols and formulas of elements have qualitative
and quantitative meaning.
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Qualitatively: A symbol represents the identity (kind) of the element.

For example:
 Cl2 qualitatively the subscript 2 shows a chlorine molecule.
 The symbol O represents an atom of oxygen. No other element can be
represented by the symbol O.
 Fe stands for iron metal
 CaO is qualitatively stands for calcium oxide made from one atom of
calcium and one atom of oxygen.
 Ca (NO3)2 qualitatively stands for calcium nitrate made from one atom of
calcium and two nitrate groups.
Quantitatively: a symbol represents the number of atoms of the elements.

In Cl2 quantitatively 2 shows there are two atoms in chlorine molecule
 Number preceding symbols, called coefficient, indicates the number of atoms of
the element in a formula.
2Fe stands for two atoms of iron (The number 2gives a quantitative meaning while
Fe itself gives a qualitative meaning.
 A subscript written after a symbol (to the right) indicates that the element is in
molecular form. For example, Cl2 a chlorine molecule and O2 is oxygen molecule
 The coefficient of a molecule or formula unit indicates the number of molecules or
formula unit of that substance.
 3H2O; the coefficient three shows that there are 3 molecules of water
2CO2 the coefficient 2 shows that there are 2 molecules of carbon dioxide
4NaCl the coefficient 4 shows that there are 4 formula unit of sodium chloride.
CaO quantitatively it shows one formula unit of CaO
Ca(NO3)2 quantitatively it shows one formula unit of Ca(NO3)2
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Exercise 3.5
1. What does 3H2O represents?
A.3 H2O atoms B. 6 H molecule
C.3 H2O molecule D. 3O molecule
2 write the qualitative meaning for
A. 2Fe B. CO2 C. O2
3. Write the quantitative meaning
A. 3H2 B. 4H2O C. 2NaCl
Project Work
Writing and interpret formulae of common compounds
By using reference materials, such as a Science books and/or the Internet, try to
discover the formulae of common compounds such as baking soda, Vinegar
(acetic acid), lime ,sugar(sucrose),chalk, milk of magnesia etc. and interpret
them in terms of the elements present and the ratios of their atoms
3.3. Simple chemical reactions and equations

 Define chemical reaction and give examples
 Describe evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred.
 State the law of conservation of mass
 Conduct an experiment in group to show simple chemical reaction.
 Write a chemical equation
 Balance simple chemical equation by inspection
 Create and use models of particles to demonstrate balanced equations.
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3.3.1. Simple chemical Reaction

Activity 3.7
Discuss in groups and share your ideas with the rest of the class
1. Give some examples of chemical changes that takes place in your home or
school.
2. What kind of chemical changes occurred when you cook food?
3. Imagine that you drop a glass beaker and it breaks down.
a. Does a new substance formed?
b. Is this a physical change or chemical change?
A chemical reaction is a process in which some substances is changed into one or
more different new substances.
The starting materials in chemical reaction called reactants, react alone or with
each other to produce one or more new substances, called products.
A chemical reaction involves the transformation of reactants into products.
Reactants Products
An arrow ( ) separates the two side and can be read as ‘produce’, ‘give’,
form’, ’yield’.
Reactants are always written on the left hand side of the arrow while product is
written on the right hand side by putting “+” sign if there are two or more products.
The “+” sign means “combines with” or “reacts with”. For example, when
magnesium is in its metal form it will burn very easily in air. In burning of
magnesium, the reactants are magnesium and oxygen while the product is the
white ash known as magnesium oxide.
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Similarly, in the reaction between iron and sulfur, the iron and sulfur atoms are
reactants where as the formed new substance Iron sulfide is the product.
By chemical reaction, some of the common examples of changes brought about

include Rusting of iron, Fermentation and Digestion of food.
3.3.2. Evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred

Activity 3.8
Form a group and perform the following activity. Then present your finding
to the rest of the class.
Record and describe the various chemical changes that occur in your daily
lives (e.g cooking food, etc.) and describe the evidence you use to determine
that chemical reaction occurred.
In a chemical reaction, new products are formed from the reactants. How can you
tell this happened? There are few signs that indicate a chemical reaction has
occurred. These are: A color changes
Gently heating black copper oxide with sulfuric acid produce a blue solution of
copper sulfate.
Copper oxide + sulfuric acid copper sulfate + water
(Black) (Blue)
Figure 3.1: blue copper sulfate solution
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2. Evolution of a gas (formation of bubbles)

When magnesium is placed in hydrochloric acid, bubble of hydrogen gas are given off.
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
3. Change of temperature (heat change): - either endothermic or exothermic
When potassium is placed in water, hydrogen gas is given off. The reaction
produces so much heat the gas burns.
Potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
4. Precipitate (formation of a solid)
If you mix solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride, a chemical reaction
takes place. In the reaction insoluble solids is formed. This is called a precipitate.
The solid is silver chloride.
Silver nitrate + sodium chloride silver chloride + sodium nitrat
Figure 3.2 white precipitate of AgCl

3.3.3. Law of Conservation of mass
Activity.3.9
Form a group and perform the following activity. Then present your opinion to
the class.
When we burn something it gets lighter or, in other words, it loses mass. For
example when paper burn, the solid ash leftover lighter than the original paper.
Does it mean that mass is not conserved? Discuss in groups and present your
ideas to the whole class?
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In chemical reactions the elements you begin the reaction with are the ones you
end the reaction with. Nothing is added or taken away. The mass you begin with is
the mass you end with. This important idea is called law of conservation of mass.
The law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed
during a chemical reaction. It means that the mass of reactants is exactly equal to
the mass of the products.
3.3.4. Investigating Chemical Reaction
Expriment 3.1
Title: burning of Magnesium ribbon
Objective: to investigate the chemical reaction
Apparatus: Burner, crucible, a pair of tongs
Chemicals: Magnesium ribbon
Procedure
1. Take about 5 cm of magnesium ribbon. Rub its surface gently with an abrasive.
Notice its color and hardness.
2. Hold it by a pair of tongs and burn it.
Hazards!!!
In addition to being extremely bright, burning magnesium produces some
ultraviolet light; avoid looking directly at it. The burning magnesium is very hot;
do not touch it or let it come in contact with other flammable materials.
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Figure 3.3: burning of magnesium

Collect the substance formed. Then add in a crucible and examine it carefully. Feel
it. Notice its color.
After you complete the experiment, answer the following questions
1. What is the reactant materials?
2. Does it bend? It is shiny? Will it burn if heated again? Does it have any
resemblance to the magnesium ribbon you started with?
3. Is chemical (change) reaction occur?
3.3.5. Writing and balancing simple chemical equation

Writing chemical equation
Activity 3.10 Perform the following activity
1. What is chemical equation?
A chemical equation is shorthand expression of a chemical changes (chemical
reaction) through symbols and formulas.
In order to write a correct chemical equation, we look first for the experimental
data to check that the reaction really takes place, and then identify the reactant and
products involved in the reaction. We can then proceed to writing a word equation
to represent the reaction. For example, the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
to give water
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1. Hydrogen + Oxygen water

The next step is to represent each substance by its correct symbol and
formula. The elements Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine,
bromine and iodine are represented by the formulas H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2 Br2, I2.
Because they found as diatomic molecules. Thus we have
2. H2 + O2 H2O
The law of conservation of mass requires that the number of atoms of each
element should be the same as before and after the reaction, i.e. the atoms on
both side of the equation must be balanced.
3. 2 H2, + O2 2H2O
In the equation the coefficient and subscript give information when two molecule
of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen give two molecule of water. In
general, to write a chemical equation for a given reaction one can follow the
following three steps.
Step 1: Write a word equation for the reaction.
Step 2: Change the word equation to a chemical equation i.e., write the correct
symbol or formula for each reactant and product.
Step 3: Balance the equation so that it obeys the law of conservation of mass.
3.3.6. Balancing Chemical equation
Activity 3.11
Perform the following activity
Why should the chemical equation be balanced?
Chemical equation is balanced in order to obey the law of conservation of mass. So
a balanced chemical equation is an equation in which the total number of atoms on
the left hand side is equal to the total number of atoms on the right hand side.
When we balance a Chemical equation, we have to change the coefficients not
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subscripts. This is because, changing subscripts changes the identity of substances.

In balanced chemical equation:
Mass reactants = mass of products
Number of atoms in reactant side = Number of atoms in product side
There are many methods of balancing chemical equations. Only 2 methods of
balancing chemical equations are discussed in this book, namely
1. The inspection method
2. Least common multiple (LCM) method
1. The inspection method - is trial and error method. It involves examining the
equation and adjusting the coefficients until each kind of atoms are equal on the
reactant and product sides.
For example, to balance the equation when nitrogen react with hydrogen to give
ammonia
N2 + H2 NH3
Balance nitrogen by placing 2 before ammonia
N2 + H2 2NH3
Now you have 6 hydrogen atoms on the product side.To balance hydrogen write a
coefficient 3 before H2
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
Finally check whether the equation balanced or not
Reactants Products
N (2) N (2)
H (6) H (6)
Therefore, the equation is balanced.
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2. Least common multiple (LCM) method

The steps used in this method are shown by the following examples.
Consider the reaction between aluminum and oxygen to form aluminum oxide.
Step 1: represent the reaction by word equation
Aluminum + oxygen aluminum oxide
Step 2: Write the correct formula for each of the reactants and products
Al + O Al2O3
Step 3:Find the total valence number(subscript time’s valence number) and place
3 4 6 6
Al + O2 Al2O3
above each symbol and formula
Step:4 Find the total valence number and place it above the arrow. The LCM of 3, 4,
and 6 is 12
3 4 12 6 6
Al + O2 Al2O3
Step 5: Divide the LCM by each total valence number to obtain the coefficients for
each of the reactants and products. Place the coefficients thus obtained in front of
the respective formula. Check
4Al + 3O2 2 Al2O3 Reactants Products
So the equation is balanced
Al (4) Al (4
O (6) O (6)
Exercise 3.6
1. Balance the following by inspection
a. CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) +CO2(g)
b. H2 + I2 HI
c. C2H2(g)+O2(g) CO2(g)+H2O(l)
d. Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
e. Fe2O3 +CO Fe + CO2
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2. Balance the following by LCM

a. Fe + O2 Fe2 O3
b. Cu + H2SO4 CuSO4 +SO2 + H2O
3.4. Uses of Chemical Reactions in Every Day Situation

 Describe the uses of chemical reactions in everyday situations
Activity 3.12
Discuss in groups and share your ideas with the rest of the class.
1. How do the local people in Ethiopia prepare alcoholic beverages like
“Tella”? What raw materials? Is the process a chemical change?
2. Give some examples of useful chemical reactions such as fermentation in
brewing which produces carbon dioxide and ethanol/ alcohol and other
indigenous knowledge.
3.4.1. Uses of chemical reaction

Chemical reaction happens everywhere. It happens inside your body to keep you
alive-For example, reactions to digest food i.e. the breakdown of large molecules
(protein, starch and fats) into smaller ones, so that they can be absorbed.
Chemical reactions are an integral part of technology, of culture, and indeed of
life itself. Burning fuels, smelting iron, making glass and pottery, brewing beer,
and making wine and cheese are among many examples of activities
incorporating chemical reactions that have been known.
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Some Important Chemical Reactions
1. Synthesis of ammonia: Reaction: 3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)

Hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas are combined in the presence of a catalyst
at high temperature and pressure to produce ammonia gas.
Significance: Synthesis of ammonia leads to the production of fertilizer
(ammonium nitrate) and to the production of ammunitions.
2. Combustion of hydrogen
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
Hydrogen gas and oxygen combine to produce liquid water.
Significance: In the forward direction this is a spontaneous reaction that
explosively oxidized hydrogen to water.
3. Combustion of methane (hydrocarbons)
Reaction:CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Methane gas and oxygen gas combine exothermically to produce carbon
dioxide gas and water vapor.
Significance: Methane is the simplest of the hydrocarbons, all of which
combine with oxygen and undergo oxidation. If the oxidation is complete
the products are carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and water.
4. Photosynthesis
Reaction: CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) 6O2(g) + C6H12O6(aq)
Carbon dioxide and water combine in the presence of sunlight (and many
biologically catalyzed reactions) to produce oxygen and glucose (sugar).
Significance: Our atmosphere is 21% oxygen - in spite of the tendency of
oxygen to react with so many substances. The constant level of oxygen is
maintained by the many plants that inhabit our planet through the reaction of
photosynthesis. This is truly solar energy at its most efficient and productive!
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5. Synthesis of sulfuric acid Reaction:

2S(s) +3O2(g) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
Sulfur is first oxidized to sulfur dioxide and then to sulfur trioxide. This gas is
bubbled through water to produce sulfuric acid.
Significance: Sulfuric acid is a very important chemical and an indicator of a
nation's industrial strength.
Unit Review
met.
No. Can I Yes No
1. Define element
2 Identify symbols of some common elements
3 Write chemical symbols for common elements
4 Define compound as a substance formed when two or more elements
chemically combined together.
5 Define valence numbers as the combining power of an atom
6 Write the formulae of simple binary compounds using symbols and
valences.
7 Name binary compounds
8 Describe polyatomic io
9 Write the chemical formulas of common compounds that contain
polyatomic ions
10 Name compounds containing polyatomic ions.
11 Identify the elements and number of atoms, given a chemical
formula
12 Define chemical reaction and give examples.
13 Describe evidences that show chemical reaction has occurred.
14 State the law of conservation of mass.
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15 Conduct an experiment in group to show simple chemical reaction.

16 Write a chemical equation.
17 Balance simple chemical simple chemical equation by inspection
18 Create and use models of particles to demonstrate balanced
equations.
19 Describe the uses of chemical reactions in everyday situations.
Key terms
Element Balanced chemical equation Reactants
Chemical symbol Valence Products
Chemical formula Binary compounds Chemical equation
Molecule Poly atomic ion Law of conservation of mass
Chemical reaction Inspection method LCM method
Unit summary
An atomic symbol is defined as shorthand way of representing elements or
atoms of an element.
A compound is a pure substance consists of two or more elements which have
been chemically combined.
Chemical formula is the symbolic representationof an element or a compound.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that has a
stable,independent existence.
The combining power of an element is called valence. Most common elements
have valence 1, 2, or 3.
Binary compounds are compounds formed from two different types of elements.
In naming a compound, the positive ion (metal) mention first followed by the
negative ion (nonmetal).
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A polyatomic ion, also called compound ion is positively or negatively charged

group of atoms.
A chemical reaction is a process in which some substances is changed into one
or more different new substances. The starting materials in chemical reaction
called reactants, react alone or with each other to produce one or more new
substances, called products.
There are few signs that indicate a chemical reaction has occurred. These are:
color change, evolution of gas, heat change and formation of precipitate.
The law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor
destroyed during a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation is shorthand expression of a chemical changes (chemical
reaction) through symbols and formulas.
There are many methods of balancing chemical equations. Some of them are
inspection method, Least common multiple (LCM) method.
Review Exercise
I Write ‘True’ for the Correct Statements and ‘False’ for the Wrong
Statements.
1. A compound is pure substance.
2. In a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
3. O2 and 2O have the same meaning.
4. The symbol copper denoted by Co.
5. When we balance chemical equation, we change the subscript but not the
coefficient.
6. Respiration is a chemical change (chemical reaction).
7. The combining power of an element is called valence.
8. The formula and symbol of nitrogen is the same.
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9. A number in front of a symbol or formula is coefficient

10. A chemical symbol is a short hand notation for the chemical name of an
element.
II. Choose the Correct Answer from the Given Alternatives.
11.The Latin name of silver is
A. Argentum B. Kalium C. Natrium D. Cuprum
12.In 4O3 the coefficient and subscript respectively
A. 3, 4 B.4,3 C.7,3 D.3,7
13.The formula of nitrate ion is
A. NO B. NO3- C. NO2- D. N2-
14.All of the following elements can exist as diatomic molecules EXCEPT
A Hydrogen B Oxygen C Sodium D Chlorine
15.What is the chemical formula for Iron (III) chloride?
A. FeCl2 B. FeCl C. FeCl3 D. Fe2Cl3
16.The chemical symbol for Helium is
A. H B. Hl C. He D. HE
17.Which of the following is the correct name of MgO?
A. Magnesium oxygen C. Magnesium oxide
B. oxygen magnesium D. molybdenum oxide
III. Give short answers
18.Write the symbol of
a. Zinc b. phosphorous c. Mercury d. calciume. Tin
19.Balance the following chemical equations
a. Al(OH)3 Al2O3 +H2O
b. NH3 + O2 NO +H2O
c. Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 +H2O
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20.Write chemical equations for the following reactions and balance them.
a. Aluminum + bromine Aluminum bromide
b. Sodium + Nitrogen Sodium nitride
c. Potassium + Water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
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UNIT 4: CELLS AS THE BASIS OF LIFE
Learning Outcomes:
MAIN CONTENT At the end of this unit, learners will able
Introduction to:
4.1. Microscope  Define a microscope
4.1.1. Purpose and invention  Explain the use of a microscope
of Microscope  Distinguish the different types of
4.1.2. Types of microscope microscopes
4.1.3. Basic parts of light  Describe the basic parts and functions
microscope of a microscope
4.2. Cell  Use a microscope to view objects
4.2.1. The discovery and  Define a cell
definition of a Cell  Explain how cell was discovered and
4.2.2. Structure of a cell who discovered it
4.2.3. Cell shape and size  Draw a cell and label its major parts
4.2.4. Unicellular organisms  Describe the functions of the major
4.2.5. Multicellular organisms structural parts of a cell
4.2.6. Cell, Tissue, Organ, and  Distinguish between unicellular and
Organ system multicellular organisms
4.2.7. Respiration and  Give examples of cell shape
Mitochondria  Explain why cell shape and structure
4.2.8. Photosynthesis and vary
Chloroplast  Discuss the differences of cell, tissue,
organ and organ system
 Define respiration and write its
106 chemical equation
 Define photosynthesis and write its
chemical equation
Introduction
These units deals about cell as the basis of life and organized in to two sub units.
The first deals about the purpose and types of microscope. And the second parts
deals about the cell, this section focuses on discover and definition of cell,
structures of cell and function, types of organism, and level of organization of
organism will be discussed.
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so small that they cannot be
viewed with the naked eye. Therefore, scientists must use microscopes
(magnifying) instrument to study cells.
4.1. Microscope
Learning competencies: At the end of this section, learners will able to:
 Identify the major parts and functions of a basic microscope
 Use a microscope to view objects
 Discuss the role of a microscope
 Differentiate between simple and light microscope
 Draw diagram of a microscope and label the major parts
 Build microscope from locally available materials
Introduction
Microscope have opened up a whole new dimension in science, by using
microscope scientists were able to discover the existence of the microorganisms,
study the structure of cell, and see the smallest parts of plants, animals, and
fungi. Cells are the smallest units from which all life forms are made.
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Activity 4.1: discuss in group and share your ideas
 What kind of organisms found in your environment?
 How can you observe those cannot see by your naked eye?
4.1.1 Purpose and invention of microscope

Q. What is a microscope?
A microscope is an instrument that is used to observe objects too small to be
seen clearly with the naked eye. Microscope uses lenses or system of lenses to
produce a magnified image of an object under study. Microscopic means
invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. The science of investigating
small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy.
Word Roots and Origins
The word microscope is derived from two Greek words
“Micro” meaning tiny and “scope” meaning to view or look at
What is the use of microscope?
Microscope enlarges/ magnifies the size of the object observed so that it looks
bigger than its actual size. This offers a chance to closely study and learn more
about smaller organisms like cell and microorganism.
S. Who invented a compound microscope and when?
Grinding glass to use for spectacles and magnifying glasses was common place
during the 13th century. In the late 16th century several Dutch lens makers
designed devices that magnified objects.
Dutch spectacle makers Zaccharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey(1595) are noted
as the first men to develop the concept of the compound microscope by placing
different types and sizes of lenses in opposite ends of tubes.
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In 1665 Robert Hooke an English scientists built compound microscopes, which

have multiple lenses. However, his microscope is a compound microscope, the
lenses are not very good and magnifications of more than 30x are very blurred
and do not show much detail.
Later in the 1674 century, Anton van Leeuwenhoek Dutch merchant began
polishing and grinding lenses when he discovered that certain shaped lenses
increased an image’s size. The glass lenses that he created could enlarge an
object many times. The quality of his lenses allowed him, for the first in history,
to see the many microscopic animals, bacteria and intricate detail of common
objects. Leeuwenhoek is considered the founder of the study of microscopy and
played a vital role in the development of cell theory.
4.1.2. Types of microscope
There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different
ways. According to the type of radiation they use for observation microscopes
grouped into two main types of microscopes these are the light microscope and
the electron microscope. The light microscope uses a beam light to form the
image of an object, while the electron microscope uses the beam of electron to
form the image.
Based on the number of lenses it has and uses the light microscopes are
categorized into two simple microscope and compound microscope.
Simple light microscope
A simple microscope consists of a single convex lens that is capable of
magnifying an object. A hand lens (magnifying glass) and reading lens an
example of simple microscope. They can magnify about ten times (10X) to
twenty (20X). Single lensed simple microscope can magnify up to 300X.
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KEY TERMS
Microscope: an optical
instrument used to observe
very small objects.
Microscopic: very small
Figure: 4.1 types of simple light microscope
objects which are only
Compound light microscope viewed with microscope.
Compound microscope is a microscope that Magnifications: increasing
uses multiple lens systems at the same time to the image of an object
improve magnification and resolution. The two Lens: a piece of glass used to
lens systems are the eyepiece (ocular) lens and converge or diverge light
the objective lenses. The objective lenses and form optical images.
include: Resolution is ability of the
 Lower power objective(4x) microscope to show the
 Middle power objective(10x) detailed or the scattered part
 High power objectives (40) of an object.
 Oil immersion lenses(100x)
Microscope has two major abilities: magnification and resolution
1. Magnification is increasing the size of an object to be viewed.
2. Resolution is ability of the microscope to show the detailed or the
scattered
part of an object. It helps us to distinguish between two separate points.
Key Terms
Monocular compound microscope: A compound microscope with single
eyepiece lens.
Binocular compound microscope: compound microscope with two eye
piece lens
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Figure 4.2 Parts of compound monocular microscope

N.B: Your teacher will provide you with a microscope so that you can identify
the parts and their functions
4.1.3 Basic parts of compound light microscope
Table 4.1 parts of compound microscope and their function.
Parts Function
Base Support the microscope
Arm Used to carry the microscope
Stages Supports the glass slide and contains the specimen being Observed.
Stage clips Holds the slide in place on the stages
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Eyepiece Magnifies image for the viewer

Objective lens Low, medium and high power lenses that magnifies the specimen
Course Large knob used for focusing the images under low power
adjustment
Fine Smaller knob used for focusing the image with high power
adjustment objectives
Diaphragm Controls the amount of light that pass through the specimen
Light course Provide light for viewing the specimen
Body tube Separates the objective and the eyepiece and assures continuous
alignment of the optics.
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Activity 4.3 work a group

 What component of microscope uses to magnify an object and in witch
parts of microscope it is located?
 Discuss the total magnification of a compound microscope.
The eyepiece lens usually magnifies ten times and is labeled 10X. The objective
lenses magnify four to hundred times. The total magnification of an object is
calculated by multiplying the magnification of the objective lens by the
magnification of the ocular lens.
For example, if the magnification of the eye lens is 10X and the magnification of
the objective lens is4X, then the total magnification is 40X. Because two lenses
are used, compound microscopes are capable of higher magnifications than
simple microscopes, which use only one lens
KEY TERMS
Experiment 4.1
Mounting: is preparing a specimen for
Practicing mounting and focusing
observation under a microscope.
Materials you require: Focusing: is adjustment of focus to
 Clean slide and cover slip observe specimen clearly.
 Very fine fiber Specimen: a sample of a substance or
 Dropper with nipple material for examination or study
 Forceps
 Water in a beaker
 Compound light microscope
Procedure:
1. Lay down the very fine fiber on a clean microscope slide as shown in the figure 4:4
Add a drop of Place the specimen Place the edge of a coverslip slowly lower the coverslip
water to a slide in the water on the slide so that it touches to prevent forming and
the edge of the water trapping air bubble
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2. Place one drop of water directly over the specimen and cover it with a cover
slip.
3. If you put too much water over the specimen, cover slip will float on top of the
water. This makes it harder to observe the specimen!
This process, if done correctly, there should be no air bubble trapped in the
water between the slide and the cover slip.
 Air bubbles confuse the observer.
 Cover slips protect objective lens and keep the specimen in position.
4. Place the slide on the microscope stage, with the specimen directly over the
center of the glass circle on the stage (directly over the light).
5. Always start and end with Low Power objective. Lower the objective lens to the
lowest point, then focus using first the coarse knob, then with the fine focus
knob.
6. Adjust the Diaphragm as you look through the Eyepiece, and you will see that
more detail is visible when you allow in less light! Too much light will give the
specimen a washed-out appearance. Try it out!!
7. Once you have found the specimen on low power, then, without changing the
focus knobs, switch it to medium power. Move the object or the hand lens until
you are able to see clearly through the lens.
8. Once you have it on Medium and High Power remember that you only use the
fine focus knob! (Never use the oil immersion lens).
9. Click the high power objective lens in position and only use the fine adjustment
knob to focus on specimen. At this point, if the specimen is too light or too dark,
try adjusting the diaphragm.
10.Then, focus using the fine adjustment for sharp focusing. Do not use the coarse
adjustment
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Activity 4.4 Project work

Construct a model of light microscope from locally available materials in
group of five students and submit it to your teacher.
11. Explain what change you have observed. Is the fine fiber compact or relaxed?
Draw it.
Exercise 4.1
Choose the best answer from a given alternatives option
1. From the follow lists chose the correct order in which light passes through it.
A. mirror----objective------ lens----eyepiece --- lens
B. mirror-----slide-----------objective lens-----eye piece
C. Lens-------slide------------eyepiece lens-------objective lens
D. Eye piece-----objective lens----slide------mirror
2. Which parts of microscope combined to give magnified view of specimen?
A. Light source and objective lens B. eye piece and objective lens
C. Stages and eyepiece D. eye piece and focus knob
3. To focus on specimen is the best to start with which objective lens?
A. lower magnification C. intermediate magnification
B. High magnification D. Oil emersion
4. To which parts of microscope do you look through to see an object
magnified?
A. Eyepiece B. Stage C. Focus knob D. objective lens
5. One of the following is not the function of a microscope.
A. Magnifying the image of the sample
B. Showing the details of the sample.
C. Enabling one to observe something seen with naked eye.
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D. Enlarging the size of the sample.

6. Magnification power of a microscope is related to its ability to:
A. Increase the size of the image.
B. Showing the fine details of the sample.
C. Resolving the image.
D. All of the above
4.2. Cell
Learning Outcomes: At the end of this section, learners will able to:
 Explain how cell was discovered
 Draw a cell
 Label the basic structures and functions of a cell (cell membrane, cell
wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, vacuole, and
endoplasmic reticulum)
 Explain why cell shape and structure vary
 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms
 Differentiate among cell, tissue, organ and organ system with examples
 Examine the importance of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Introduction
In the previous section you have already learnt that about microscope; the
instrument that magnifies the images of an object. This enables scientists to look
at and study smaller things like cells which are not seen by naked eye. In this
sub unit, you shall learn about the basic structural unit of organ, which is the
cell; cell may be compared to bricks. Bricks are assembled to make a house,
similarly cells assembled to make the body of organism.
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Word Roots and Origins

Word cell comes from the Latin “cellula” meaning a small room
4.2.1 The discovery and definition of cell

Many biologists and other scientists contributed to the discovery of cells.
Among this the English scientists Robert Hooke (1665) was he first to use the
cell for he observed at very tiny slice of cork through his microscope he noticed
that the cork was porous and comprised of many tiny square boxes that remained
him of the small rooms in monastery. Hence, the word cell comes from the Latin
cellula meaning “a small room”
Soon after Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, Anton van Leeuwenhoek
(1674) made his own simple microscope with only one lens. However, van
Leeuwenhoek is very skilled at grinding lenses and so his microscope can
achieve magnifications of 300X. He was the first person sees living, moving
unicellular organisms (Protista) in a drop of water. He calls the moving
organisms ‘animalcules’. He also sees bacteria (from his teeth), which he also
calls ‘tiny animalcules’.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor
Schwann were studying tissues and proposed the unified cell theory, which
states that all living things are composed of one or more cells, that the cell is the
basic unit of life, and that all new cells arise from existing cells.
Q. What is a cell?
Cells Are the Basic Units of Living Organisms which responsible to carry out
basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms.
Cells are the building blocks of all living beings provide structure to the body.
Organisms may be made up of a single cell or many cells. Cells are complex and
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their components perform various functions in an organism. It comprises several

cell organelles that perform specialized functions to carry out life processes.
4.2.2. Structure of a cell

Cells are the tiny structural units of life, are made up of different parts. The parts
of cells are known as sub-cellular structures or organelles. Different sub-cellular
structures carry out different functions in cells. When observed under compound
or electron microscope, all cells share four common components:
1) A plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from
its surrounding environment;
2) Cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other
cellular components (organelles) are found
3) DNA (nucleus) the genetic material of the cell and
4) Ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins.
Animal and plant cells share some common features like the cell membrane,
nucleus and cytoplasm.
There are several types of organelles within organism cell. The sub cellular
structures found in cells are cell wall, cell membrane, mitochondria, plastids,
ribosomes, nucleus, Golgi apparatus, lysozyme, endoplasmic reticulum,
vacuoles and others. Organelles are adapted or specialized for carrying out one
or more vital function.
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Figure 4.5: Basic structure of animal and plant cell
Table 4.2 Summary of the common and difference parts of animal and plant cell
Name of Description Function

part
Cytoplasm jelly-like, with particles contains the cell organelles, e.g.
and organelles in mitochondria, nucleus, site of
chemical reactions
Animal and plant cell
cell a partially permeable prevents cell contents from

membrane
layer that forms a escaping
boundary around the controls what substances enter
cytoplasm and leave the cell
nucleus a circular or oval controls cell activities
structure containing controls cell division
DNA (genetic material) controls cell development
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cell wall a tough, non-living prevents plant cells from

layer made of cellulose bursting allows water and salts to
surrounding the cell pass through (freely permeable)
Plant cells only
membrane
Vacuole a fluid-filled space contains salts and sugars
surrounded by a helps to keep plant cells firm
membrane
Chloroplast an organelle containing traps light energy for
chlorophyll photosynthesis
Exercise 4.2
1. Compare and contrast animal cell with plant cell.
Structures and functions of organelles
Cell wall: The outer covering of cells that surrounds the cell membrane in plant
cell. The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell; plant cell needs
protection against variation in temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric
moisture, etc. They are exposed to this variation because they cannot move.
Cell membrane: is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the
content of the cell from its external environment. It Controls materials that get
in and out of the cell.
Nucleus: controls reproduction and the activities of the cell.
Cytoplasm: it contains different sub-cellular structures in which chemical

processes take place.
In eukaryotes, the cytoplasm is contained all materials (organelles) located in
within the cell, excluding the nucleus. The part of the cytoplasm that does not
contain any organelles is referred to as the cytosol.
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Mitochondrion: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, the mitochondrion

(plural: mitochondria) is the double-membrane organelle where the process of
cellular respiration takes place.
Chloroplast: Specific/unique to plant cells, chloroplasts are double-membrane

organelles that can convert light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O)
to carbohydrates in a process called photosynthesis.
Ribosome: Ribosomes are the sites where protein synthesis occurs. Because protein
synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in almost in every cell,
Endoplasmic Reticulum: is a series of interconnected membranous tubules that

collectively modify proteins and synthesize lipids. Most cells contain two types
of endoplasmic reticulum: the rough and the smooth.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes
attached to its cytoplasmic surface give it a studded appearance when viewed.
Protein molecules undergo modifications such as folding or addition of sugars.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has
few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface. The SER’s functions include
synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids (including phospholipids), and steroid
hormones; detoxification of medications and poisons; alcohol metabolism; and
storage of calcium ion.
The Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened membranous sacs. The sorting,

tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins take place in the
Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi body)
Lysosomes
In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cell’s “garbage disposal.” Digestive
enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides,
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lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. In single-celled organism

lysosomes are important for digestion of the food they ingest and the recycling
of organelles.
Vesicles and Vacuoles

Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and
transport materials. The central vacuole in plant cell plays a key role in
regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental
conditions.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They
carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They
also detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. Alcohol is detoxified by
peroxisomes in liver cells.
4.2.3 Cell Shape and Size
Different cells have different shapes and their unique morphologies are directly
related to their function:
 Plant cells, in general, have rectangular, rigid walls, and distinct edges.
Such structure is contributed by the presence of cell wall that forces the
cell to have a definite shape.
 Unlike plant cells, animal cells tend to have more irregular body shapes
due to the absence of cell wall in their overall structure.
 Microorganisms like bacteria have three types of cell shape: oval (cocci),
rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral, star-shaped, and rectangular. See the
difference between the plant cell and animal cell from figure 4.3
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Figure: 4.6 the shapes and sizes of different cell

Like shapes, the size of cells is also linked to their functions. Depending on
the type of organism, the size of the cell greatly varies.
 In particular, egg cells are the largest cells that an organism has. This is
very much related to their function as the development of the zygote after
fertilization requires huge amounts of energy. Approximately, the human
egg cell measures 0.12 mm in diameter.
 On the other hand, the smallest cell is that of the parasitic bacterium
Mycoplasma gallicepticum. This bacterium, which thrives in the bladder,
respiratory and reproductive tracts of mammals. This cell has an average
diameter of 0.0001 mm
4.2.4. Unicellular Organisms

Q. What is a unicellular organism?
A cell is the basic unit of life. All living organisms are composed of one
(unicellular) or more (multicellular) cells.
Unicellular organisms are those organisms composed of one cell.
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They are typically microscopic in nature and cannot be seen with naked eyes.
Life processes such as excretion, digestion, feeding and reproduction occur in
one cell. Examples of unicellular organisms include different bacteria, most
algae, unicellular fungi (yeast) and protozoans such as, amoeba and paramecium
Figure: 4.7 some unicellular organisms

Experiment 4.2
Examining different water samples and prepared slides for the presence of
organisms
In the first part of this activity, you will examine prepared slides of unicellular
organisms under a compound microscope in the second part of this activity; you
will prepare a wet mount of amoeba culture.
Materials you will require:
Hand lens,
Water samples from pond, river, lake, well or standing water,
Compound light microscope,
Prepared slides of amoeba, euglena, paramecium, bacteria, yeast, and algae
Procedures:
I. Observation using a hand lens
1. Collect water samples in open mouth container (beakers).
2. Observe the surface of each sample with a hand lens for the presence of
living organisms.
3. Can you observe anything moving? Please, draw it.
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II. Observation of prepared slides

1. Place a prepared slide of amoeba on the stage of the microscope.
2. With your microscope on low power, observe the slide.
3. Move the slide around on the stage until you find some cells.
4. Now, using the medium- or high-power objective lens, focus on one cell
and observe and draw what you see.
5. Label all visible structures.
6. Repeat steps 1- 5 for prepared slides of Paramecium, euglena, yeast and
bacteria.
7. For each organism you view, be sure to include the name of the organism
and the total magnification used.
After completing these practical activities, compare your drawings with the
figures given on; 4.6
4.2.5. Multicellular Organisms

Multicellular Organisms are organisms that are made of up many cells. Plants
and animals are examples of multi cellular organism. In multi cellular organism
cell are specialize to perform different functions. Human being are multicellular
organism consist different types of cell like blood cells, skin cells, brain cells,
heart cells and many types of other cells. Similarly, plants have different cell like
stem Cells, root cells, and many other types.
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Cells are the basic

building blocks of
living things. The
human body is
composed of trillions
of cells, all with their
own specialized
function.
Figure: 4.8. Some different types of cells that build up human body
4.2.6. Levels of Organization of Living Things

(Cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organisms)
Cell: All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest important
unit of structure and function in living organisms it performs various metabolic
functions like providing structure and rigidity to the body, converting food into
nutrients and energy, and others.
Regardless of their small size, cells are organized in a precise manner. Some
cells contain groups of macromolecules surrounded by membranes; these are
called Organelles: Organelles are small structures that exist within cells and
perform specialized functions.
At cellular level, organisms can be classified into two: single-celled organisms
(unicellular) and multiple-celled organisms (multi-cellular)
Tissue: In most multicellular organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which
are groups of similar cells carrying out the same function. For example, muscle
tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue. Like cells, tissues perform
metabolic processes that keep the organism alive.
Organs: are collections of tissues grouped together based on a common
function. Organs are present not only in animals but also in plants. In plants,
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their organs include the flowers, roots, stems, and the leaves. On the other hand,
organs of animals include the brain, heart, stomach, eyes, and many more.
Figure: 4.9 Level of organization in human being

Organ system: is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally
related (associated) organs. While each organ system in an organism works as a
distinct entity, they all function in cooperation with each other in order to help
keep the organism alive. In plants, organ systems include the root and shoot
system, while animal organ systems include the digestive system, nervous system
circulatory system, and others.
An organism can be simply defined as any living thing that is composed of
various organ systems that function altogether. Organisms are individual living
bodies.
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Exercise 4.3
Choose the best answer for each of the following questions.

1. One of the following is true about cells.
A. Cells are generally too small to be seen with the naked eye.
B. Cells are the structural and functional units of all life forms.
C. Cells are the smallest units that carry out all process of life.
D. All of the above
2. One of the following is part of a cell and only found in animal cell?
A. Cell membrane
B. Chloroplast
C. Cell wall
D. Lysosome
3. One of the followings is a unicellular organism.
A. amoeba B. yeast C. bacteria D. Paramecium E. all
4. Which one the following is not an organ
A. heart B. lung C. nerve D. stomach
5. One is formed from groups of similar cells carrying out the same function.
B. organ B. tissue C. organ system D. organism
4.2.7. Respiration and mitochondria.
Activity 4.4: Discuss in a group

 How the energy in food we eat released to our body?
 What is the role of oxygen that we inhale during breathing
Cellular respiration is a process that occurs in the mitochondria of all organisms.

Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the “powerhouses” or
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“energy factories” of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy-carrying molecule. Mitochondria are
oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and
DNA. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The
inner layer has folds called cristae, which increase the surface area of the inner
membrane. The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix.
The cristae and the matrix have different roles in cellular respiration.
The formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular

respiration. In this process, both plants and animals break down simple sugars
into carbon dioxide and water and release energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
Cellular respiration or aerobic respiration is a series of chemical reactions which

begin with the reactants of sugar in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water as waste products.
Cellular respiration has four stages
The first metabolic pathway during cellular respiration is glycolysis. Coming
from the Greek word “glyk” which means “sweet” and “lysis” which means
“dissolution“, glycolysis is the breakdown of one molecule of glucose (sugar)
into two molecules of pyruvate.
As shown in the above diagram, glycolysis takes place in the cytosol.
C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P → 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O) COOH +
2ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+
Glycolysis produce two ATP molecules; four molecules are actually

produced during the entire process. However, two molecules are
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consumed during the preparatory phase, hence, resulting to a net of just

two ATP molecules.
 The second stages is so-called “link reaction” that occurs. Pyruvate from
glycolysis is oxidized (converted) to acetyl coA, one molecule of NADH
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), and one molecule of carbon dioxide.
The third stage is called as the Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle, or simply the
Citric Acid cycle, the Krebs cycle (identified by Hans Adolf Krebs)
The Krebs cycle, which occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion, includes a
series of oxidation-reduction reactions that result in the oxidation of the acetyl
group to two carbon dioxide molecules.
 Hence, from one glucose molecule (that formed 2 pyruvate), a total of
6 NADH, 2 FADH2 and 2 ATP molecules are produced.
The forth stages is the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative
phosphorylation which both occur in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
 In ETC, electrons are transferred from one complex to next where the
electrons reduce oxygen to produce water. Such reactions produce the
majority of ATP during cellular respiration.
 Overall ETC produces water, NAD and FAD (which are both recycled back
to glycolysis and Krebs cycle), and up to 34 ATP per one molecule of
glucose!
 In total, the resulting product of aerobic cellular respiration from a single
glucose molecule can be up to 38 ATP.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38ATP
(Glucose + 6 Oxygen → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + ATP)
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Q. What is the role of Oxygen in cellular respiration?

Oxygen is an essential molecule in cellular respiration. Basically, oxygen can be
found at the end of the ETC (during aerobic respiration) where it accepts
electrons while picking up protons in order to produce water molecules. Because
of this, oxygen is also called as the “final electron acceptor”. When oxygen
levels are depleted, electrons will be simply dispersed and the electron transport
chain will discontinue.
An aerobic respiration: Respiration in cells can take place anaerobically
(without oxygen), to transfer energy; it simply involves the incomplete
breakdown of glucose into lactic acid. This occurs when the body can’t supply
enough oxygen for aerobic respiration, such as during vigorous exercise
 In animal cells, this process is called the lactic acid fermentation. It is
almost the same with aerobic respiration except that it produces lactic acid
in the process. It can be simplified in the equation:
C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CH (OH) COOH + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
 On the other hand, microorganisms like yeastrespire without oxygen
produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. Such process is referred to as the
ethanol or alcohol fermentation.
C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP
In both types of fermentation process, only 2 ATP are produced from a glucose
molecule
4.2.8. Photosynthesis and chloroplast

Plants make sugar by using energy from sunlight to change carbon dioxide
(CO2), a gas absorbed from the air, and water (H20) taken from the ground by
roots into glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2). This process is called
photosynthesis and occurs in the chloroplast of the plant cell.
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Chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, within the space enclosed by a
chloroplast’s inner membrane; is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled
membrane sacs called thylakoids. Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum
(plural grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane and surrounding the
grana is called the stroma.
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the
energy of sunlight for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and
water into glucose (sugar) and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose (sugar) + Oxygen+ Water
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12 O6+6O2+6H2O
Exercise 4.5
1. Compare the functions of the mitochondrion and chloroplast. How are

they different? How are they similar?
2. Write the chemical equations of cellular respiration and photosynthesis
Unit Summary
 A microscope is an instrument that is used to observe objects too small to be
seen clearly with the naked eye.
 Microscopes are grouped in different type According to the type of radiation
they use for observation or image formation. The most common are light and
electron microscope.
 The light microscope uses a beam light to form the image of an object, while
the electron microscope uses the beam of electron to form the image.
 A simple microscope consists of a single convex lens that is capable of
magnifying an object.
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 Compound microscope is a microscope that uses multiple lens systems at the

same time.
 Microscope has two major abilities these magnification and resolution
 Magnification is increasing the size of an object to be viewed.
 Resolution is ability of the microscope to show the detailed or the scattered
part of an object.
 Mounting is the process preparing a specimen for observation under a
microscope.
 A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. Thus, cells are the basic building
blocks of all organisms.
 All cells commonly have cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus or DNA and
ribosome
 Unicellular organisms are those organisms that are made up of single cell.
 Multicellular organisms are those organisms that are made up of many cells.
 Multicellular organisms have different levels of organization like cell, tissue,
organ, organ system, and organisms.
 Mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane organelles perform
cellular respiration and Photosynthesis respectively.
 The formation of ATP (energy) from the breakdown of glucose using oxygen
is known as cellular respiration.
 Photosynthesis is food making process in green plants using CO2, water,
chlorophyll pigments in chloroplast and light from the sun.
Review Exercise
Choose the correct answer from a given alternative options.
1. The ___________ is the basic unit of life.
A. Organism B. cell C. tissue D. organ
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2. Which of these structures do all cell share?

A. nuclear envelope
B. cell walls
C. organelles
D. plasma membrane
3. which of the following scientists discover the cell
A. Robert Hooke C. Zaccharias Janssen
B. Anton van Leeuwenhoek D. Hans Lipperhey
4. Which of the following feature will help you in distinguishing a plant cell
from an animal cell?
A. cell wall C. mitochondria
B. Cell membrane D. nucleus
5. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
A. cytoplasm B. Cytosol C. Cell wall D. nucleus
6. The shape and size of the cell are directly related to:
A. the size of organism C. environment
B. their functions D. all
7. Which of the following levels of biological organization shows the correct
order from simplest to complex level?
A. Organism--------organ system------organ-------tissue-----cell
B. Tissue----cell----organ------ -----organ system------organism
C. Cell------tissue-------organ------organism--------organ system
D. Cell------tissue-------organ------organ system--------organism
8. Which organelles are responsible for digesting cell waste and foreign
bacteria?
A. Golgi apparatus B. Cytoskeleton C. nucleus D. lysosome
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9. Which of these organelles modifies cell products and then packages them for
distribution?
A. The nucleus C. The mitochondrion
B. The cell membrane D. The Golgi apparatus
10.The ‘powerhouse’ of the cell that generates the cell’s energy-rich ATP
molecules is the:
A. Mitochondrion C. Chloroplast
B. Smooth ER D. Nucleus
Part II: Match items given in column 'B' with items given in column 'A'
column 'A' column 'B'
11.Cell wall A. sorting, tagging and distribution of lipids

12.Nucleus B. provides support, and gives shape to the cell
13.Ribosome C. it direct and control cell activities
14.Mitochondria D. modify proteins and synthesize lipids
15.Chloroplast E. the power house of cell
16.Golgi apparatus F. the site were photosynthesis occur
17.Endoplasmic reticulum G. Synthesize protein
Fill in the blank spaces with correct answer.
18.The instrument used to observe cells is ________

19.The ability of the microscope that makes the specimen appear large is known
as-----------------
20.The objective lenses of a compound microscope are------, ----, -----, and-----
21.-------------is preparing a specimen for observation under a microscope
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Part IV: Give short answers for the following questions.
22. Cells consist of many organelles, yet we do not call any of these organelles
as structural and functional unit of living organisms.
23. Explain how do you calculate the total magnification of your specimen when
using a compound light microscope?
24. Reorder the following parts of living things from larges to smallest
(Cell, organ, organism, tissue, atom, molecule, organ system, organelle)
25. Write the difference between magnification and resolution
26. The figure 4:10 given below is the structural organization of the animal cell.
Depict the organelles that is indicated by each number
Unit Review
Check List Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit
by students. You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√)
mark under “Yes” column if you are able to perform the competency or under
“No” column if you are unable to perform the competency. This would help to
evaluate yourself and you can revise the parts of topics for which the
competencies are not met.
No. Can I Yes No

1. identify the major parts and functions of a basic
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microscope
2 Use a microscope to view objects
3 Discuss the role of a microscope
4 Differentiate between simple and light microscope
5 Draw diagram of a microscope and label the major parts
6 Build microscope from locally available materials
7 Explain how cell was discovered
8 Draw and label the basic structures and functions of a cell
9 Explain why cell shape and structure vary
10 Distinguish between unicellular and multicellular
organisms
11 Differentiate among cell, tissue, organ and organ system
with examples
12 Examine and weigh the importance of cellular respiration
Examine and weigh the importance of photosynthesis
Key words
Microscope Resolution Unicellular lens
Magnification Mounting multicellular cell
Monocular binocular cellula tissue
Respiration photosynthesis Anaerobic Aerobic
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Unit 5: Living Things and Their Diversity

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
 Distinguish between living and non-living things by describing the features
that characterize living organisms
 Discuss if movement i.e. locomotion can characterize all living things or
not
 Define classification and its purpose
 Explain the purpose of scientific name
 List down the hierarchical levels in the classification of organisms
 Describe the distinguishing characteristics of kingdom Animalia, Plantae,
Protista, Monera and Fungi.
 List common examples of animals, Plantae, Protista, Monera and Fungi
 Describe the body plan of a common animals, Plantae, Protista, Monera and
Fungi
 Describe habitats of animals, Plantae, Protista, Monera and Fungi
Contents of the unit

5.1. Living Things
5.1.1. Characteristics of living things
5.1.2. Classification and scientific names of organisms
5.1.3. Hierarchy in the classification of organisms (Kingdom to species)
5.2. Kingdoms of Life
5.2.1. Kingdom Animalia
5.2.2. Kingdom Plantae
5.2.3. Kingdom Protista
5.2.4. Kingdom Monera
5.2.5. Kingdom Fungi
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Activity: 5.1
Discuss in group and present
your ideas to classmates.
 What makes living things
different from non-living
things? Consider as an
example better fly and
stone
Introduction
There are at least five million different kinds of living things in the word. These
organisms are classified according similarities and differences. The need for
classifying living things is to identify them and to study their relationship, their
origin and development and to understand how life originated.
5.1. Living Things
At the end of this section students will able to:

 Differentiate between living and non-living things
 Organize and describe characteristics of living things
 Justify why movement or locomotion from one place to another cannot be a
defining characteristic of all organisms
 Relate diversity with classification of organisms
 Justify why scientific names of organisms should be used in science than the local
names
 Analyze and describe the relationships of the hierarchical levels (Kingdom
to Species) in the classification of organisms.
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Introduction
If you observe your environment you realize that there are millions of different
organisms living on the Earth, including animals, plants and microorganism. In
this unit you are going to learn about the characteristics of life, naming and how
to classify those organisms in to different group.
5.1.1. Characteristics of living things

Living things belong to any organism or a life form that possesses or shows the
characteristics of life or being alive. However, a living thing possesses certain
properties that help define what life is.
All groups of living organisms share several key characteristics or functions:

movements, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction and excretion. When
viewed together, these seven characteristics serve to define life.
Characteristics of Living Organisms

 Movement: an action by an organism or part of Activity 5.2 Discuss in
group and share your ideas to
an organism causing a change of position or
the class
place. Most single-celled creatures and animals
1. Are plants categorized in
move about as a whole. Fungi and plants may living things or nonliving
make movements with parts of their bodies. things? Justify why?
2. Why movement or
 Respiration: the chemical reactions that break
locomotion from one place
down nutrient molecules in living cells to release to other cannot be taken as
energy for metabolism defining characteristics of
all living things?
 Sensitivity: the ability to detect or sense stimuli in
the internal or external environment and to make appropriate responses.
Organisms can respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can grow toward a
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source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch. Even tiny bacteria
can move toward or away from chemicals or light.
 Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number
or cell size or both. Non- living organisms grow by addition of new material to
the out sides surface, however living organism grow from within using food
 Reproduction: All living organisms must have the ability to reproduce. Living
things make more organisms like themselves. Whether the organism is a rabbit, or
a tree, or a bacterium, life will create more life. Reproduction is the process of
making the next generation and may be a sexual or an asexual process.
 Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of
metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in
excess of requirements Example the process of respiration produces west product,
carbon dioxides, which can be harmful in excess and must be removed
 Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants
require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds,
ions and usually need water
Exercise 5.1
1. List and explain the characteristics of life.

2. Explain why movement or locomotion from one place to another cannot
be a defining characteristic of all organisms?
5.1.2. Classification and scientific names of organisms

Scientists have found and describe approximately1.75million species, moreover
new species are being discovered every day. With such diversity of life on the
earth how does one go about making sense of it all? One ways to make sense of
it is by classification. Classification is an important step in understanding the
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present diversity and past evolutionary history of life on Earth. It helps make
sense of the overwhelming diversity of living things.
Q. What is classification?
Classification is sorting or grouping things together on the basis common
features /defined characteristic or criteria.
The science of classification is called Taxonomy. Classification is usually a

hierarchical process. One begins with general and broad differences, and then
one systematically introduces more and more detailed and specific criteria.
Q. Why we do we classify?
Biologist/Taxonomist classify living things because of:

 To identify those most at risk of extinction and to understand common
ancestors.
 It helps scientists to sort organisms in order and to make easy for study.
 It helps them to identify new organisms by finding out which group they fit.
Taxonomy has two branches: the naming of organism or nomenclature and

Placing of organism in to group, or systematic which is done on the basis of
their similarities and differences.
There are two ways of classifying organisms. These are artificial and natural.
The artificial classification based on one or a few easily observed

characteristics and usually designed for practical purpose with an emphasis on
convenience and simplicity.
Example: You could put all the animals that fly in the same group. This group
would then include birds, bats and many insects. You could put all animals that
live in water and have streamlined, fish-like bodies in the same group. This
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group would then include fish and whales. Are based on arbitrary groupings and
have little meaning. Natural or biological classification systemtries to use
natural relationships between organisms it consider more evidence than artificial
classifications including internal as well as external features.
KEY WORDS It is a scientific method of

classification that groups
Taxonomy: the science of classifying and naming
organisms that share common
organisms.
features.
Classification: sorting things based on defined
characteristics or criteria This classification is not random,
Nomenclature: naming of organism but rather it describes
Genera: a group of closely related species.
evolutionary relationships. As a
Species: is the group of organism that can reproduce
consequence, it is always
to produce fertile offspring
Binomial system is an internationally agreed system necessarily hierarchical, where
in which the scientific name of an organism is made the important features inherited
up of two parts showing the genus and the species. from a common ancestor
determine the group in which the
organisms are placed.
For example, humans and whales both feed their young on milk, which is a
characteristic inherited from a common ancestor. This similarity places them
under the same class, mammals, even though their habitats are completely
different.
Each organism is grouped into one of five large groups or kingdoms, which are
subdivided into smaller groups called phyla (singular: phylum) and then smaller
and smaller groups with other names.
The smallest natural group of organisms is the species. A species can be defined
as a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring.
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Scientific Naming of Organism

The Binomial System
Organisms were first classified by a Swedish naturalist called Carl Linnaeus
(1707 to 1778) in a way that allows the subdivision of living organisms into
smaller and more specialized groups. He designed a scientific system of naming
organisms called binomial nomenclature.
The binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in
which the scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the
genus and the species. Binomial means ‘two names’; the first name gives the
genus and the second gives the species. Carl Linnaeus named organisms in Latin
using the binomial system.
The scientific naming or binomials naming system should follow the following
rules
 Should d contain two names (first and the second)
 The first name is the name of the genus name to which group the
organisms belongs and it should begin in capital letter
 The second name is the name of species to which the organism belongs
.it is written in small letter.
 The scientific name must always be either written underlined or printed
in italics.
The scientific name of our human race is Homo sapiens/Homo sapiens, similarly
the scientific name of some organism listed below in the table
No Common name Scientific name
1 African elephant Loxodontaafricana
2 Lion Pantheraleo
3 Teff Eragrostistef
4 Domestic cat Felisdomesticus
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An organism will always have only one scientific Activity 5.3

name even though they might have more than one The activity below is not
common name. Life Sciences related, but
Before Linnaeus, the use of common names to refer expresses the process of
to organisms caused confusion because there were classification. Discuss in
regional differences in these common names. group and present the
Because of the scientific names is international result of your discussion
agreed and universal it avoids the confusion of local the relationships among
variation in common names. For instance, every the administrative
biologist will understand that Feliscatus means structure: Country,
‘house cat’ without resorting to the dictionary, no Region, Zone, Weredaand
matter what language they speak. correlates with biological

levels of classification
Exercise 5.2
1. Explain the importance of scientific naming organisms.

2. Define what is species?
5.1.3. Hierarchy in the classification of organisms (Kingdom to species)
Linnaeus eventually extends the binomial system to
include more groups than just genus and species.
These he arranged in hierarchy with largest group,
the kingdom at the top of hierarchy, the groups he
proposed are still used to day and, in descending
order of size: The sequence of classification is:
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
Genus, and Species.
Figure 5.1: Diagram showing hierarchy of classification.
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When trying to identify animals, it is

Activity: 5.4
this hierarchy or ranking scheme that
make you own mnemonic to remember
we follow. We start by identifying the
the sequence of the classification system
This activity allows the learners to be kingdom, to which an organism
creative. Give the learners the freedom to belongs, then its phylum, class, family,
choose which platform suits them best. order, and so on.
The learners have fun and learn the
As you go through the classification
classification system at the same time.
Instructions: Make an easy to remember hierarchy, you will see that scientists
memory aid to remember the sequence of have used broader features to put
levels of the classification system. organisms into kingdoms, which are
Materials: pen, paper, imagination! the largest groups of organisms. When
Procedure: coin mnemonics using first
you move down towards the species,
letters of the levels such as―K for
which are the smallest groups of
Kingdom, ―P for Phylum, etc. for frequent
memorization easy and of the levels. organisms, features are becoming
Example of such mnemonic as: King Philip specific. In other words, two organisms
came over for Good Spaghetti (KPCOFGS) that belong to the same species share
rehearse this mnemonic at the beginning of more features than those in the same
your class until this unit is completed.
kingdom but in different species.
KEY WORD
Kingdom: are grouped of related phyla or divisions
Phylum or Division: a group of related classes
Class: a group of related orders
Order: a group of related families
Family: a group of related genera
Genus: a group of closely related species.
Species: basic unit of classification or taxonomy
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Taxon Dog Tiger Maize

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae
Phylum Chordata Chorodata Magnoliophyta
Class Mamalia Mammalia Liliopsida
Order Carnivora Carnivora Poales
Family Canidae Felidea Poaceae
Genus Canis Felis Zea
Species Familiaris Tigris Mays
Table 5.1. The taxonomic breakdown of a few familiar animals and plant
Exercise 5.3
1. Writes the classification hierarchy for human being from kingdom to

species
A species can be defined as a group of organisms with similar features and these
organisms are capable of breeding and produce fertile offspring. You are
probably aware of the fact that horses and donkeys belong to the same kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family as well as genus but they are from different species.
Therefore, if a donkey and the horse happen to breed, they produce an offspring
called a mule. The mule is infertile, meaning that it cannot reproduce offspring
because it is a product of organisms of different species.
Classification hierarchy has many uses. First, it helps scientists to sort organisms
in order. Second, it helps them to identify new organisms by finding out which
group they fit. Third, it is easier to study organisms when they are sorted in
groups.
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Exercises 5.4
I. Choose the best answer from a given alternative option

1. The Swedish scientists who create the binomial naming system
A. Robert Hook. C. Robert H. Whittaker
B. Carlous Linnaeus D. Charles Darwin
2. Which of the following in the classification system is the smallest?
A. Kingdom B. species C. Genus D. class
3. Excretion, irritability and reproduction are characteristics of:
A. all animals and plants C. plants only
B. animals only D. some animals and some plants only
Figure: 5 .2 below shows how fish react when the glass on one side of an
aquarium tank is tapped with a finger.
4. What characteristics of living organisms does this demonstrate?

A. Excretion and movement C. growth and irritability
B. excretion and nutrition D. irritability and movement
5. The scientific name of human being is Homo sapiens, the second parts of the
scientific name represent-------
A. . genera name C. species named
B. kingdom name D. family name
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II. Complete the passage below by choosing the words from list
List: excretion, growth, Sensitivity, movement, nutrition, organisms,
reproduction, respiration
A. Living things are often called ______________.
B. All living things release energy from their food in a process called
______________, which happens inside their cells
C. Some of the energy is used for ________________, which usually
happens more quickly in animals than in plants.
D. The food from which the energy is released is taken into the body in a
process called ________________.
E. All living things get bigger as they get older. This process is called _____
F. The production of young is called ____________________.
G. Waste substances are removed from organisms by the process of _______
H. The seventh characteristic shown by all living organisms is _________,
which means that they are sensitive to things around them.
5.2. The kingdom of life

 Compare the five Kingdoms of living things by describing their
distinguishing characteristics
 Summarize the commonest examples of organisms belonging to each
Kingdom
 Describe the body plans of insects such as butterfly, amphibians such as
frogs, mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers such as junipers, flowering
plants, Paramecium, Algae, and Mushroom
 Relate each Kingdom of organisms to their major habitat types as
aquatic, terrestrial or moist.
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Activity: 5. 5 Brain storming

Have you ever thought of multitudes of life forms that surround as and can you list
same if them
Activity: 5.6 Make groups of five, and then categorize the following organisms
given in the following charts in to some named group and present the results of
your discussion for the class.
Figure: 5.3 same diversity of life on planet earth.

The five kingdom system is the most common way of grouping living things
based on simple distinctive characteristics. The five-kingdom system was
developed by Robert H. Whittaker in 1969 and was built on the work of
previous biologists such as Carolus Linnaeus. Living things can be classified
into five major kingdoms:
 Kingdom Animalia Activity 5. 7
 Kingdom Plantae Categorize the organism listed in
 Kingdom Fungi figure 5.1 above based on the five

 Kingdom Protista kingdom of life and explain your
 Kingdom Monera (Bacteria) reason to classify under any of

the kingdom?
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5.2.1. Kingdom Animalia

Major characteristics of animals
Members of the animal kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular but have no
cell wall or photosynthetic pigments. They are mostly motile and they are
heterotrophic, which means they must feed on other organisms and cannot make
their own food. They reproduce sexually or asexually. Animals store carbon as
glycogen and fat.
Major groups of animal and their habitats
Invertebrates
Insects (Arthropods)
The insects form a very large class of arthropods.

Insects live in every possible environment on
Earth and are among the most highly adapted of
all animal species
Bees, butterflies, mosquitoes, houseflies, earwigs,

greenfly and beetles are just a few of the Figure: 5.4 the body
structure of insects
subgroups in this class.
Insects have segmented bodies with a firm exoskeleton, three pairs of jointed
legs, compound eyes and, typically, two pairs of wings. The body is divided into
three parts:head, thorax and abdomen regions. Insects have only one pair of
antennae and only three pairs of legs and have no limbs on the abdominal
segment.
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KEY TERMS
Heterotrophs: heterotrophs are organisms that cannot produce their own food.
Multicellular: an organism composed of many cells.
Exoskeleton: is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal's
body.
Worm: Worms are members of several invertebrate phyla, animals that typically
have a long cylindrical tube-like, flattened, or leaf like shaped body, no limbs,
and no eyes.
It includes Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Annelida (segmented worms),
Nemertea (ribbon worms), nematode (roundworms, pinworms) etc. They vary in
size from less than 1 mm (0.04 inch) in certain nematodes to more than 30 m
(100)
They live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. Some types of worms
are parasitic, others are free-living.
Figure: 5.5 different worms of phylum Annelida

Activity: 5.8
Collecting and examining flatworms and insects
Materials you require: A. containers, nets, hand lenses,alcohol solution
Procedure:
1. You may need to use nets to catch some of the organisms. Take care handling
any organisms which may sting or bite. Keep different types of specimen you
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collected (butterfly, grasshopper, spider, Bees, mosquitoes) in appropriate

container and examine as the following
2. What features the specimens have in common?
3. Examine their characteristic features, i.e. number of limbs, presence and
number of antennae and number of body parts, presence and number of wings.
4. You should then make a table of characteristic features like in the following
tables
5. Make large well-labeled drawings of each of their specimens
Specimen Number of body Number of limbs Antenna wings
parts
Butterfly
Grasshopper
B. Looking at Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Material used: preserved or fresh specimens of Platyhelminthes (flat worm) hand

lenses. Observe, draw and label specimens of these invertebrate phyla
Activity: 5. 9 collecting and examining amphibian (frog)
Material you require: transparent container or cage, pairs of forceps, pairs of gloves.
Procedure:
1. Collective or freshly killed toads or frogs keep in transparent container or

cage.
2. Examine the head and trunk regions of the toad. You should note and identify
the following characteristic features: Mouth, Nostrils, Eyes Ear, Trunk, limbs.
3. Does the toad/frog have a tail?
4. Make a large well-labeled drawing of the toad/frog as seenfrom the slide
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Vertebrates (fish, amphibian, reptiles, birds & mammals). Vertebrates are

animals which have a vertebral column. The vertebral column is sometimes
called the spinal column consists of a chain of cylindrical bones (vertebrae)
joined end to end.
Table 5.3 major groups of animals and their characteristics

Class Main features Examples
 Poikilothermic (cold blooded)

vertebrates.
 Many of them have a smooth, wet
scales on skin, streamlined shape
FISH
 Breath by gills, reproduce sexually

fertilization external
 Fins (also used for balance)
 Live only in water (aquatic
environment)
 Have moist skins with a good
supply of Capillaries
 Have lungs and skin for breathing
AMPHIBIAN
 Fertilization external, produce

jelly-covered eggs in water
 Four limbs, back feet are often
webbed to make swimming more
efficient
 Live both in water and on land.
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 dry skin, with scales
 four legs (apart fromsnakes)
REPTILES
 produce eggs with a rubbery,

waterproof shell; laid on land
 Have lungs for breathing
 Most reptiles live in warm habitats
 are homoeothermic (warm blooded

 feathers, with scales on legs
 two wings and two legs
BIRDS
 produce eggs with a

 hard shell, laid on land
 lungs for breathing; beak
 live in water and on land
 are homoeothermic (warm
blooded)
 produce live young
MAMMALS
 lungs for breathing

 females have mammary glands
to produce milk to feed young;
 four types of teeth
 live on land
Key word
Poikilothermic: is an animal whose internal temperature varies considerably.
Homoeothermic: organisms able to maintain a constant internal body
temperature.
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Exercise 5.5
1. Which of the following vertebrates are characterized by four limbs with
back feet are often webbed, moist skin and live both in water and on land?
A. Mammal B. fish C. reptiles D. amphibian
2. Which of the following is not true about insect? They posses
A. three segmented body B. a pair of antennae
C. two pairs of legs D. typically two pair’s wings
3. Writes the distinguishing characteristic of mammals and birds.
5.2.2. Kingdom Plantae
Major characteristics of plants
Organisms belonging to the plant kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular
organisms. They have a distinct cell wall made of cellulose. Cells are organized
into true plant tissues. Plants contain plastids and photosynthetic pigments such
as chlorophyll. They are non-motile. Plants make their own food by
photosynthesis and are therefore said to be autotrophic. Plants undergo both
sexual and asexual reproduction. They store food as starch.
Major groups of plants and their habitats:
Important examples of plants are mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants.
Figure: 5.6 major groups of plants
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Non vascular plants (lack vascular tissue)

Vascular systems consist of xylem tissue, which transports water and minerals,
and phloem tissue, which transports sugars and proteins.
Bryophytes:The Phylum Bryophyta, are the most diverse group with more
than 10,000 plant species.
 This phylum includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
 They lack vascular tissue and wood that can render them structural
support.
 They also lack true leaves, stem, and roots that can help them transport
water and nutrients.
 Live in moist places and somehow have adapted several methods that can
help them thrive in dry periods.
 Reproduce through spores.
 Play an important role in minimizing erosion along bodies of water,
carrying out water and nutrient cycling
Mosses liverwort hornwort

Figure5: 7 different types’ bryophytes
Activity: 5. 1o collecting and examining mosses
Materials you require: microscopes, hand lenses, scalpel blades, forceps,
microscope slides and cover slips.
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Procedure: 1. in groups search around the school

for moss plants around damp walls, rocks, tree
barks or damp verandas. Then you should carry
collected specimen into the laboratory for detailed
study.
2. With the help of a hand lens examine the
specimen carefully and identify the parts.
3. You draw and label your specimen.
Key terms: Vascular Plants: Figure 5.8 the structure of
possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) that aid them
to transport water and minerals. pteridiophytes (fern)
Pteridophytes
 have well-developed xylem and phloem
 Pteridophytes are seedless plants but they pass their genetics to offspring
through spores that are located on the underside of their leaves known as
sporophylls.
 Unlike bryophytes, they are already vascular plants and capable of
transporting fluids.
 The stem and leaves have sieve tubes and water conducting cells similar
to those in the xylem and phloem of a flowering plant.
 The stem is usually entirely below ground and takes the form of a
structure called a rhizome.
 The leaves of ferns vary from one species to another
 Pteridophytes have already adapted to a wide range of habitat: they can be
aquatic, terrestrial, and even cold-resistant.
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Activity: 5.11 Collecting and examining a fern

Material you require: hand lenses, scalpels, clean slides, cover slips, and
microscopes.
Procedure
1. In groups, you should search for a fern along rivers/stream banks, shady areas
beneath trees and along fences.
2. Examine your specimens and identify as many structures as they can.
3. Draw and label their specimen.
4. Observe the lower surface of the leaves (fronds).
5. Draw the lower surface of the specimen showing the arrangement of the
spore-forming bodies if there are any there.
6. Using forceps or a needle, remove a capsule if they can see one, mount it on a
slide and view under low power. Draw what you see.
Exercise: 5. 6
1. What is the difference between bryophytes and pteridophytes
2. Writes the importance of bryophytes in the environments
Gymnosperms (confers plant)
 The name “gymnosperm” literally means “naked
seed“, which is exhibited by the members by
having cones instead of seeds to reproduce. Their
seed are not enclosed in fruit.
 They are widely distributed in the planet but
dominate the temperate and arctic regions. The
stem and leaves have sieve tubes and water
conducting cells similar to those in the xylem and
phloem of a flowering plant. Fig 5.9 structures of
gymnosperm
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 They are characterized by having wood, and green needle-like or scale-

like foliage.
 gymnosperms are good sources of wood and paper
Activity: 5.12 collecting and examining conifers
Material you require: saw, conifer leaves and cones.
Procedure: In groups, you should search and collect a conifer tree in you
school compound.
1. Obtain some conifer leaves and cones.
2. Observe them carefully.
3. Make large well-libeled drawings of the leaves of conifer.
4. Examine some conifer cones. Note the seeds attached to the cone. Carefully
remove one seed from the cone of conifer and draw it.
B. Collecting and examining angiosperm
Material you require: bean/peaplants with flowers and bean/pea seed, maize
plants with flowers and maize grain, hand lenses.
Procedure: Make a collection of flowering plants around your school. Identify
them and then classify them according to whether they are monocotyledons or
di cotyledons
1. Collect a bean/pea plant and a maize plant.
2. Compare their roots, stems, leaves, flowers and seeds.
3. Make a table of differences between the bean plant and the maize plant.
4. Draw well-labeled diagrams of the bean plant and the maize plant.
Angiosperms (flowering plants)
 They have true root, stem, leaves and flowers as reproductive organ and
the seed are enclosed in fruit.
 They reproduce by seeds which are formed in flowers.
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 Flowering plants are divided into two subclasses: monocotyledons and

cotyledons.
 Their leaves are usually broad and the leaf veins form a branching
network
Most angiosperms are good sources of food, medicine, clothing fibers, and
wood.
Figure 5:10 flowering plants

Activity 5.13
Develop a table that simplifies and summarizes the kingdoms from mosses to
flowering plants as follows. You should copy the example shown here and fill it
in.
Division Characteristics Examples
Bryophyta
Pteridophyta
Gymnosperm
Angiosperm
EXERCISE: 5.7
Choose the best answer from the give suggested option

1. True root, stem and leaves are found in
A. lichens B. algae C. fungi D. ferns
2. A group of plant characterized by the possession of amasses of spore
bearing structures under side of their leaves are;
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A. ferns B. lichen C algae D. worst

3. A seed bearing but non flowering plants are
A. algae B. angiosperm C. gymnosperm D. ferns
4. One is not belongs to Bryophytes
A. Liverwort B. mosses C. hornwort D. ferns
5. Which group are vascular plants?
A. liverworts B. mosses C. Ferns D. Hornwort
5.2.3. Kingdom Protista
Major characteristics of Protista
Protista are eukaryotic and can be unicellular.
The kingdom protest a is diverse group. one
ways to classify protests according to the way
they obtain nutrition. There are animal like,
plantlike, funguses like protistis. They
reproduce sexually or asexually. Important
examples of protists include the organism
known as Plasmodium (which causes malaria),
Amoeba and Euglena, Trypanosomes.
There are two major groups of Protista include:
i. Protozoans: are similar to animal cells in that they do not have cell walls
Organisms such as Amoeba and Paramecium take in and digest solid
food and thus resemble animals in their feeding.
They may be called unicellular ‘animals’
ii. Protophyta: the plant-like cells which do have cell walls and are similar
to algae. Euglena and Chlamydomonas possess chloroplasts and make
their food by photosynthesis
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They often referred to as unicellular ‘plants’

Activity: 5. 14 Making hay infusion and observing protozoan (paramecium)
Materials: A hand full of hay, a large beaker, pond water, some milkMethod:
1. Take a hand full of dried grass or hay (free from pesticides or herbicides)
and cut the grass into smaller pieces
2. Place the cut grass into the beaker and about 0.5-1 liter of water.
3. Add 1-2 drops of milk. The water will turn slightly turbid. The milk is
food for the bacteria and they will start to reproduce. The ciliates feed on
the bacteria and will also reproduce.
4. Let the beaker stand open for several days, protected from direct sunlight
as this may result in overheating and the heat will reduce the oxygen
concentration. Do make sure that the beaker receives sufficient light,
though. Photosynthetic algae present in the pond water will produce
oxygen.
5. Keep adding 1-2 drops of milk when the turbidity disappears. Bubble
some air through the water at regular intervals (using an air-pump from an
aquarium) or agitate the water a bit to enrich it with oxygen.
6. Replace the evaporated water.
7. Take some sample from the surface of the water (where there is oxygen)
for microscopic investigation. If the water is agitated, then the
microorganisms are (of course) not able to collect beneath the water
surface.
8. Observe paramecium using microscope and draw the structure. Follow the
mounting procedure explained in unit four.
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5.2.4. Kingdom Monera

Major characteristics of Monera
The Kingdom Monera consists of prokaryotic unicellular organisms. No
nuclear membrane or membrane-bound organelles such as chloroplasts, Golgi
complex, mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum are present. Monera have a
cell wall of protein plus polysaccharide compound, but not cellulose. They
reproduce asexually by binary fission. Important examples of Monera include
blue green algae and Bacteria.
Major groups of monera and their habitats (Blue Green algae &Bacteria)
Blue Green algae
Blue-green algae, is prokaryotic singled celled photosynthetic organisms

containing a blue pigment in addition to chlorophyll they also called
cyanobacteria.
Predominantly occur singly or in colonies in diverse habitats in freshwater or

a terrestrial environment
They are microscopic but can be seen when they are in a colony, or bloom.
Cyanobacteria contain only one form of chlorophyll (a green pigment.) In

addition, they contain various yellowish carotenoids, the blue pigment
phycobilin and, in some species, the red pigment phycoerythrin. The
combination of phycobilin and chlorophyll produces the characteristic blue-
green color from which these organisms derive their popular name.
Cyanobacteria are the first organisms known to have produced oxygen as a

byproduct of photosynthesis
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Figure.5:12Colony and filamentous form of blue green algae

Bacteria: are very small organisms consisting of single cells they lack organized
nucleus and chlorophyll pigments
Their cell walls are made, not of cellulose, but of a complex mixture of proteins,
sugars and lipids (peptidoglycan).
They can be found in various shapes and sizes, may be spherical, rod-shaped or
spiral and some have fi laments, called flagella, projecting from them and serve
for movement.
The genetic material DNA is contained in the cytoplasm called nucleoid.
Bacteria are found everywhere and are the most numerous organisms on Earth.
Figure: 5.13 structures and shapes of bacteria
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Exercise 5.8
1. Define prokaryotes and eukaryotes cell.
2. Explain the difference between prokaryote and eukaryotes.
5.2.5 Kingdom fungi

Major characteristics of fungi
Fungi are eukaryotic (have membrane bounded nucleus) organisms that can be
multicellular or unicellular. Mushrooms and molds are examples of multicellular
fungi and yeast is an example of a unicellular fungi. All fungi have a cell wall
made of chitin. They are non-motile (not capable of movement) and consist of
threads called hyphae. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms which mean they
require organic compounds of carbon and nitrogen for nourishment. They are
important as decomposer (saprophytes) and can be parasitic. They store carbon
as glycogen, not in the form of starch. Fungi reproduce sexually and asexually
by spore formation.
Figure 5:14 different types of fungi
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Yeast: single-celled fungi. It converts complex carbohydrates into alcohol and

carbon-dioxide. Used for a variety of commercial purposes like baking (’injera’
or bread) and in the production of alcohol.
Mould: fungi which grow on decayed bread, cheese, fruit or other food. Many
of the mould fungi live in the soil or in dead wood.
Another important example of a useful fungus is Penicillium (a fungus which
was used to make penicillin, one of the most powerful antibiotics ever created)
Activity: 5.15 collecting and looking at fungi
Materials you require: microscopes, hand lenses, scalpel blades, forceps,
microscope slides and cover slips.
Procedure:1. in groups search around the school for mushroom in the school
compound or if necessary you can grow your own fungi (moulds) on a little
moist injera or by letting a piece of fruit go rotten. Some of them may be quite
big like (mushroom) but they may want to use a microscope to look at some of
them.
Look at different structures of fungi (fruiting body or mycelium) .Draw several
different types of fungus.
Unity summary
 The seven characteristics of living things are movement, respiration,
sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition
 A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile
offspring.
 The binomial system is an internationally agreed system in which the
scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus
and the species.
 Classification is a way of sorting organisms into a meaningful order
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 The artificial classification based on one or a few easily observed

characteristics
 Natural or biological classification system tries to use natural relationships
between organisms
 The smallest natural group of organisms is the species
 The five kingdom system is the most common way of grouping living
things based on simple distinctive characteristics.
 The sequences of classification are Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order,
Family, Genus, and Species
 Living things can be classified into five major kingdoms: Kingdom
Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Monera (Bacteria
 Animal kingdom is eukaryotic and multicellular but has no cell wall or
photosynthetic pigments. They are mostly motile and they are
heterotrophic,
 Insect has three parts: head, thorax and abdomen regions with three pairs
of jointed legs, compound eyes and, typically, two pairs of wings
 Plant kingdom is eukaryotic and multicellular organisms. They have a
distinct cell wall made of cellulose.
 Bryophytes are non-vascular plants that lack true leaves, stem, and roots
that can help them transport water and nutrients.
 Pteridophytes are vascular plants that have well-developed xylem and
phloem that reproduce by spores.
 Gymnosperms are vascular plants that bearing cone.
 Angiosperms are flowering plants that reproduce by seeds which are
formed in flowers.
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 Protista are eukaryotic and can be unicellular or simple multicellular.

They reproduce sexually or asexually.
 Monera are of prokaryotic unicellular organisms that lack the membrane
bounded organelle and reported by binary fusion
 Bacteria are very small organisms consisting of single cells they lack
organized nucleus and chlorophyll pigments
 Fungi are eukaryotic (have membrane bounded nucleus) organisms that
can be multicellular or unicellular and have chitin cell wall.
Review Exercise
I. Write “true” if the statements are correct and “false” if the

statements is incorrect
1. Blue green algae belongs to the kingdom-Protista
2. Bacteria are found everywhere and are the most numerous organisms on
Earth.
3. The Kingdom Monera consists of prokaryotic multicellular organisms.
4. Protoctists are single-celled organisms containing a nucleus.
5. Amphibians can breathe in air or in water.
6. Mammals have fur, they suckle their young and the young develop inside
the mother.
7. Mosses have well-developed stems, leaves, roots and reproduce by spores.
8. Fungi are made up of thread-like hyphae and an autotroph organism.
9. Insects mostly live on land and have wings and two pairs of legs.
II. Match the following items in “A” sides with the item in” B”
“A” ” B”
1. Plants A .made up of thread-like hyphae & reproduce by spores.
2. Fungi B. makes their food by photosynthesis.
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3. Protists C. gets their food by eating plants or other animals.

4. Animal D. is single-celled organisms containing anucleus.
5. Monera E. is single celled organism lacking nucleus
III. Fill the following question by the appropriates terms

1. The type naming organism using the Latin name indicating genus and
species is called___________
2. _______group of organisms which are able to interbreed and produce
fertile offspring.
3. _______is the scientific name of our human race.
4. _______the type of asexual reproduction in the Kingdom Monera.
5. Highest grouping in a classification system_____________________
IV. Choose the best answer from the following suggested option
1. Which one of the following is not a defining characteristic of all

organisms?
A. Growth B. respiration C. locomotion D. Reproduction
2. The smallest natural group of organisms is the_________.
A. Kingdom B. Species C. phylum D. class
3. If two organisms belong to the same order, then they must also belong to the
same
A. Genes B. class C. family D. species
4. An organism's scientific name is based on how it is classified. Which of
the following levels of classification determine the name?
A. Genus and species C. Order and family
B. Phylum and class D. kingdom and spies
5. The science of identifying, classifying, and naming living things is called?
A. System B. nomenclature C. Taxonomy D. hierarchy
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6. The level below kingdom

A. Genus B. order C. phylum D. class
7. The sequence of scientific category from general to specific:
A. Species----- genera----family----order --- class-----phylum kingdom
B. Genera--- family-----order ----class-----phylum kingdom------genus
C. order ---class----phylum-----kingdom-----family---species----genus
D. kingdom----phylum-----class------order----family---genus----species
8. Protists are;
A. All autotrophs cannot make their own food
B. All autotrophs can make their own food
C. Can be either autotrophs and heterotrophs
D. Are not eukaryotic (do not have nucleus
9. A mushroom would best fit into which kingdom?
A. Animal B. Fungi C. plant D. protest
10.The main function of the vascular bundles found in many plants is to ...
A. taps energy or food making
B. carry out photosynthesis
C. assist plant in reproduction
D. transport substances around the plant
11.The scientific (and common) names of three animals are: Canisfamiliaris
(dog), Canislupis (wolf) and Vulpesvulpes (fox). These three animals all
belong to the same ...
A. Class but different genera
B. Genus but different species
C. Species different genera
D. Class different species
171
12. In a five-kingdom system of classification, bacteria are members of

A. kingdom B.fungi C. plants D.monera E.protests
V. Give short answer for the following question

1. Explain the importance of classification hierarchy.
2. Describe the relationship of hierarchical levels in classification.
3. Explain the major characteristics kingdom animalia and fungi.
4. Writes the unique or distinguishing characteristics of kingdom plantia,
Protista and monera.

5. States the kingdom to which each of the following organism belongs
Lizard amoeba paramecium blue green algae

Papaya spider termites mushroom yeast
Sunflower pigeon rat maize salmonella
Trypanosome euglena mold pea
Sorghum bacteria
Key words
Living things Genus Gymnosperms
Classification Pteridophytes Protista
Specie Class Monera
Binomial system Family Vascular
Kingdom Eukaryotic Angiosperms
Sorting Multicellular Spore
Phylum Unicellular Prokaryotic
Order Bryophytes Poikilothermic
172
Unit Review
Check List Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit
by students. You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√)
mark under “Yes” column if you are able to perform the competency or under
“No” column if you are unable to perform the competency. This would help to
evaluate yourself and you can revise the parts of topics for which the
competencies are not met.
No. Can I Yes No
1. Differentiate between living and non-living things
2 Organize and describe characteristics of living things
3 Justify why movement or locomotion from one place to another
cannot be a defining characteristic of all organisms
4 Relate diversity with classification of organisms
5 Justify why scientific names of organisms should be used in
science than the local names
6 Analyze and describe the relationships of the hierarchical levels
(Kingdom to Species) in the classification of organisms
7 Compare the five Kingdoms of living things by describing their
distinguishing characteristics
8 Summarize the commonest examples of organisms belonging to
each Kingdom
9 Describe the body plans of insects such as butterfly, amphibians
such as frogs, mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers such as
junipers, flowering plants, Paramecium, Algae, and Mushroom
10 Relate each Kingdom of organisms to their major habitat types as
aquatic, terrestrial or moist
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Unit 6: Earth in Space

Contents Unit Competencies
Section Learning competencies: At the end of this unit, learners
will be able to:
 Describe the shape of the Earth
 Identify evidences supporting the shape of the Earth
6.1. Shape & dimensions  List local and global ideas about the shape of the Earth
(page )  Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and
angular distances) of the Earth
 Recognize all parts of the Earth

6.2. Parts of the Earth  Describe the organization and contents of the different
(Body & Atmosphere) parts of the Earth
(page )  Explain different observations about the Earth in terms
of the nature and behaviors of the different parts of the
Earth.
6.3. Movements of the  Demonstrate movements of the Earth
Earth (page ) (revolution and rotation)
 Explain the effects of motions of the Earth.
 Construct the model of Earth and use it to explain
phenomena related to its motion
6.4. Atmospheric and  Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems.

lithospheric Systems &  Explain their cycle effects of the Earth
Cycles, (effects,  Describe the measuring techniques for too big
measurement (Earth) and to small (continental drift) quantities
ideas/estimation) (page ) measurement and estimation.
174
6.1. Shape & dimensions of the Earth
By the end of this section you should be able to:

 Describe the shape of the Earth
 Identify evidences supporting the shape of the Earth
 List local and global ideas about the shape of the Earth
Introduction
This unit introduces the concept of Earth in Space, parts of the Earth and shape
and dimensions of the Earth. The unit also presents Atmospheric and
lithospheric Systems & Cycles, (effects, measurement ideas/estimation).
Earth sciences study the major parts of our planet earth by

using other branches of science, such as biology, chemistry,
physics and geology. Activity 6.1
Form a group and

How is Earth science used in everyday life?
perform the
following actives.
Earth science affects our everyday lives. For example,
I. By referring
meteorologists study the weather and watch for dangerous
internet explorer or
storms. Hydrologists examine water and warn of floods. other reference
materials discuss
Seismologists study earthquakes and try to understand where
about theshape of
they will strike.Geologists study the materials, processes, the earth
II. Identifythel
products, physical nature, and history of the Earth.
ocalandglobalassum
Why we study earth science? ptions and
evidencesaboutitssha
Because Earth science will affect your life. Everyone needs to
pe.
know how to prepare for changes in weather, climate, seasons,
shape of the earth, and layers of the atmosphere and earth
movements.
175
Q. What Is Earth?
Our Planet Earth is one of the eight planets our Solar System and the only known
planet to support life. It is our home
Project work 6.1: Model of the planet that everything is just right
earth for life to exist.
Form a group and Build model of
the earth including its body parts Shape of the Earth
and make discussion about shape What are the local ideas about
with your class mates then present
the shape of the Earth?
your work to the rest of the class.
Science in ancient time’s
mankind has different questions and assumptions
about the geometrical shape of our planet
earth.Locally most cultures describe the Earth as flat
such as;
 The early ancient Greeks, Sumerians, Babylonians,

Egyptians and Vikings all believed that the Earth
was a flat disc or plane surrounded by water. This
Figure 6.1. Flat shape
was based on the evidence of what they saw
assumption of the earth
around them.
 The ancient Chinese believed that the Earth was a flat square shape
surrounded by heavens that were a round egg shape. This was based on their
belief in a heaven that was above the Earth.
 Members of the Flat Earth Society claim to believe the Earth was flat.A Flat
Earth model depicting Antarctica as an ice wall surrounding a disc-shaped Earth.
Members of the Flat Earth Society claim to believe the Earth is flat. Walking
around on the planet's surface, it looks and feels flat,
176
The primary reason that ancient people believed that the Earth was flat was that
it looks flat from our vantage point on the ground. The misconception that the
Earth must be flat because it looks flat to us arises simply because the Earth is
big.
There are two primary reasons that the Greeks knew the Earth were round:
o Lunar eclipses: First, they saw that during a lunar eclipse the shadow of
the Earth always had a round profile. This happened regardless of the time
of night that the eclipse occurred, the season, or the direction that the
shadow crept across the Moon's surface.
o Star patterns: The second observation is how the pattern of stars changes
as you move north and south.
Flat Earth theorists said that if the Earth is a spinning sphere, why can’t they feel
it?
 An ancient Greek writer, Herodotus, reported the findings of a group of
explorers and traders called the Phoenicians; while travelling by boat
around Africa, they found that the Sun was not above them but to their
right. If the Earth is flat, then the Sun should always be above you.
It was around 500 B.C. that Pythagoras first proposed a spherical Earth,
mainly on aesthetic grounds rather than on any physical evidence. Like
many Greeks, he believed the sphere was the most perfect shape. Possibly
the first to propose a spherical Earth based on actual physical evidence
was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), who listed several arguments for a spherical
Earth: ships disappear hull first when they sail over the horizon, Earth
casts a round shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse, and different
constellations are visible at different latitudes were used as evidence that
the Earth was spherical.
177
Only a spherical object always produces a round

shadow. If the Earth were flat, it would cast a
straight shadow.
Today, we know that Earth is sphere shaped, but it
is not a perfect sphere. So, the shape of Earth can
Figure 6.2.if earth were flat , its
shadow during an eclipse would
be categorized as "Oblate spheroid" where 'Oblate'
be straight on the moon, not refers to a slight elliptical appearance and 'spheroid'
covered. means almost a sphere but not actually a sphere.
This describes the true shape of the Earth, which means flatten at the poles and
bulges in the middle. The poles are located at the north and south ends of the
Earth’s axis, called rotation, causes day night to occur.
Evidences about Shape of the Earth
There are many ways to prove that the earth is spherical. The following are
some of them:
1. Circumnavigation of the
earth:
If you travel across the world
along a straight path in a fast
flying plane without stopping
anywhere, you would come back
to the same place from where you
started. This is called
circumnavigation. The fact is
Figure: 6.3. Oblate spheroid Shape of the valid as the earth has shown
Earth circumnavigated for many times
and finding the voyage ending to the original point.
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Figure 6.4. different assumptions about the earth when flaying plane
2. Earth’s curved horizon – The earth’s horizon when seen from a ship, a
plane, or a high cliff appears curved. The curved horizon widens as the observers
altitude increases until it becomes circular. If the earth were not spherical, there
would be no circular horizon. The curvature of the horizon is influenced by the
curvature of the earth’s surface.
3. Ship’s visibility:
When two ships on the same line of observation are coming towards the
observer while maintaining a considerable distance, the front Ship will be seen
before the ship at the back. If the earth’s surface were flat, both ships could be
seen at the same time.Provides a fact that the water body of sea overlies the
surface which is not flat, but spherical in shape, hence the earth is spherical in
shape.
Figure 6.5. Ship’s visibility

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4. Sun rise and sun set: The sun rises and sets at different times in different
places. As the earth rotates from west to east, places in the east see the sun
earlier than those in the west. If the earth were flat, the whole world would have
sunrise and sunset at the same time. But we know this is not happen because of
spherical the shape of the earth.
5. The lunar eclipse: The shadow cast by the earth on the moon during a lunar
eclipse is always circular. It takes the outline of an arc of a circle. Only a sphere
can cast such a circular shadow as shown in figure 6.6
Figure 6.6. The position of the Sun, moon and earth, in an eclipse
6. Driving poles on level ground on a curved earth:
Engineers when driving poles of equal length at regular intervals on the ground
have found they do not give a perfect horizontal level.
The centre pole normally projects slightly above the poles at either end because
of the curvature of the earth. Surveyors and field engineers therefore have to
make certain corrections for this inevitable curvature, i.e. 12.6 cm to 1 km.
7. Space photographs: Pictures taken from high altitudes by rockets and
satellites show clearly the curved edge of the earth. This is perhaps the most
convincing and the most up-to-date proof of the earth’s sphericity.
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8. The changing altitude of the sun- In the morning and evening the sun
observed to be at low level while at noon the sun observed to be at a high level.
So long the sun is at constant position in the sky; this provides a clear clue that
the earth planet is spherical in shape.
Exercise 6.1.1
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. The Earth's actual shape is most correctly described as
A. a perfect sphere C. an oblate sphere
B. a circle D. an eccentric ellipse
2. Which object best represents a true scale model of the shape of the Earth?
A. a Ping-Pong ball B. a football

B. an egg D. a pear
3. The shape of the earth is
A. egg shaped
B. spherical
C. Angular
D. Flat
II. Short answer questions.
1. Identify evidences supporting the shape of the earth

2. List local and global ideas about the shape of the earth
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6.1.2. Dimensions of the Earth
 Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and angular distances) of the Earth
How big is Earth?

Activity 6.2 The dimension of the earth can be
expressed in terms ofradius, diameter,
Form a group and discuss circumference,density, mass, time and
about circumference, volume.
Earth, is one of the eight planets and
diameters and angular
its average distance to the sun is 1 AU
distances of the earth. (1.496 × 108 km). Its diameter (the
Then present your distance from one side to the other
discussion to the whole through Earth's center) is about 12,756
class. kilometers) and a polar diameter
of 12,714 km and its mass is 5.974 ×
1024 kg.
Earth's circumference (the distance all the way around the equator) is (40,075
kilometers); however, from pole to pole the meridional circumference Earth is
only 40,008 km around.The Earth's diameter is also wider at the Equator,
creating a phenomenon called an equatorial bulge.
The orbital and rotational period of planet Earth is 365.256 days 23.9345
hours, respectively. (Source: Ethiopian Space Science and Technology
Institute)
Angular distance is (also known as angular separation, apparent distance, or
apparent separation) is the angle between the two sightlines, or between two
point objects as viewed from an observer.Latitude is the angular distance
measured with respect to a central point along a plane passed through the earth
at the position of the earth's largest circumference. It denotes a geographical
coordinate of a place located on the surface of the earth and is the angular distance
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of that point (north or south of the equator) measured with respect to the Centre of
the Earth. Its value is zero at equator and 90 degrees at poles.
Key Word
 Equatorial diameter – is longer than polar diameter (12,756 km)

 Polar diameter – is shorter than equatorial diameter (12,714 km)
 Equatorial circumference – is longer than polar circumference (40,075km)
 Polar circumference – is shorter than equatorial circumference (40,008
kmaround)
Exercise 6.1.2
i. Fill the blank space
1. The Earth's diameter is also wider at the Equator, creating a phenomenon
called an_______________.
2. ___________ is the angular distance measured with respect to a central point
along a plane passed through the earth at the position of the earth's largest
circumference.
ii. Short answer questions
1. What is the Precise measurements of the Earth?
a. polar diameter
b. Polar circumference
c. Equatorial diameter
d. Equatorial circumference
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6.2. Parts of the Earth (Body and Atmosphere)

Structure of the earth
By the end of this section you should be able to

 Recognize all parts of the Earth
 Describe the organization and contents of the different parts of the Earth
 Explain different observations about the Earth in terms of the nature and
behaviors of the different parts of the Earth.
Activity 6.3.Group discussion

Form a group and discus the following activities and present your discussion to the
class.
1. What are the layers of the atmosphere?
2. In which layer we live on? And air plane fly?
Structure of the Earth is the layer, solid or mineral part of the Earth. The
structure of the earth consists of
1. External structure (Outer zone) and

2. Internal structure (Inner zone)
6.2.1. External structure of the earth (Outer zone)
External structure of the earth consists of layers such as Atmosphere.

Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the thin layer of gases held on the earth by gravitation attraction.
Earth’s atmosphere is so much more than the air we breathe. It is composed by
abiotic (non-living matter) and biotic (living organism). Non-living matter found
in the atmosphere includes mixture of gases, water vapor and dust particles.
Atmosphere consists of different gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen,
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hydrogen, nitrogen and other gases.

The living organism includes the
smallest or microscopic organisms
like bacteria.
Characteristics of atmosphere
Characteristics of atmosphere
categorized into two groups as follow
Figure 6.7 vertical structure of A. According to its composition.

B.the atmosphere
According to its vertical structure from the ground level into interplanetary
space. The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen
(about21%), argon (0.009%) and carbon dioxide (0.03%)and other gases include
neon, helium, Krypton and xenon.
Earth’s atmosphere has five major and several secondary layers according to
contrasting temperature conditions in it with altitude from ground level are from
lowest to highest are:
i. Troposphere
ii. Stratosphere
iii. Mesosphere
iv. Thermosphere and
v. Exosphere
I. Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere- the part we live in. It
contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, and snow. It contains about 75% of all
of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the water vapor (which forms clouds
and rain). The decrease in temperature with height is a result of the decreasing
pressure. So, air higher up is cooler than air lower down.
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The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. The top of the
troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7
- 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the equator.
Air is warmest at the bottom of the troposphere near ground level. Air gets colder
as one rises through the troposphere. That is why the peaks of tall mountains can
be snow-covered even in the summertime.
II. Stratosphere
Stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere as you go upward. This extends
upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the ozone in the
atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the
stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole. By
absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from
skin cancer and other health damage.
The Lower boundary of the stratosphere is called the tropopause; the upper
boundary is called the stratopause occurs at an altitude of 50 km
III. Mesosphere
The mesosphere is a layer of Earth’s atmosphere. The mesosphere is directly above

the Stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from about 50 to 85 km
above our planet. Temperature decreases with height throughout the mesosphere.
The coldest temperatures In Earth’s atmosphere, about -90° C at the "mesopause
The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere above it is called the
Mesopause. At the bottom of the mesosphere is the stratopause, the boundary
between the mesosphere and the stratosphere below.
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IV. Thermosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, extends from about 90 km to
between 500 and 1,000 km above our planet.it is a region in which temperatures
again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption
of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun. The temperature of the
thermosphere varies between night and day and between the seasons.
The boundary between the thermosphere and the exosphere above it is called the
Thermopause. At the bottom of the thermosphere is the mesopause, the boundary
between the thermosphere and the mesosphere below.
V. Exosphere
Located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers above Earth’s surface, the
exosphere is the highest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
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Exercise 6.2.1
1. The ___________ is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere.
A. Troposphere C. Stratosphere
B. Exosphere D. Thermosphere
2. What makes up nearly 78 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere?
A. Oxygen B. Nitrogen C. Carbon dioxide B. Nitrogen
3. What percentage of the earth's atmosphere does oxygen comprise?
A. 75% B. 50% C. 21% D. 32%
4. In which layer of our atmosphere weather occurs?
A. Troposphere C. Stratosphere
B. Exosphere D. Thermosphere
II. Short answer questions
1. The diagram below shows four layers of Earth’s atmosphere.
State the name of each layer in the Earth’s

atmosphere
A. ___________________
B. ___________________
C. ____________________
D. ____________________
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6.2.2. Internal Structure of the earth (Inner zone)
Project work 6.2: making a module of solid Earth layers
Using 5 colors of modeling clay and waxed dental floss make in group a module of solid
Earth layers and show the model to your teacher.
Directions
 waxed dental floss

 Form a ball to represent the inner core. We chose red to represent the intense heat of
the inner core.
 Next, roll out a circle of another color and wrap around the ball and roll gently. This
next layer represents the outer core.
 Each subsequent color will need more modeling clay than the last. You will need a
color to represent the lower mantle, another for the upper mantle, and the outer
layer for the crust. *
 Once your ball of 5 layers of modeling clay is complete, use a piece of waxed dental
floss to cut the ball down the middle, revealing all the layers underneath.
*Be sure not to press the layers too firmly together so that the colors don’t mix.
Earth’s interior consists of three major zones defined by its chemical composition.
[Type the sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement to the main document. It is often
These
aligned on the left or right of the page, or located at the top or bottom. Use the are
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change the formatting of the sidebar text box.] i. Core
ii. Mantle
iii. Crust
Figure : 6.8. Internal structure of the earth
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The core
Earth’s core is the very hot, very dense center of our planet. It is composed mainly
of an iron and nickel alloy. The core is divided into inner and outer core.
The outer core is a liquid because the temperatures there are adequate to melt the
iron-nickel alloy. However, the inner core is a solid even though its temperature is
higher than the outer core
I. The mantle
The mantle is the thickest layer, lies between Earth's dense, super-heated core and
its thin outer layer, the crust. It is a solid layer but acts like a viscous liquid due to
temperatures being close to the melting point of key minerals in this layer.
Below the crust is the upper mantle, with the upper-most portion referred to as the
asthenosphere. The upper mantle is liquid rock, and very hot. The lower mantle is
the lower liquid portion of the mantle
Note: The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth, including the brittle
upper portion of the mantle and the crust.
II. The crust:
The Earth crust is the outside and coldest layer of the earth and is made of solid
rock, mostly basalt and granite. It is the thinnest layer and forms the outer shell on
which life exists. There are two types of crust; oceanic and continental.
Oceanic crust is denser, 5 to 10 kilometers thick and mainly composed of

basalt. However, Continental crust is less dense, thicker, the upper layer of the
earth crust and mainly composed of granite.
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Exercise 6.2
I. Fill the blank space
1. The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere above it is
called _____________________.
2. ________________is located at the bottom of the mesosphere and the
boundary between the mesosphere and the stratosphere below.
3. Lower boundary of the stratosphere is called the _________________.
4. Upper boundary of the stratosphere is called the _________________.
II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. Which layer of the earth is solid?
A. inner mantle and inner core
B. Crust and outer core.
C. Crust and the inner core
2. Which layer of the earth is liquid?
A. the outer core
B. mantle crust and the inner core
C. Crust and outer core.
3. Which layer of the earth is both solid and liquid?
A. Mantle B. Crust C. Core
4. What do we call the center of the Earth?
5. What is the outermost layer of the Earth that consists of the continents and the
oceans?
6. What is the layer of rock between the Earth's outer core and crust?
A. Core B. Mantle C. Crust
7. What do we call the crust that makes up the continents (land)?
A. Tectonic plates B. Oceanic crust C. Continental crust
8. The hottest layer of the Earth is:
A. Mantle B. Inner core C. Outer core
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6.3. Earth’s movements

 Demonstrate movements of the Earth (revolution and rotation)
 Explain the effects of motions of the Earth.
 Construct the model of Earth and use it to explain phenomena related to
its motion
The Earth is in motion all the time. People cannot feel this motion because they
move with it like all other planets. There are two types of movements of the earth,
namely:
1. The rotation of the Earth on its own axis
2. The revolution of the Earth around the Sun
Activity 6.4
Form a group and discuss the following

phenomena.
i. Why do not we feel when the Earth moves?
ii. What would happen if the Earth didn't

rotate? Nicolaus
Copernicus was a
Share your views with the rest of the class Polish astronomer
6.3.1 Rotation of Earth
known as the father of
modern astronomy. He
Earth Rotation is the motion of the earth around its axis
was the first modern
of rotation. Imagine a line passing through the center of European scientist to
propose that Earth and
Earth that goes through both the North Pole and the
other planets revolve
South Pole. This imaginary line is called an axis. Earth around the sun, or the
Heliocentric Theory of
spins around its axis, just as a top spins around its
the universe.
spindle. This spinning movement is called Earth’s
rotation. It is rotating on its axis from west to east. An observer in space will see
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that Earth requires 23 hours, 56

minutes, and 4 seconds to make one
complete rotation on its axis. Hence
the length of a day on Earth is actually
24 hours.
Effects of motions of the Earth

The rotation of the Earth has the
following effects:
 The spinning of the earth on its
axis causes days turn into nights.
Figure 6.9 rotation of the earth
 A difference of one hour is
created between two meridians which are 15 degrees apart.
 A change in the direction of wind and ocean currents. Winds and ocean
currents deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere as a result of rotation.
 The rise and fall of tided every day.
6.3.2. Revolution of the Earth
Earth Revolution is the motion of the earth around the sun. For Earth to make one
complete revolution around the Sun takes 365.24 days. This amount of time is the
definition of one year.
The closest Earth gets to the Sun each year is at perihelion (147 million km) on
about January 3rd and the furthest is at aphelion (152 million km) on July 4th.
Earth’s elliptical orbit has nothing to do with Earth’s seasons. During one
revolution around the Sun, Earth travels at an average distance of about 150
million km. Earth revolves around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 km (17
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mi) per second, but the speed is not constant. The planet moves slower when it is at
aphelion and faster when it is at perihelion. The reason the Earth has seasons is that
Earth is tilted 23 ½ degree on its axis. During the Northern Hemisphere summer
the North Pole points toward the Sun and in the Northern Hemisphere winter the
North Pole is tilted away from the Sun.
Note: The farthest (maximum distance) position from the sun in orbit of the earth
is called aphelion while the nearest position of the earth to the Sun is known as
perihelion.
Figure 6.10 Revolution of the Earth

At the equator, Earth spins at just over 1,000 miles per hour. Earth makes a full
spin around its axis once every 24 hours, or one day. The axis is an imaginary line
through the center of the planet from the North Pole to the South Pole. Rather than
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straight up and down, Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. Earth has
seasons because its axis is tilted. Thus, the sun's rays hit different parts of the
planet more directly depending on the time of year.
 From June to August, the sun's rays hit the Northern Hemisphere more directly than
the Southern Hemisphere. The result is warm (summer) weather in the Northern
Hemisphere and cold (winter) weather in the Southern Hemisphere.
 From December to February, the sun's rays hit the Northern Hemisphere less
directly than the Southern Hemisphere. The result is cold (winter) weather in the
Northern Hemisphere and warm (summer) weather in the Southern Hemisphere.
 From September to November, the sun shines equally on both hemispheres. The
result is fall in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Southern Hemisphere.
 The sun also shines equally on both hemispheres from March to May. The result is
spring in the Northern Hemisphere and fall in the Southern Hemisphere.
Difference between Rotation and Revolution
The table 6.1 given below provides the basic differences between rotation and
revolution.
Rotation Revolution
Rotation of the Earth is its turning on Revolution is the movement of the
its axis. Earth around the Sun.
The Earth takes 24 hours to complete The Earth takes a full year (365 days)
a rotation with respect to the sun. for one complete revolution around
the Sun
The Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted The path of the Earth moving around
by 23.5 degrees. This tilt causes the the Sun is called an orbit. The
different seasons of the year. Earth’s orbit is elliptical.
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Exercise 6.3
I. Fill the blank space
1. Earth _________________ around the sun.
2. Day and night are the result of Earth’s ____________________
3. Seasons are the result of Earth _______________ toward or away from the sun.
1. Which of the following is NOT a factor affecting Earth's seasons and climate?
A. Earth's orbital revolution around the sun
B. Earth's axis tilt
C. Earth's distance from the sun
D. Earth's wind and ocean current patterns
2. How long the Earth takes to complete one a rotation on its axis?
A. 24 hours B. 12 hours C. 1 hour D. 6 hours
6.4. Systems & Cycles (effects, measurement ideas/estimation)

 Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems.
 Explain their cycle effects of the Earth
 Describe the measuring techniques for too big (Earth) and to small (continental
drift) quantities measurement and estimation.
6.4.1. Earth's systems
Earth consists of land, air, water and life. The land contains mountains, valleys and
flat areas. The air is made up of different gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen.
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The water includes oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, rain, snow and ice. Life consists
of people, animals and plants. There are millions of species, or kinds of life, on
Earth. Their sizes range from very tiny to very large. Below Earth's surface are
layers of rock and metal. Temperatures increase with depth, all the way to about
12,000 degrees Fahrenheit at Earth's inner core.
Activity 6.5
Form a group and go to your library; Read and discuss the definitions of each
earth system. Then write down the definitions for the following four earth
systems in your own words and present your discussions to the class
a. Atmosphere c. Hydrosphere Lithosphere d. Biosphere
Earth's parts once were seen as largely separate from each other. Now they are
viewed together as the "Earth system." Each part connects to and affects each of
the other parts. For example:
 Clouds in the air drop rain and snow on land.
 Water gives life to plants and animals.
 Volcanoes on land send gas and dust into the air.
 People breathe air and drink water.
Earth system science is the study of interactions between and among Earth's
different parts. Earth's parts - land, air, water and life - are always changing.
The Main Components of the Earth System
The earth system is itself an integrated system, but it can be subdivided into four
main components, sub-systems or spheres: the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
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and biosphere. These components are also systems in their own right and they are
tightly interconnected. The four main components of the earth system may be
described briefly in the following way.
These are described in the table 6.2 below
Earth spheres Descriptions

1. Geosphere (lithosphere) all of the rocks and "hard parts" of the Earth
2. Hydrosphere all of Earth's water
3. Biosphere all living things
4. Atmosphere the blanket of gases surrounding the planet
These four subsystems are called "spheres."
These components are also systems in their own
right and they are tightly interconnected.
For example, rain (hydrosphere) falls from clouds
in the atmosphere to the lithosphere and forms
streams and rivers that provide drinking water for
wildlife and humans as well as water for plant
growth (biosphere).
The four main components of the earth system
Figure 6.11 Earth Systems
may be described briefly in the following way.
interactions
The geosphere (lithosphere): - this is the part of the planet composed of rock and
minerals. It includes the solid crust,the molten mantle and the liquid and solid
parts of the earth's core.
In many places, the geosphere develops a layer of soil in which nutrients become
available to living organisms, and which thus provides an important ecological
habitat and the basis of many forms of life. The surface of the geosphere is subject
to processes of erosion, weathering and transport, as well as to tectonic forces and
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volcanic activity, which result in the formation of landforms such as mountains,

hills
1. The atmosphere - this is the gaseous layer surrounding the earth and held to its
surface by gravity. The atmosphere receives energy from solar radiation which
warms the earth's surface and is re-emitted and conducted to the atmosphere.
The atmosphere also absorbs water from the earth's surface via the process of
evaporation; it then acts to redistribute heat and moisture across the earth's surface.
In addition, the atmosphere contains substances that are essential for life, including
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen.
2. The hydrosphere - this consists of those parts of the earth system composed of
water in its liquid, gaseous (vapour) and solid (ice) phases.
3. The biosphere - this contains all living organisms and it is intimately related to
the other three spheres: most living organisms require gases from the atmosphere,
water from the hydrosphere and nutrients and minerals from the geosphere.
Living organisms also require a medium for life, and are adapted to inhabit one or
more of the other three spheres.
6.4.2. Cycles of the Earth System and effects
What is cycle?
Cycles are sequences of events that repeat themselves in the same order.Earth's
surface systems involve different cycles some of them are
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Geologic cycles
Although we have discussed various parts of the Earth as separate entities, in

reality each of the entities, atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, etc, interact with
each other continuously exchanging both
matter and energy. This exchange of matter
Project work6.3 and energy occurs on a cyclical basis, with
both matter and energy cycling between
Make a group and various storage reservoirs on various time
find the Cycles of the scales. Because matter and energy is thus
Earth System and
cycled, the various geologic cycles play a
effects in an
encyclopedia, large role in the development of natural
internet, in reference disasters.
books, or in other
resource material. Hydrologic Cycle
Read and analyze the Perhaps the easiest of the cycles to
information you find.
Write a report and understand is the hydrologic cycle that
present to the class. involves the movement of water throughout
Earth systems. The ocean is by far the
largest of these reservoirs with 97% of all water. Water moves between 7 main
reservoirs: the oceans; the atmosphere where it moves in the clouds transported by
winds; glaciers and ice sheets; surface lakes and streams; groundwater (water that
moves in the pore spaces in rock beneath the surface); the biosphere; and the
lithosphere, where it is held within the crystallographic structure of hydrous (water
bearing) minerals.
The main pathway by which water moves is through the atmosphere. Two main
sources of energy drive the cycle: Solar energy causes evaporation of the surface
waters and atmospheric circulation, and Gravitational energy causes the water to
flow back to oceans.
200
Biogeochemical Cycles
Although the hydrologic cycle involves the biosphere, only a small amount of the
total water in the system at any given time is in the biosphere. Other materials, for
example Carbon and Nitrogen have a much higher proportion of the total residing
in the biosphere at any given time. Cycles that involve the interactions between
other reservoirs and the biosphere are often considered differently because they
involve biological processes like respiration,
photosynthesis, and decomposition (decay). These
are referred to as biogeochemical cycles. Cycles
that exchange materials among living and
nonliving components of the Earth are known as
biogeochemical cycles.
A good example is the Carbon Cycle, as it

involves the cycling of Carbon between 4 major
reservoirs:
Figure 6.10. Carbon
a. Biosphere, where it is the major building
cycle
block of life,
b. Lithosphere, where it is a component in carbonate minerals and rocks and
fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum,
c. Oceans, where it occurs as a dissolved ion in seawater, and
d. Atmosphere, where it occurs as Carbon Dioxide (CO2) gas.
In all reservoirs except the lithosphere, residence time is generally short, on the
order of a few years.
Steps of carbon cycle
i. CO2 Used by Plants for Photosynthesis
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ii. Consumption by Animals

iii. Ocean Intake
iv. Decay and Decompose
v. Formation of Fossil Fuels
vi. Use of Fuels for Industrial Purposes
vii. Carbon Emissions
viii. Respiration by Plants and Animals
The Rock Cycle
The rock cycle involves cycling of elements between various types of rocks, and
thus mostly involves the lithosphere, because materials such as water and Carbon
cycle through the lithosphere, the rock cycle overlaps with these other cycles.
The rock cycle involves the three types of rocks as reservoirs (1) igneous, (2)
sedimentary, and (3) metamorphic.
Measuring techniques of Earth and Continental drift
Eratosthenes hired a man to pace the distance between the two cities and learned
they were apart, 800 kilometers. He could then use simple proportions
to find the Earth's circumference. The method is known as Eratosthenes'
methods. This method was simple but effective. All he needed to know was the
distance between two locations and what percentage of a circle this distance
constituted.
Three different geologic methods help determine the trajectories of Continental

drift plates: paleomagnetic, geometric, and seismic.
a. The paleomagnetic method is based on the Earth's magnetic field.

202
b. The geometric method gives scientists the spreading direction to go with the
spreading speed.
c. Seismic methods use the focal mechanisms of earthquakes to detect the
orientation of faults. Although less accurate than paleomagnetic mapping and
geometry, these methods are useful for measuring plate movements in parts of
the globe that are not well mapped and have fewer GPS stations.
Since plate motions are at a global scale, they are best measured by satellite-based
methods. The three most commonly used space-based techniques are: very long
baseline interferometry (VLBI), satellite laser ranging (SLR), andThe Global
Positioning System (GPS).
Geodesy, or the study of measuring the form, gravity, and rotation of the Earth, is
still used by scientists today to study the shape and size of the Earth. Geodesy
gives precise measurements that demonstrate that the Earth is round. Scientists can
measure Earth's size and form to within a centimeter using GPS and other
satellites.
Exercise 6.4.
1. All living things on earth are part of the_______________.

A. Biosphere B. Geosphere C. Hydrosphere D. Cryosphere
2. The Geosphere is...
A. All liquid water on Earth C. 100km thick layer of gases
B. frozen water on earth D. Earth's entire solid body
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3. Fresh water is important for life on Earth because:

A. without fresh water sources people will get sick and die
B. we need water to grow food
C. the biosphere needs water
D. All of the above
4. This photo is mainly showing an example of the:
A. Hydrosphere
B. Geosphere
C. Atmosphere
D. Biosphere
5. An example of a connection between Atmosphere and Hydrosphere is:

A. Rivers B. rain C. lakes D. rocks
KEY TERMS OF A UNIT
 Earth science  Atmosphere  Geosphere  Biosphere
 Earth  Troposphere  lithosphere  Hydrosphere
 Inner core  Stratosphere  revolution  Core
 Geologists  Mesosphere  rotation  Eratosthenes' methods
 Lunar eclipses  Exosphere  Crust  Biogeochemical Cycle
 Oblate  Thermosphere  Mantle  Continental drift

spheroid
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Unit Summary
 Earth is the only planet in the universe to support life. It is about 150 million kilometers
from the sun. This distance, called an astronomical unit (AU), is a standard unit of
measurement in astronomy.
 Earth is an oblate spheroid. This means it is spherical in shape, but not perfectly round. The
geoid describes the model shape of Earth, and is used to calculate precise surface locations.
 The equatorial circumference of the Earth is 40,075 km. This is the distance around the
equator of the Earth. If you measure the circumference of the Earth, while passing through
the poles, the distance is only 40,008 km. This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere.
It’s rotating rapidly, which causes the equator to bulge out.
 The equatorial diameter of the Earth is 12,756 km. This is the diameter of the Earth
measured from one side of the Earth, passing through the center. If you go from pole to pole
through the center, the distance is only 12,714 km.
 The 4 components of the Earth subsystems are called "spheres." Specifically, they are
the "lithosphere" (land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living things), and
"atmosphere" (air).
 Earth's interior is divided into three major layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core. Each
layer has a uniquechemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's
surface.
 Rotation and Revolution are two motions of the earth. When earth spins or rotates around its
axis, thatmovement of spinning is called Rotation of Earth. And when earth spins or
revolves around the sun, that movement is called Revolution of Earth.
 The motions of the earth have its own effects. Those are: the main effects of the Earth's
rotation are a diurnal cycle of light and darkness, i.e. day and night, rise and fall of the sea
level twice a day, sunrise in the eastand sunset in the west. Effects of Earth's revolution
include the seasons and variation in thelength of days andnights.
 Earth's surface systems involve many cycles, .Cycles that exchange materials among living
and nonlivingcomponents of the Earth are known as biogeochemical cycles.
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REVIEW EXERCISE
Cope and answer the following questions

I.Write True if the statement is Correct and False if the statement if incorrect.
1. Atmosphere is the thin layer of gases held on the earth by gravitation attraction.
2. Earth rotates around the sun.
3. Day and night are the results of Earth’s rotation.
4. We live on the core of the Earth.
II. Match the following earth spheres with their related meaning
Column ‘A’ Column ‘A’
1. Lithosphere A. all of Earth's water
2. Hydrosphere B. all living things
3. Atmosphere C. all of the rocks and "hard parts" of the Earth
4. Biosphere D. the blanket of gases surrounding the planet
III. Fill the blank space
Use these words to fill in the blanks next to the sentences below.
Words 365.25 days Revolution 24 hours

Axis
Season Rotation
1. ______________the amount of time for Earth to make a complete rotation.
2. _____________ the process of Earth spinning on its axis.
3. _____________ the amount of time it takes Earth to completely orbit the sun.
4. _____________ the process of Earth orbiting the sun.
5. _______________An imaginary line that runs through the center of Earth from
the North Pole to the South Pole.
6. ____________ Term used to describe a certain time of year.
7. _________________The number of days in a year on Earth.
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IV. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1. An example of Biosphere connecting to Atmosphere
A. plants produce oxygen C. animals live in caves
B. animals eat plants D. animals drink water
2. What is Earth's outermost system?
A. Atmosphere B. Cryosphere C. Hydrosphere D. Geosphere
3. The earth's four systems are:
A. independent from one another C. all part of the atmosphere
B. all connected D. not important for life on earth
4. Photosynthesis is an example of an interaction between the biosphere and the:
A. Atmosphere B. Cryosphere C. Geosphere D. hydrosphere
5. What is Earth's largest system?
A. Biosphere B. Hydrosphere C. Geosphere D. Atmosphere
6. The Earth is slightly flattened from a perfect spherical shape because of
A. its rotation C. the pull of the sun and moon
B. storms on the sun's surface. D. its molten core
7. As altitude within the troposphere increases, the amount of water vapor generally
A. decreases, only C. remains the same
B. increases, only D. decreases, then increases
8. Oxygen is the most abundant element by volume in Earth's
A. Hydrosphere B. troposphere C. crust D. inner core
9. An observer watching a sailing ship at sea notes that the ship appears to be
"sinking" as it moves away. Which statement best explains this observation?
A. The Earth is revolving. C. The Earth is rotating.
B. The Earth has a curved surface. D. The surface of the ocean has depressions.
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10. In which two Earth regions is oxygen the second most abundant element by
volume?
A. crust and hydrosphere. C. core and crust
B. troposphere and core. D. hydrosphere and troposphere
11. What is the approximate elevation of the stratopause?
A. 10 km B. 80 km C. 30 km D. 50 km
12. The best evidence that the Earth has a spherical shape is provided by
A. photographs of the Earth taken from space satellites
B. the amount of daylight received at the North Pole on June 21
C. the changing orbital speed of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun
D. the cyclic change of seasons
13.This is true for flat earthers beliefs EXCEPT
A. Round earth is a conspiracy
B. Planes fly in straight lines
C. The earth is a flat disc
D. Photographs were photoshopped
Short answer type questions.
1. Write the Earth's atmosphere From lowest to highest dissipate in space.

2. What are the three layers of Earth explain?
3. What are the two movements of the earth?
4. Who discovered rotation of Earth?
5. What is the role of the carbon cycle?
208
Unit Review
Check List
Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit by
students. You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√)
mark under “Yes” column if you are able to perform the competency or
under “No” column if you are unable to perform the competency.
This would help to evaluate yourself and you can revise the parts of topics
for which the competencies are not met.
No. Can I Yes No
Describe the shape of the Earth
Identify evidences supporting the shape of the Earth
List local and global ideas about the shape of the Earth
Name dimensions (circumferences, diameters, and angular
distances) of the Earth
Recognize all parts of the Earth
Describe the organization and contents of the different parts of the

Earth
Explain different observations about the Earth in terms of the

nature and behaviors of the different parts of the Earth.
Demonstrate movements of the Earth (revolution and rotation)

Explain the effects of motions of the Earth.
Construct the model of Earth and use it to explain phenomena
related to its motion
Identify atmospheric and lithospheric systems.
Explain their cycle effects of the Earth
Describe the measuring techniques for too big (Earth) and to small
(continental drift) quantities measurement and estimation
209
UNIT 7: MOTION, FORCE, ENERGY AND ENERGY

RESOURCES
Learning Outcomes: At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
 Describe the term motion
 Identify types of motion (motion on straight line, circular motion, rotary motion
and curvilinear motion)
 Show those types of motion in the class.
 Explain the term force.
 Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force.
 Explain gravitational force.
 List all effects of force
 Demonstrate some effects of force.
 Relate effects of force with their daily life experience
 Name measuring device of force
 Identify different measuring scales on measuring device of force
 Explain parts of measuring device of force
 Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted
 List all forms of energy
 Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy.
 List sources of energy.
 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable forms of energy
 Describe how energy is used wisely.
 List the strategies of conservation of energy
 Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation.
210
Contents
Section Learning competencies
 Define motion as the change of position with time.
7.1 Definition and types of  Describe the types of motion.
motion  Give examples for each type of motion
7.2 Definition of force and  Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force.
gravitational force  Explain gravitational force.

7.3 Effects of force  Demonstrate some effects of force.

7.4 Measuring forces  Identify different measuring scales on measuring
device of force
7.5 Definition of Energy  Define energy as a property of matter that can be
(Property of matter can be converted
converted

7.6 Forms and Conversion of  Explain which energy converted to other forms
Energy of energy.
7.7 Energy Sources (sun, fuel,  List sources of energy.

hydroelectric, wind, nuclear)  Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable
forms of energy.
7.8 Wise use & Conservation  List the strategies of conservation of energy
7.9 Resource depletion &  Explain resource depletion and environmental

environmental degradation degradation
211
Definition and types of motion
 Define motion as the change of position with time.

 Describe the types of motion.
 Give examples for each type of motion
Introduction
In this unit, you will be introduced to the basic

Activity 7.1
concepts of motion, force, energy, forms and
Form a group and perform the
conservation of energy, wise use conservation
following task; present your
finding to the class. of energy, resource depletion and environmental
degradation.
1. Define motion by your
own word and give 7.1.1. Definition of Motion
examples. When you go to your school, your journey
2. When you move in bus
begins from home. Your home is your original
describe are you at rest or
in motion with respect to position and your school is your final position.
i. The bus seat While you are going, from home to school, you
ii. The ground
are increasing the gap between your present
position and your home.
This continuous change of position is known as a motion. Notice that your
change of position is, observed by considering the distance from your school to
home. Your home is taken as a reference frame.
Now let us understand motion clearly with the help of a few Examples:
 Our daily activities, like walking, running, closing the door, etc. involve
motion. There is a change of position of the object involved in these activities.
212
 The flow of air in and out of our lungs is also an Example of motion.
 The automobiles that carry passengers from one place to another possess motion. In
this case, the position of passengers is changed from one place to another.
Types of Motion
Activity 7.2
Form a group and perform the following tasks
i. Observe the motions indicated in Fig 7.1.
ii. Have you noticed any difference between the motions in
Fig 7.1 (a-e)? Describe them.
iii. Group these motions, based on their path.
A Wrists watch. B. A car moving on a straight line
C, Roundabout D. Simple pendulume. E,. Motion of kids swing
Figure 7.1 different types of motion
213
 In Fig 7.1 (a) you observe that the motion of second or minute hand of a wrist watch
about an axis.
 In Fig 2.1 (b) you observe that a car is moving on a straight road. Its path is a straight
line. Fig 2.1(c) shows that the path of the moving car is a curved line. While Fig 2.1
(c and d) show the 'to and fro' motions of an object.
According to the nature of the movement, or based on the

path followed motion is classified into four types as follows:
1. Rectilinear Motion 3. Oscillatory Motion

2. Curvilinear Motion 4. Rotary Motion
1. Rectilinear Motion: Motion in a straight line is called
rectilinear motion. In other words, when an object moves
along a straight line path, it is called rectilinear motion.
Example: A boy walking on a straight road.
Figure 7.2 a boy and
 A car moving in a straight road. girl walking on a
 A falling ball from a certain height. straight road
 A boy pulling a toy towards him. etc.

2. Curvilinear motion
The motion of a particle or object moving along a
curved path is called curvilinear motion.
Examples: Motion of a car around a circular path,
 The motion of a ball thrown horizontally from a

Figure 7.3 Motion of a
certain height. basketball into the basket
 The motion of the moon around the earth.

 Motion of a basketball into the basket, etc.
214
Note: Circular motion is a special case of curvilinear motion, in which the body
moves along a circular path.
Examples of circular motion are:
 Movement of the earth on its axis,
 a bicycle or a car moving on a circular track of park,
 The motion of the moon around the earth etc.
3. Rotary Motion:
A type of circular motion where an object spins on its
own axis, it is called rotational motion. Example:
 rolling ball,
 Spinning top and
 the motion of the second or minute hand of a wrist
Figure 7.4 rotating
watches etc. wooden spinning top
4. Oscillatory Motion
A repeating motion in which an object

continuously repeats in the same motion again
and again is called Oscillatory Motion. It is
also a to and fro, back and forth or up and
down motion. Some of the best Examples of
Oscillatory Motion are:
 A swinging swing
 The motion of a pendulum
 A boat tossing up and down a river Figure 7.5 motion of a pendulum
 The tuning forketc
215
Exercise 7.1

1. Which of the following is a type of motion?
A. Rectilinear motion B. rotary motion C. oscillatory motion D. all of these
2. The motion of pendulum of a clock is an Example: of which motion?
A. linear motion B. rotary motion
B. oscillatory motion D. all of these
3. The spinning of the body about its axis is
A. Rotatory C. translational
B. Circular D. vibratory
4. Which type of motion is “the pendulum of a wall clock moves at regular
intervals”?
A. Rectilinear C. Rotatory
B. Vibratory D. B and C
5. Which type of motion is “a train moving on a track “?
A. Circular C. Rotary
B. Rectilinear D. none of the above
6. The act, process or state of the change in place or position of a body with respect
to time and relative to the observer is said to be__________________.
A. Rest C. motion
B. Stationary D. none of the above
1. Define what a motion is.
2. State at least four types of motion, and give practical examples for each type.
7.2. Definition of Force and Gravitational Force
Definitions of force

 Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force.
 Explain gravitational force.
216
Activity 7.3
Form a group and perform the following activities Share your opinion to the
whole class.
i. What is a force?
ii. Mention some examples of forces from your daily activities.
iii. Explain the following actions.
- A push you exert on a wall,
- A pull exerted to drag a box on a table.
All of us are familiar with the word force as we use it in our everyday life. Let us used to
describe interactions between different bodies in nature.
For example when you kick a ball, tear a paper, bend a wire, hold a bag, walk on the
floor, close and open a door, you apply a force.
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with
another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is
a force upon each of the objects.
Forces influence objects that are at rest or that are already in motion. it can also be
defined as an external agent which can change the state of rest or motion of a body.
Figure 7.6(a) When a wagon pulled Figure 7.6(b) When a wagon pushed
Note: Both rotary and vibrational motions are periodic

motions. Periodic motions can have constant or non-
constant velocities and they repeat themselves
217
Fundamental forces are the basic forces in nature that cannot be explained by the action
of another force. There are four types of fundamental forces. These include: The
gravitational force, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force and weak nucleus force.
Gravitational force
Activity 7.4
Form a group and discuss the following ideas. Present your discussion to
the class.
Throw a ball vertically upward and observe its motion. What will
happen to the ball? Will it continue to move upward forever? Or not
why?
We live on the Earth. It is difficult to get away from earth. If you jump upwards, you fall
back down again. The earth’s gravity pulls you down wards.
The earth’s gravity causes a force that pulls any object down wards. This force is called
weight (gravitational force).
Gravity always pulls you towards the center of the Earth. It doesn’t matter where you are
on the surface of the earth. Science, a freely falling body in the air moves down
irrespective of its mass. This is due to force of gravity. Example:
 Falling of fruits from trees due to Earth’s gravitational pull
 The Earth’s gravitational pull keeps us all stationary; otherwise, we all would be flying
now.
 Revolution of the Earth around the Sun
 Revolution of the moon around the Earth
218
Sir Isaac Newton was an English

mathematician and physicist who lived
from 1642-1727.The legend is that Newton
discovered Gravity when he saw a falling
apple while thinking about the forces of
Figure 7.7. Our weight is
nature.Whatever really happened, Newton
caused by the pull of realized that some force must be acting on
theearth's gravity falling objects like apples because
otherwise they would not start moving from
rest. Newton called this force "gravity" and
determined that gravitational forces exist
between all objects.
219
Key word
 Force is a push or pull of an object.
 Pull and push are opposite forces.
 Gravity is attractive force between objects with mass.
 Gravity always a pull never a push.
 Gravitational force is the force of attraction between all masses in the
universe; especially the attraction of the earth's mass for bodies near its
surface.
Exercise 7.2
I. Fill in the blank spaces with the appropriate word(s).
1. ______________ is the force of attraction that acts between all objects in
the universe, without exception.
2. Push or pull of an object in a certain direction is known
as __________. .
1. The force of gravity on a person or object at the surface of a planet is
called .
A. Mass B. Gravity C. weight D. motion
2. The force that pulls objects toward Earth is called
A. Mass B. gravity C. air D. wind
3. Which one of the following best describes a gravitational force?
A. A repulsive force between any two objects with mass
B. A force of attraction between two objects with mass
C. A force between any two objects, whether or not they have mass
or energy
D. All of the above
III. short answer questions
1. Define the term Force as a science with appropriate examples with your
daily life.
2. Explain gravitational force.
220
7.3. Effects of force

 Demonstrate some effects of force.
Activity 7.5 .
Observe the activities shown in Figure 7.4
a. Explain the effects of forces in each activity.
b. List and show other effects of force in the class in front of the students.
a. When force is applied on flour dough, it changes its shape c. The force of brakes can stop a moving car
a. When the person kicks the ball the ball d. A goal keeper applies a force and stops the ball
Moves in the direction of the force
Figure 7.3Different effectsFigure

of forces7. 8. Different effects of forces
221
Force has the following main effects, when it is exerted on an object:

 A force can move a stationary object
Example:when a force is applied to a stationary tennis ball, it
will make the ball continue its motion in the direction of the
applied force.
 A force can change the speed of a moving object.
Example:When we keep on pedaling the pedal of the bicycle, the
speed of the bicycle increases. And when we apply the brake, the
speed of the bicycle decreases.
 A force can either stop or slow down the moving object.
Example: The force of brakes can stop a moving car.
 A force can change the direction of a moving object.
Example: the direction of the moving football can be changed by applying
force at an angle.
 A force can change the shape of an object.
Example: When force is applied on flour dough, it changes its shape.
Figure 7.9 . Some Effect of force on daily activities

How effect of force is related with the daily life?
We are very familiar with the various effects of force in our everyday life. Like we walk,
we run, we play, and we sit or at even times stand. In all of these activities, we have all
seen the changing of the motion of the state. Some additional the examples are:
222
Pushing a wheel barrow.

Opening or closing a door.
Squeezing wet clothes.
Gravitational force.
Brakes applied to stop a moving vehicle.
A football kicked
Rubbing a glass rod with a silk.
Running and Pushing etc.
Exercise 7.3
1. Which one of the following is the effects of force, when it is exerted on an

object?
A. change the speed of a moving object
B. move a stationary object
C. change the shape of an object
D. All of the above.
2. If two forces from opposite direction are applied on an object and the object
is malleable, it will change its shape.
A. Change in color C. Change in direction
B. Change in motion D. Change in shape
3. To squeeze toothpaste or press a lift button we apply
A. Heat C. force
B. Signal D. stationary
4. A force can act on a stationary object and can cause it to
A. Move C. develop
B. Grow D. stationary
II. short answer questions

1. List and describe some effects of a force.
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7.4. Measuring forces

 Identify different measuring scales on measuring device of force
In science, if we want to know that one force is bigger than another we do not simply
guess; we make measurements. How can we measure forces?
To measure the amount of force exerted on an object we use an instrument Newton
meter (force meter) also called spring balance. ButNewton meter is the scientific
instrument used to measure a force.
Parts of Spring balance
Activity 7.6
Discuss the following activity in your group and present your discussion to the class.
1. What is the instrument used to measure a force?
2. Explain parts of measuring device of force.
3. Can we use spring balance to measure mass when a shopkeeper measure banana,
orange or others?
 Spring balance: Scale made up of a hook attached to a spring

that stretches in proportion to the weight of the object being
weighed.
 Hook: Curved part on which the body to be weighed is hung.
 Graduated scale:The divisions of equal length that are
Figure 7.10.Spring
balance marked on the spring balance and constitute the units of
measurement.
224
 Pointer:Pointer connected to the spring that moves along a graduated scale to

indicate the weight of the body being weighed.
Figure 7.11 shows how you to measure the force

needed to pull a block of wood along the bench.
 Check that the force meter reads zero before you
start.
 Attach the hook of the force meter to the block.
 Hold the ring at the other end of the force meter
and pull the block. Figure 7.11 Measuring
 Read the value of the force from the scale. pull of force
Exercise 7.4

1. A force is measured using an instrument called _________________.
2. ______________is a curved part of force meter on which the body to
be weighed is hung.
3. The diagram shows parts of newton meter name parts of the arrow that
represented by numbers.
1. _____________
2. _____________
3. _____________
4. _____________
5. _____________
6. _____________
4.
225
7.5. Definition of Energy (Property of matter can be converted)
 Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted
In unit two of this book you learned important concepts

Project work 7.1
about matter. In this section you will learn the concepts of
By using internet energy. Matter is the substance of which all material is
explorer or other
made.
reference materials
perform the following Energy is a very common word frequently used in our day-
tasks in group and to-day life.Ithas a much wide scope than it will be implied
present your findings to
in this unit. Energy in this unit is limited to define as a
the class.
property of matter only.
i. Define energy as a
Energy is the property of matter, and it comes in many
property of matter.
ii. Explain with forms, such as heat, sound, light, and motion. It can be
examples how transferred between objects, and converted in form. It
energy and matter
cannot be created or destroyed.
related.
Examples of energy and matter
 A raindrop falling from the sky is made of matter (water), plus it has potential,
kinetic, and thermal energy.
 Alit light bulb is made of matter, plus it emits energy in the form of heat and light.
 The wind consists of matter (gases in air, dust, pollen), plus it has kinetic and
thermal energy.
226
Exercise 7.5
1. _____________is the property of mater, and it comes in many forms.

2. _____________ is the substance of which all material is made.
3. Alit light bulb is made of matter, plus it emits energy in the form
___________ and ____________.

 Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy
Forms and Conversion of Energy

Forms of energy
The world we live in provides us with many different forms of energy.
Examples of these are: light energy, heat energy,
mechanical energy, gravitational energy, kinetic
Activity7.7
energy, potential energy, thermal energy, and
Discuss the following
questions in a group and electrical energy, sound energy, chemical energy,
present your opinion to nuclear or atomic energy, elastic potential energy
the whole class.
i. List all different forms of and so on.
energy. We can think energy coming in different forms, some
ii. Define conversion of
energy and give examples for storing and some for transferring.
which energy is converted
to other forms of energy. The table 7.1 shows some different forms of energy
and their descriptions.
227
Form of energy Description

Chemical energy Energy of a chemical substance.
Elastic energy Energy of a stretched or squashed object
Electrical energy Energy carried by electricity
Gravitational potential energy Energy of an object that has been lifted
Heat energy Energy spreading out from a hot object
Kinetic energy Energy of a moving object
Light energy Energy spreading out from a bright object
Thermal energy Energy of a hot object
Sound energy Energy coming from a vibrating source
Energy conversions
Energy can be changed from one form to another. The process of changing energy from
one form to another form is called energy conversion. A very common energy
conversion is a change from gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy. This occurs
whenever an object falls due to the force of gravity. Each form can be converted or
changed into the other forms.The notion of energy is that energy is changed from one
form into different forms using transducers. Transducer is a device used to transform
energy from one form to another. For example:
1. Battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
2. A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
3. A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The Table7.2 Summarizing Energy Conversion from one form to another
Original energy Transducer Energy transformed
Chemical energy Battery Electrical energy
Chemical energy Motor Chemical energy
Mechanical energy Generator Electrical energy
228
Solar energy Solar panel Electrical energy

Chemical energy Motor car Mechanical energy
Electrical energy Microphone Sound energy
Electrical energy Heater Heat energy
Figure 7.12 energy conversion

Exercise 7.6
i. Choose the best answer from the following alternatives

1. One of the following is not form of energy?
A. Light B. sound C. Kinetic D. weight
2. The process of changing energy from one form to another form is called
A. energy conversion C. energy depilation
B. energy conservation D. energy degradation
3. Which One of the following is a form of energy?
A. Chemical B. Solar C. Electrical D. all of the these
ii. complete the table
1. Energy can be transferred in different ways. Copy the table and use words
from the list to complete the first column.
Chemical energy, Electrical energy, Mechanical energy
Original energy Transducer Energy transformed

Microphone Sound energy
Generator Electrical energy
Battery Electrical energy
7.7. Energy Sources (sun, fuel, hydroelectric, wind, nuclear)
229
 List sources of energy.

 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable forms of energy.
Activity 7.8
Discuss the following
activities with in a group
and present your
discussion to the class.
1. List out any five activities
from your daily life in
which different forms of
energy are involved.
2. Differentiate between
renewable and non-
renewable sources of
energy.
Figure 7.13 Source of energy
In simple terms we can say that anything out of which usable energy can be
extracted is a source of energy. There is a variety of sources that provide us energy
for different purposes. Some of them are coal, petrol, diesel kerosene, natural gas,
hydroelectric power, wind mills, solar panels, biomass etc.
The energy sources can be replenished in a short period of time are referred to as
“renewable” energy sources, whereas the energy sources that we are using up and
cannot be generated in a short period of time are called non-renewable energy
sources. Thus, all the sources of energy can be divided into two categories:
renewable sources and non-renewable sources of energy.
230
There are three main differences between both sources of energy types:
a. availability and renewal times;

b. production and transportation cost;
c. Impact on the environment and human health.
Renewable energy sources: - are the energy sources, which can be turned into use
again after being used. It come from natural sources and continually regenerates
themselves, which makes them nearly inexhaustible. These energy sources are
plentiful, sustainable, naturally replenished and good to the environment.
The major types or sources of renewable energy are:
 Solar energy from the sun
 Wind energy
 Geothermal energy from the heat inside the earth
 Hydropower from flowing water
 Biomass from plants
 Ocean energy in the form of wave, tidal, current energy and ocean thermal
energy.
Non- renewable sources: are the energy sources, which cannot be turned into use
again. It is a finite resource. It is a natural substance that is not replenished with the
speed at which it is consumed. These are formed over thousands of years from the
buried remains of ancient sea plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.
Most of these energy sources are “dirty” fossil fuels, which are generally dingier for
the environment.
The major types or sources of non-renewable energy are: petroleum, natural gas,
coal, nuclear energy and hydrocarbon gas liquids.
231
Table 7.3 major differences between renewable and non-renewable resources
Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources

Depletion
Renewable resources cannot be depleted over
Non-renewable resources deplete over time
time
Sources
Renewable resources include sunlight,
water, wind and also geothermal Non-renewable energy includes fossil
sources such as hot springs fuels such as coal and petroleum.
and fumaroles
Environmental Impact
Most renewable resources have low Non-renewable energy has a
carbon emissions and low carbon comparatively higher carbon footprint
footprint and carbon emissions.
Cost
The upfront cost of renewable energy is high.

– For instance, Generating electricity using
Non-renewable energy has a comparatively
technologies running on renewable energylower
is upfront cost.
costlier than generating it with fossil fuels
Renewable and non-renewable resources have many similarities They both are resources
and they both have to do with the environment. Also, we must use them wisely. Because
if not they will disappear. They both grow on Earth, as well.
232
Exercise 7.7
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1. Which of the following is a nonrenewable energy resource?
A. Solar B. hydroelectric C. wind D. coal
2. What type of energy is derived from heated groundwater?
A. solar energy C. geothermal energy
B. hydroelectric energy D. nuclear energy
3. Which of the following is a renewable energy resource?
A. Solar B. Biomass C. Geothermal D. All
1. List sources of energy.
2. What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable forms of energy
and give four examples for each.
7.8. Wise use & Conservation of energy

Energy conservation
The key for resolving the country’s energy crisis lies with us citizens. Among
things we can do is the conservation of our energy sources. It is said that energy
saved is as good as energy generated. Therefore, we should not only judiciously
use energy sources but save energy as much as we can. You can start conservation
of energy in your home.
.

 List the strategies of conservation of energy
233
Energy conservation is: the practice of using less energy in order to lower
costs and reduce environmental impact. So. Energy can be conserved by
 Reducing wastage and losses,
 Improving efficiency through technological upgrades and
 Improved operation and maintenance
A good rule to follow for conservation use the three

Project work 7.2
(3) R’s:
By referring internet
 Reduce: Reduce the amount of trash you
explorer or other
reference materials produce and the amount of energy that consume.
explain how energy is This is the best way to conserve natural resources
used wisely and list and reduce pollution.
the strategies of
conservation of  Reuse: By products that you can use more
energy. Present your than once. Try to avoid disposable items that use up
finding to the class. natural resources and produce extra trash.
 Recycle: Recycling is the process that reuses
and changes used materials into things that can be of use. Although it requires
energy to recycle things, overall, recycling saves energy as well as landfill space
and reduces our need for more natural resources. Lots of things can be recycled:
Example: plastic, metal, glass, paper, and compost etc.
Strategies of conservation of energy
The steps that you can and should take for saving energy at home or in the office are:
 Switch off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
 Water taps should not be left open.
 While cooking vegetables the vessel should remain covered.
 For cooking, only the required quantity of water should be used.
 Soak pulses in water for some time before cooking,
234
 Use of more efficient appliances.

 Use public transport in place of your own vehicle to save fuel.
 Share automobiles rides to office, instead of driving alone to office.
Exercise 7.8
Give short answers.
1. What is conservation of energy?

2. Explain how energy is used wisely.
3. List Strategies of conservation of energy
7.9. Resource depletion and environmental degradation
 Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation
Activity 7.10
Perform the following tasks in groups and present your conclusion to the class.
i. Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation

ii. Explain causes and effects of resource depletion and environmental degradation
Resource depletion
Resource depletion is the exhaustion of raw materials within a region. Resources are
commonly divided between renewable resources and non-renewable resources. Use of
either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be
resource depletion. There are different types of resource depletion. These
areDeforestation, mining, aquifer depletion, contamination of resources, slash-and-
burn agriculture and overconsumption.
235
Causes for Resource Effects of resource depletion

Solutions to the Resource
Depletion Depletion Problem
Waste  Water shortages  Avoid plastic
Farming  Oil shortages  Reduce waste
Overpopulation  Economic effects  Stop deforestation
Mining  Health effects  Reduction in consumption
Erosion  Air pollution  Save electricity
Pollution  Loss of forests  Use renewable energies
Deforestation  Global warming  Recycle and reuse
Industrialization  Extinction of animals and Education

plants
Environmental degradation
The environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion
of resources which includes all the biotic and abiotic element that form our surrounding
that is air, water, soil, pant animals, and all other living and non-living element of the
planet of earth. The major factors of environmental degradation are
 Human (modern urbanization, industrialization, overpopulation growth,
deforestation, etc.) and
 Natural (flood, typhoons, droughts, rising temperatures, fires, etc.) Cause.
Environmental pollution refers to the degradation of the quality and quantity of
natural resources.
The major Effects of Environmental Degradation are: Impact on Human Health,
Poverty, Atmospheric Changes, Loss of Biodiversity and Scarcity of Natural Resources
236
Figure7.14 Different causes of environmental degradation
237
Key terms
 Motion  Rectilinear  Transducer  Oscillatory
motion motion
 Curvilinear  environmental  Energy  Resource depletion

motion degradation
 Force  Gravity  matter  Gravitational force
 Weight  Newton meter  conservation  Spring balance

of energy
 Graduated scale  Renewable  Non-  Rotary motion

energy renewable
energy
238
SUMMARY General Science Grade 7
In this unit you learnt that:
 Motion is a continuous change of position relative to a reference point. There
are four types of motion. They are rectilinear, curvilinear, rotary and vibrational
motion.
 A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction
with another object.
 Gravitational force is the force that is exerted by the Earth on every object,
which is near or on its surface.
 Force acting on an object causes the object to change its shape or size, to start
moving, to stop moving, to speed up or to slow down a moving object.
 You can use a device called a force meter to measure the size of a force. It
contains a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring stretches when a force
is applied to the hook. The bigger the force applied, the longer the spring
stretches and the bigger the reading. The unit of force is called the newton, and
it has the symbol N.
 Energy is the property of mater, and it comes in many forms, such as heat,
sound, light, and motion. It can be transferred between objects, and converted
in form.
 Energy exists in many different forms. Examples of these are: light energy,
heat energy, mechanical energy, gravitational energy, electrical energy, sound
energy, chemical energy, nuclear or atomic energy and so on. Each form can be
converted or changed into the other forms.
 sources of energy can be classified into: Renewable Sources and Non-
renewable Sources.
 A renewable source is the natural resources that cause no impact to nature.
These resources of energy can be naturally replenished and are safe to the
environment .Example: Solar energy, geothermal energy, Wind energy,
biomass, Hydropower and tidal energy.
 Non-renewable sources of energy cause impact to nature and are a limited
supply source. Non-renewable sources can be extracted from the earth, and will
run out as time passes. Example: Natural gas, coal, petroleum, Nuclearenergy .
 Using energy more wisely can reduce air pollution and result in cleaner air. The
power plants that supply energy release harmful greenhouse gases into
theatmosphere.
 Resource depletion is the exhaustion of raw materials within a region .The
depletion of natural resources is a big problem. It has several adverse effects on
humanity as well as on the whole environmental system.
 Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through
depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of
ecosystems; habitat destruction; the239
extinction of wildlife; and pollution.
Review Exercise
Part I: True / False type questions
1. Energy can be created.

2. Geothermal energy is renewable
3. A forces that acting an object falling from a tall building is called gravitational force.
4. push or pull of an object in a certain direction is known as motion.
Part II: Complete the following sentences. Write them out in full on the lines provided
and underline your answers.
Coal, natural gas and oil are all examples of _____ (renewable/non-renewable) energy
resources. When they are burned, they release _____ (energy/electricity). Coal, natural
gas and oil are also known as _____ (nuclear fuels/fossil fuels). Wind and solar energy
are examples of _____ (renewable/non-renewable) energy sources because they _____
(can/cannot) be replaced._________ has to be applied to change the __________of a
____________object. (moving, direction, force)
Part II: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which type of motion repeats itself at regular intervals of time?

A. Circular motion C. Rectilinear motion
B. Periodic motion D. none of the above
2. Rotation of the Earth is an example of
A. Periodic motion C. Circular motion
B. Rectilinear motion D. Both (A) and (B)
3. The best definition of force is .
A. a push or pull of an object. C. stored energy
B. energy in motion D. anything that takes up space
240
4. What type of energy does an oven produce?

A. light B. heat C. light and heat D. none of the above
5. Which of the following is NOT the effect of force?
A. Deformation C. To start motion
B. To stop motion D. to change mass
6. Which instrument used to measure force?
A. Spring balance C. Newton
B. Beam balance D. Thermometer
7. All of the following are examples of things that produce light energy EXCEPT:
A. Candle C. Desk Lamp
B. Compass D. Flashlight
8. Which of the following does NOT produce light energy?
A. Car B. phone C. picture frame D. computer
9. Energy you get from eating an apple
A. nuclear energy C. sound energy
B. electromagnetic energy D. chemical energy
10.The energy source that does the least harm to the environment is
A. Renewable B. Non-renewable
11. Nuclear energy is: A. Renewable B. Non-renewable

12. Which of the following is a source of energy?
A. Sun B. Waves C. Wind D. All
13.Which of these are renewable energy sources.
A. Coal B. natural gas C. sunlight D. None of these
14.Which type of renewable energy uses the movement of air to generate electricity?
A. water B. sun C. wind D. Biomass
241
15.Most energy sources are used to give us

A. Food and water C. Heat and water
B. Electricity and fuel D. Heat and fuel
16. Renewable energy is energy that
A. Can be reused over and over. C. Can be changed into a new energy
B. Can be used up completely. D. Cannot be replaced.
17. Non-renewable energy is the energy that
A. Can be used over and over. C. Cannot be changed into a new energy.
B. Can be used up completely. D. Can be replaced
18.resource depletion is commonly associated with
A. Water usage C. trees and fishing
B. Fossil fuel consumption D. All
19.Which one of the following is an examples of environmental degradation:
A. Deforestation. C. Water Pollution.
B. Depletion of the ozone layer D. All
Part IV: Give short answer questions
1. Explain in and give one example for gravitational force.
2. Why an object thrown upwards comes down after reaching a point?
3. What is meant by weight?
4. Name the motion possessed by these objects- blades of an electric fan in motion, a
spinning top, and hands of a clock. Vehicle on a straight road, the earth around the
sun and pendulum of a wall clock.
5. Name and define the type of motion exhibit by the object in the given below
figure 1.
6. If you want to measure the weight of your school bag using the equipment shown
below. Name this piece of equipment. That shown in figure 2.
242
Figure 2
Figure 1
fff
Check List
Competencies given below are expected to be achieved in this unit by students.
You are required to respond by saying Yes or No. Put a tick (√) mark under “Yes”
column if you are able to perform the competency or under “No” column if you are
unable to perform the competency.
This would help to evaluate yourself and you can revise the parts of topics for
which the competencies are not met.
No. Can I Yes No
1 Define motion as the change of position with time.
2 Describe the types of motion.
3 Give examples for each type of motion

4 Explain the term force.
5 Demonstrate the pulling/pushing activity of force.

6 Explain gravitational force.
7 List all effects of force
8 Demonstrate some effects of force.

9 Relate effects of force with their daily life experience
10 Name measuring device of force
11 Identify different measuring scales on measuring device of force
243
12 Explain parts of measuring device of force

13 Define energy as a property of matter that can be converted
14 List all forms of energy
15 Explain which energy converted to other forms of energy.

16 List sources of energy.
17 Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable forms of
energy.
18 Describe how energy is used wisely.
19 List the strategies of conservation of energy
20 Explain resource depletion and environmental degradation
244
General Science
Grade 7
Student text book
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regional

State Education Bureau
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General Science

Student text book

Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regional

Editors and Evaluators:

Developed by Adiss Abeba Education Bureau, and Adopted by Southern

Unit 1: Basic Concepts of Science ....................................................................... 1

5.2. The kingdom of life ............................................................................... 149

Unit 1: Basic Concepts of Science

At the end of this unit, learners will able to:

1.1. The Nature of Science and its Branches

The word science comes from the Latin word ‘Scientia’,

Indigenous science: is process by which Indigenous people build their empirical

Conventional science: is the system of knowledge which relies on certain laws

Q. Why teach Indigenous Knowledge in science?

Firstly, to increase awareness of original culture and identity

 Biology is a branch of natural science which studies about living things.

 Physics is the branch of natural science. It is the study of the nature of

 Biophysics: combination of biology and physics.

Figure1.1. The relationships between some fields of Natural Science

I. Give short answer for the followings questions

2. List the three branch of natural science

3. Which field of science is study of matter and energy?

1.1.3. Science and Technology

A person who studies technology is called a technologist.

Figure 1.2 Relationship of science and technology

Uses of Science and technology for the society

1.1.4. Scientists and ethical discipline

Fig1.3 some world known scientist and their works

Dr. Aklilu Lemma (1935-1997) made his

Gebisa Ejeta (born 1950) is

Fig1.3 some Ethiopia known scientist and their works

Ethical principle in science

i. Do you think ethical discipline is important for science?

Ethics is an integral part of science. Like science, it requires to be consistent and

3. Which one of the following is true about Science?

1.2. Common Laboratory Equipment, Uses, Safety Rules and Procedures in

1.2.1. Common Laboratory Apparatus

Form a group and perform the following task.

Laboratory equipment comprises different sets of apparatus, which are designed to

Table 1 Different laboratory tools and their use

Triple-beam Obtaining the mass of an Using this tool

Beaker Holding water (also used

Tongs Transport a hot beaker;

Thermometer Used to measure Using this tool

Test tubes Holds small amounts of

Petri dish Used to grow micro-

Graduated Marked with milliliter

Bunsen burner Heating (flame-safe)

Fuse A safety device consisting

Syringe Used for sucking in and

Making laboratory equipment/tools from locally available materials

1.2.2. Laboratory Safety Rules

Laboratory may be considered as a place of discovery and learning. However, by

Basic Safety Rules

 Know locations of laboratory safety showers, eyewash stations, and fire

Points/procedures before starting an experiment.

1.2.3. Science laboratory safety symbol and hazard signs, Meanings

Figure: 1. 4 A) hazard signs B) Laboratory safety symbols