Mine Surveying II (3362201)

Unit- 2
Triangulation

2.1 Principle, purpose and classification of triangulation system

2.2 Methods of triangulation survey- Simple chain triangulation, Double triangles
2.3 Importance of well-conditioned triangles, Application of sine rule
2.4 Selection of base line and triangulation stations location
2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
2.6 Extension of base line, broken base
CVTline
| Miningwith problems
Department | GP Bhuj and solutions
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2.1 Principle, purpose and classification of triangulation system
Triangulation
• Areas of considerable extent can not be surveyed precisely and satisfactorily by traversing
methods in which the accuracy is limited by difficulties precise linear measurements.
• Large areas therefore usually covered by network of interlacing triangles.
• If all the angles of the triangles are measured very precisely and at least one of the sides
called the Base line is measured with considerable care and accuracy, then the lengths of all
the remaining sides can be obtained from trigonometric formula (Sine rule).
• Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the direction of all others sides of all
triangles can be determined and thus the position of each station with reference to
predetermined point in the area surveyed can be computed by co-ordinates. This method of
surveying is called Triangulation. CVT | Mining Department | GP Bhuj
2.1 Principle, purpose and classification of triangulation system
Triangulation

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2.1 Principle, purpose and classification of triangulation system
Classification of Triangulation system

• The basis of the classification of triangulation figures/system is the accuracy with which the
length and azimuth of a line of the triangulation are determined. Triangulation systems of
different accuracies depend on the extent and the purpose of the survey.
• The accepted grades of triangulation are:

1. First order or Primary triangulation

2. Second order or Secondary triangulation
3. Third order or Tertiary triangulation

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2.1 Principle, purpose and classification of triangulation system
Classification of Triangulation system
1. First order or Primary triangulation
• It is the most accurate and would, generally form the basis for the surveying and mapping of
a whole country. Every precaution is taken in making linear and angular measurements and
in performing the reductions.
• The Following are the general specifications of the primary triangulations:
1. Average triangle closure : Less than 1 second
2. Maximum triangle closure : Not more than 3 seconds
3. Length of base line : 5 to 15 kilometers
4. Length of sides of triangles : 30 to 150 kilometers
5. Degree of accuracy : 1 in 500000
6. Probable error of computed distance : 1 in 60000
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2.1 Principle, purpose and classification of triangulation system
Classification of Triangulation system
2. Second order or Secondary triangulation
• The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of
primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals so that the sizes of the
triangles formed are smaller than the primary triangulation.
• The general specifications of the secondary triangulations are:
1. Average triangle closure : Less than 3 second
2. Maximum triangle closure : Up to 8 seconds
3. Length of base line : 2 to 5 kilometers
4. Length of sides of triangles : 8 to 65 kilometers
5. Degree of accuracy : 1 in 50000
6. Probable error of computed distance : 1 in 20000
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2.1 Principle, purpose and classification of triangulation system
Classification of Triangulation system
3. Third order or Tertiary triangulation
• It consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of secondary triangulation, and
forms the immediate control for detailed engineering and other surveys. The sizes of the
triangles are small and instrument with moderate precision may be used.
• The general specifications of the tertiary triangulations are:
1. Average triangle closure : 6 seconds
2. Maximum triangle closure : 15 seconds
3. Length of base line : 0.5 to 3 kilometers
4. Length of sides of triangles : Up to 8 kilometers
5. Degree of accuracy : 1 in 5000
6. Probable error of computed distance : 1 in 5000
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2.2 Methods of triangulation survey- Simple chain triangulation, Double chain triangles

• A triangulation figure is a group or system of triangles such that any figure has one side, and
only one, common to each of the preceding and following figures. The common figures or
systems are:
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Central point figures
4. Quadrilaterals

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2.2 Methods of triangulation survey- Simple chain triangulation, Double chain triangles

1. Single chain of triangles

• This figure is used where a narrow strip of terrain is to be covered.

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2.2 Methods of triangulation survey- Simple chain triangulation, Double chain triangles

2. Double chain of triangles

• It is used to cover greater area.

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2.2 Methods of triangulation survey- Simple chain triangulation, Double chain triangles

3. Central point figures

• Centered figures are used to cover area, and give very satisfactory results in flat country.
• The centered figures may be quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with central station.
The system provides desired checks on the computations. However, the progress of work is
slow due to more settings of the instruments.

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2.2 Methods of triangulation survey- Simple chain triangulation, Double chain triangles

4. Quadrilaterals
• Best suited for hilly country.

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 2.3 Importance of well-conditioned triangles, Application of sine rule

Well-conditioned Triangle
• There are various triangulation figures and the accuracy attained in each figure depends
upon
(i) the magnitude of the angles in each individual triangles
(ii) the arrangement of the triangles
• Regarding the shape of the triangle should be such that any error in the measurement of
angle shall have a minimum effect upon the length of the calculated side. Such a triangle is
then called a well-conditioned triangle.

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 2.3 Importance of well-conditioned triangles, Application of sine rule

Well-conditioned Triangle
• In an triangle, one side is known from the computations of the adjacent triangles. The error
in the other two sides will affect the rest of the triangulation figure. In order that these two
sides be equally accurate, they should be equal in length. This can be attained by making
the triangle isosceles.
• The best shape of triangle is isosceles with base angle equal to 560 14’. However, from
practical consideration, an equilateral triangles is most suitable.
• In general, however, triangles having an angles smaller then 300 or greater than 1200 should
be avoided.

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 2.3 Importance of well-conditioned triangles, Application of sine rule

Application of Sine rule

• In triangulation, If length of one side and all the three angles of a triangle are measured
then length of the remaining sides can be calculated by Sine rule.

𝐚𝐚 𝐛𝐛 𝐜𝐜
= =
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐀𝐀 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐁𝐁 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝐂𝐂

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 2.4 Selection of base line and triangulation stations location
Selection of site for Base Line :
• The following points should be taken into consideration while selecting the site:
1. The site should be fairly level. If, however, the ground is sloping, the slope should be
uniform and gentle. Undulating ground should, if possible be avoided.
2. The site should be free from obstructions throughout the whole of the length. The line
clearing should be cheap in both labour and compensation.
3. The extremities of the base should be intervisible at ground level.
4. The ground should be reasonably firm and smooth. Water gaps should be few, and if
possible not wider than the length of the long wire or tape.
5. The site should be so selected that well-conditioned triangles can be obtained in
connecting the end of the base line to the
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Department triangulation stations.
| GP Bhuj
 2.4 Selection of base line and triangulation stations location
Selection of Triangulation Stations :
• The selection of triangulation stations is based upon the following considerations:
1. The triangulation stations should be intervisible. For this purpose, they should be placed
upon the most elevated ground (such as tops of hills etc.) so that long sights through
undisturbed atmosphere may be secured.
2. They should form well-shaped triangles. As far as possible, the triangles should be either
isosceles with base angles of about 56° or equilateral. In general, however, no angle
should be smaller than 30° or greater than 120°.
3. The stations should be easily accessible, and should be such that supplies of food and
water are easily available, and camping ground or nearest suitable accommodation is
available. CVT | Mining Department | GP Bhuj
 2.4 Selection of base line and triangulation stations location
Selection of Triangulation Stations :
4. They should be so selected that the length of sight is neither too small nor too large.
Small length of sight will result in errors due to centring and bisection while large line of
sight will make the signal too indistinct for accurate bisection.
5. They should be in commanding situation so as to serve as the control of the subsidiary
triangulation and for possible future extension of the principal system. The stations of
the subsidiary triangulation should be such that they are useful for detail surveys.
6. In heavily wooden country, the stations should be so located that the cost of clearing
and cutting, and of building towers is minimum.
7. The stations should be situated so that lines of sight do not pass over towns, factories,
furnaces etc. nor graze any obstruction, so that the effects of irregular atmospheric
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refraction is avoided.
 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
Base Line Measurement

• The measurement of base line forms the most important parts of the triangulation.
• The base line is laid down with great accuracy of measurement and alignment as it forms
the basis for the computations of triangulation system.
• The length of the base line depends upon the grades of the triangulation. Apart from main
base line, several other check bases are also measured at some suitable intervals.
• In India, ten bases were used, the lengths of the nine bases vary from 6.4 to 7 .8 miles and
that of the tenth base is 1. 7 miles.

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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length

Methods for measuring the base line:

1. The measurements are made off the ground by a steel or Invar tape hanging in the
catenary between two supports with additional intermediate supports.
• This method is specially advantageous in rough and hilly country where a base of
reasonable length on ground may be difficult to find.
• It is , however, slower and needs special apparatus. Calm weather conditions are
also essential.
2. In level or slightly inclined countries, the line to be measured between two pegs is aligned
with a theodolite and the tape is placed over it for measurement. The measurement is
made along the ground.
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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length

1. Measurement of Base line by Tape in Catenary

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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
1. Measurement of Base line by Tape in Catenary

Measuring Tripod
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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length

2. Measurement by Tape along the ground

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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
Various corrections applied on Base Line measurement :
The following corrections are to be applied in the field measurements of base line in order to
get its true length.
1. Correction for standard or absolute length
2. Correction for temperature
3. Correction for tension
4. Correction for Sag
5. Correction for Slope
6. Correction for Horizontal alignment
7. Reduction for Mean Sea Level (MSL)
8. Correction for Local Scale FactorCVT | Mining Department | GP Bhuj
 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
1. Correction for standard or absolute length
• The field tape is liable to suffer some elongation due to continual elongation to which it is
subjected in the field and so far accurate work, field tape should be tested with a standard
tape before and immediately after each day’s work in the field.
• If the absolute length of the tape is greater than the standard tape, the measured distance
will be too short and correction will be additive. If the absolute length of the tape is lesser
than the standard tape, the measured distance will be too great and the correction will be
subtractive.
𝑳𝑳 𝒄𝒄
• Thus, Correction = where, 𝑳𝑳 = Measured length of line
𝒍𝒍
𝒄𝒄 = Correction to the measuring tape
𝒍𝒍 = Nominal length of measuring tape
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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
2. Correction for temperature
• Stell tape expands as the temperature rises and contracts as the temperature falls. The
correction is positive or negative according as temperature during measurement (T) is
greater or less than temperature of standardisation (T0).

Correction = L α ( T - T0)
where, L = Measured length of line
α = Co-efficient of thermal expansion
(For steel α = 0.00012 per 10c and For Invar 0.0000010 per 10c)

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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
3. Correction for tension
• A tape stretches when pull is applied. If the pull applied to the tape is different than the
standard then the correction must be applied.

𝐋𝐋 (𝐏𝐏 −𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏)
Correction =
𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀
where, L = Measured length of line
P = Pull applied during measurement in kg
P0 = Standard pull in kg
A = Cross sectional area of tape in sq. cm.
E = Modulus of elasticity of the tape
(For steel, E = 21 x 105 kg/sq.cm. and
For Invar, E = 154 x 105 kg/sq.cm.) CVT | Mining Department | GP Bhuj
 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
4. Correction for Sag
• When the tape is stretched on supports between two points, it takes the form of a
horizontal catenary.
• The horizontal distance will be less than the distance along the curve. The difference
between horizontal distance and the measured length along catenary is called the sag
correction.

𝐋𝐋 𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 𝟐𝟐
Correction =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
where, L = Distance between support in metre
W = Weight of tape in kg per metre run
P = Pull applied during measurement in kg
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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
5. Correction for Slope

• The distance measured along the slope is always greater than the horizontal distance and
hence the correction is always subtractive.

𝐡𝐡𝟐𝟐
Correction = L (1 – cos θ) =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
where, L = Length of slope in metre
θ = Grade of the section
h = Difference in elevation

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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
6. Correction for Horizontal alignment

• If the tape is stretched out of line, measured distance will always be more and hence the
correction will be negative.

𝐝𝐝𝟐𝟐
Correction =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
where, L = Measured length in metre
d = Amount of deviation

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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
7. Reduction for Mean Sea Level (MSL)

• For convenience of comparison with National Grid Co-ordinates, the length of the base line
is reduced to its equivalent length as mean sea level datum.

𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋
Correction =
𝐑𝐑
where, L = Measured length of base in metre
h = Average height of base above MSL in metre
R = Radius of earth

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 2.5 Base line measurements and various corrections applied on B.L length
8. Correction for Local Scale Factor
• A short traverse on a plane surface can be easily represented on a plan with grid lines
without any apparent distortion, but in case of large areas the curvature of the spherical
surface of earth greatly affect the actual shape of the map.
• Objects on the curved surface of earth can not be represented on a flat sheet of paper in
the same relative positions which they occupied on the globe. A slight difference between
the grid distances occurs because the meridians converge and the grid lines are drawn
parallel to one central meridian. Therefore, in precise surveys of larger areas the distances
computed from co-ordinate will require a correction by a factor known as “Local Scale
Factor”

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 2.6 Extension of base line, broken base line with problems and solutions
Extension of Base Line

• The measurement of a long base line may sometimes be difficult due to obstacles or the
level ground being limited extent. In such cases, only a portion of the base line accurately
measured which is then prolonged by ranging lines in continuation of it, at one or both
ends, until a suitable length is obtained to give well-conditioned angles from each of its
ends to the points to be fixed.
• The length of the additional lines are calculated from the measured base and observed
angles.

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