Teaching Notes Chapter 3 Asal Chemistry

CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL CHEMISTRY: TEACHER’S RESOURCE
3 Atoms, moles and

stoichiometry
Syllabus overview
This chapter covers topics in Chapter 3 of the Coursebook and Workbook.
This section of the syllabus provides learners with knowledge of how to calculate the amounts of substances as
molar quantities.
•• The following concepts and their uses are covered in this chapter:
•• the mole and Avogadro’s constant
•• reacting masses and the stoichiometry of equations
•• moles in solution and titrations
•• yields in chemical reactions and preparations
•• empirical and molecular formulae
•• molar volumes of gases
•• using reacting volumes of gases to calculate formulae of hydrocarbons and stoichiometry of equations.
•• The moles concept is one that is used in several areas of chemistry. Quantities used in these areas are
expressed as mol−1 (per mole). Chapters 6 (Enthalpy changes), 8 (Equilibria), 9 (Rates of reaction), P1, 19
(Lattice energy) to 24 (Transition elements) and P2 use the mole and concepts associated with it.
•• The essential skills of writing formulae and balancing symbol equations are tackled and practised. These
skills are extended to the writing of ionic equations.
•• All three of the assessment objectives, AO1, AO2 and AO3, can be covered in this topic.
•• Some of the mathematical skills listed in Section 6 of the syllabus can be used.
•• There are several practical skills listed in Section 5 of the syllabus that learners should be familiar with. In
this chapter the learners will gain practice in accurate weighing, titrations and measurement of gas volumes.
Topic teaching plan

Syllabus Number of Outline of lesson content Resources
topic lessons
2.1.1 and 1 Review relevant topics from Coursebook: Chapter 3 ‘Before you start’
2.2.1 IGCSE/O Level and topics 1 and 2. 3.1 ‘Relative isotopic mass’
The Avogadro constant. 3.1 ‘Relative atomic mass, A ’, Question 2
r
Define relative isotopic and 3.1 ‘Relative molecular mass, Mr’
relative atomic masses.
3.1 ‘Relative formula mass’, Question 1
Calculate relative atomic mass Exam-style questions 1b, 2b and c, and 11b
using isotopic abundances.
Workbook: Exercises 3.1 and 3.8, and
Calculate relative molecular mass
and relative formula mass. Exam-style questions 2a and 3a
(Continued)
1 Cambridge International AS & A Level Chemistry - Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2020

topic lessons
2.3.1 and 1 Write correct formulae using Coursebook: 3.5 ‘Molecular formulae’,
2.3.2 charges on ions. Question 13
Write balanced symbol 3.6 ‘Balancing chemical equations’,
equations. Questions 14 and 15
Write state symbols in equations. Workbook: Exercise 3.7b and c
Practical Workbook: Practical
investigation 1.2
2.3.2a 1 Write correct formulae using Coursebook: 3.5 ‘Molecular formulae’,
and b charges on ions. Question 14
Write balanced symbol 3.6 ‘Balancing chemical equations’
equations.
Workbook: Exercise 3.2a–d
Write state symbols in equations.
Write and balance ionic
equations.
2.2.1 1 Calculate the relative atomic, Coursebook: 3.4 ‘The mole and the
molecular and formula masses of Avogadro constant’
different substances.
Coursebook: 3.4 ‘Moles and mass’,
Calculate amounts of substances Questions 6 and 7
using the mole and the
Avogadro constant. Workbook: Exercise 3.3ai, aii and bi, and
Exam-style question 2b
2.3.3, 1 Find the empirical formula of a Coursebook: 3.4 ‘Moles and mass’
2.3.4 and substance using moles.
2.3.5, 3.5 ‘Empirical formulae’
2.4.1a Use moles to find the number
of molecules of water of 3.4 ‘Amount of substance’,
crystallisation in a hydrated salt. Questions 6 and 7
Explain the terms ‘hydrated’, 3.2 ‘Hydrated and anhydrous compounds’

‘anhydrous’ and ‘water of Exam-style question 2a
crystallisation’.
Workbook: Exercise 3.4a
Practical Workbook: Practical
investigation 1.1
2.3.3, 1 Calculate the percentage Coursebook: 3.5 ‘Percentage composition
2.3.4 and composition of a compound by mass’
2.3.5 using relative atomic masses.
3.5 ‘Empirical formulae’, Question 13
Find the empirical formula of a
substance using moles. Exam-style questions 4a and b
Use the empirical formula and Workbook: Exercise 3.4b,c and d

the relative molecular mass to
find the molecular formula of a
compound.
(Continued)

topic lessons
2.4.1a, d 1 Calculate the percentage yield of Coursebook: 3.5 ‘Percentage yield’
and e a chemical reaction.
3.6 ‘Chemical formulae and chemical
Calculate reacting masses using equations’
moles.
3.4 ‘Amount of substance’
Use the stoichiometry of an
equation and moles to deduce 3.5 ‘The stoichiometry of a reaction’
the limiting reagent and excess 3.4 ‘Moles and mass’
reagent in a chemical reaction.
Exam-style question 2d
Workbook: Exam-style question 3
2.4.1c 1 Moles in solution. Coursebook: 3.7 ‘Solutions and
concentration’, Questions 20 and 21
Calculate concentrations of
solutions. Exam-style questions 6 and 8
Use moles and equations to Workbook: Exercise 3.6a
calculate concentrations of
solutions. Practical Workbook: Practical
skills section
Make up a standard solution.
Practical investigation 1.3
2.4.1c 1 Calculating concentrations and Coursebook: 3.7 ‘Calculating solution
volumes of solutions. concentration by titration’
Titrating an acid against a 3.7 ‘Solutions and concentration’,
standard alkali. Questions 20 and 21
Using moles and equations Workbook: Exercise 3.6b and Exam-style
to calculate concentrations question 1
of solutions and amounts of
substances. Practical Workbook: Practical skills section
Stoichiometry of reaction using

titrations.
2.4.1b 1 Molar volumes of gases. Coursebook: 3.8 ‘Calculations involving
gas volumes’, Question 22
The stoichiometry of reactions
from gas volumes. Exam-style questions 3e and f, and 7c
Deducing the molecular formula 3.8 ‘Gas volumes and stoichiometry’,
of a hydrocarbon using volumes Question 23
of gases.
Workbook: Exercise 3.5
(Continued)

topic lessons
2.4.1a 1 Calculating reacting masses Coursebook: 3.8 ‘Gas volumes and
and b using moles. stoichiometry’
Relative atomic mass. 3.4 ‘Moles and mass’
The stoichiometry of reactions 3.1 ‘Relative atomic mass, Ar’
from gas volumes.
Workbook: Exercise 3.5b
Calculating numbers of moles of
a gas from its volume. Practical Workbook: Practical
investigation 1.2
2.1.1, 1 Plenary lesson: all the subject N/A
2.2.1, matter covered in the topic.
2.3.1–
2.3.5 and
2.4.1
Topics 2.1.1 and 2.2.1

Learners will:
•• review relevant topics from IGCSE/O Level and Chapter 1
•• study the Avogadro constant
•• understand that an atomic mass unit is one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom
•• define relative isotopic and relative atomic masses
•• calculate relative atomic mass using isotopic abundances
•• learn about relative molecular mass and relative formula mass.
Suggested teaching time:

One hour
Links to other components in this series

Component Resource Description
Coursebook Chapter 3, ‘Before you • Review topics covered in Chapter 1 and at
start’ IGCSE/O Level
3.1 ‘Relative isotopic mass’ • Explain what is meant by the Avogadro
constant
3.1 ‘Relative atomic mass,
Ar’, Question 2 • Define relative isotopic and atomic mass
3.1 ‘Relative molecular • Calculate relative isotopic mass from isotopic
mass, Mr’ abundances (mass spectrometry data)
3.1 Relative formula mass, • Calculate relative molecular mass using
Question 1 formulae and relative atomic masses of
constituent elements
Exam-style questions 1b,
2b and c, and 11b • Calculate relative formula mass using
formulae and relative atomic masses of
constituent elements
(Continued)

Workbook Exercise 3.1 • Calculate the relative atomic mass of an
element using the relative abundances of its
Exercise 3.8 isotopes.
Exam-style questions
2a and 3a
Common misconceptions
•• Some learners misinterpret the formulae of, for example, sulfate as (SO)4 and multiply the combined mass
of sulfur and oxygen by four. This can be easily overcome by explaining that only when there are brackets
round more than one atom is it necessary to multiply more than one atom by the number outside the
brackets.
•• Learners sometimes think you add up the isotopic masses and find the average rather than the weighted
average. This can be addressed by looking at the chlorine example later.
Lesson starters
Two suggestions are given here. The choice between which activity is used will depend on what resources are
available, the time available and how the learners are progressing with this topic.
1 Idea A (10–15 minutes)

Carry out a survey to find out what learners already know about the topic. Give the learners a list of
learning intentions for this topic. Ask them which ones they have done before and feel reasonably confident
about. This can be done by them ticking off a list given three alternatives (e.g. very confident/not sure/no
idea). The results of the survey can be used to plan starting points for the following lessons.
2 Idea B (10–15 minutes)

Ask learners to consider two or three subtopics from ‘Before you start’ in the Coursebook: ask learners to
vote which is the most difficult.
Main activities
Here are several teaching activities which you can pick and choose from in order to tailor the lesson to your
class’s needs.
1 Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass (15 minutes)

Give the learners the definition of relative isotopic mass. The definition in the Coursebook mentions
Avogadro’s constant and this should be briefly explained. It will be dealt with in detail in a future lesson.
The Coursebook gives a detailed description of how the mass spectrum of an element gives the relative
percentage abundance of each naturally occurring isotope. It then shows how the percentage values are used
to give a weighted average value of the mass: the relative atomic mass.
Assessment idea 1: The learners can use Coursebook Figure 3.5 to show that neon (atomic number 10) has
a number of isotopes. Can they give the numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons for the most abundant
of these isotopes? This can be a quick answer session and only follow up on this if they do not give the
correct answer easily.
The learners are then given the definition for relative atomic mass. Why are the relative atomic masses of
different elements not whole numbers like the relative isotopic masses? The answer lies in the definition.
The example for chlorine is perhaps one of the easiest to show this. Chlorine has two naturally occurring
isotopes with relative abundances 35Cl (75%) and 37Cl (25%). The average of the two relative isotopic masses
35 + 37 
is 36  so why is the relative atomic mass 35.5?
 2 
Assessment idea 2: Ask them to write down the answer to this question.
The relative atomic mass is calculated from the earlier data as follows:
•• Let there be 100 atoms of chlorine. 75 of these have a relative isotopic mass of 35 and 25 have a relative
atomic mass of 37.
•• Therefore, the total mass of the 100 atoms = (75 × 35) + (25 × 37) = 2625 + 925 = 3550
3550
•• This means that the average mass of each atom, i.e. the relative atomic mass = = 35.5
100
Assessment idea 3: Ask ‘Why does the definition refer to weighted average rather than simply average, and
how is this accounted for in the calculation?’ The answer to this is that the definition takes into account that
there is a greater abundance of some isotopes than others. In the calculation this is taken into account by
using the percentages of each isotope.
They can then be asked to do Question 2 in the Coursebook and Exercise 3.8 in the Workbook.
2 Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass (20 minutes)

The learners may well have done this before at IGCSE/O Level but mastery cannot be taken for granted.
Simple numbers are easily dealt with, but difficulties arise when brackets are involved.
Assessment idea: Question 1 in the Coursebook gives a good range of formulae to deal with. The learners
can be set these examples individually or deal with them in groups of no more than three.
Differentiation
Stretch and challenge
Learners can be asked to give the names of the four compounds in Question 1.
Support
Some learners may need some help in multiplying out the brackets and also in using the calculator. For example,
in the formula for ammonium sulfate they may have difficulty in calculating the numbers of nitrogen and
hydrogen atoms inside the brackets. A good way of overcoming this is to add the relative atomic masses inside
the brackets and then multiply this by the number outside the brackets.
As long as they have access to a calculator there is no reason why weaker learners should find this topic particularly
difficult.
WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS

Ask the learners to discuss in pairs how they would carry out one of the following:
• find the relative formula mass of Mg(NO3)2.6H2O
• calculate the relative atomic mass of lead (see Coursebook Figure 3.4 and Table 3.1).
CROSS-CURRICULAR LINKS
Numeracy
• The learners need to understand the difference between a simple average and a weighted average.
• They also need to understand the use of brackets and why whatever is inside the brackets in a
formula is multiplied by the number outside.
Literacy
• The definition of relative atomic mass needs to be read and broken up into shorter bits of
language before it can be fully understood.
Topics 2.3.1 and 2.3.2

Learners will:
•• write correct formulae using charges on ions
•• write balanced symbol equations
•• write state symbols in equations.

One hour

Coursebook 3.5 ‘Molecular formulae’ • Use charges on ions to write correct
chemical formulae
3.6 ‘Balancing chemical equations’,
Questions 13, 14 and 15
Teacher’s Practical Teacher’s Guide, Practical • Find the equation for a reaction using the
Resource investigation 1.2 weights of precipitates
Workbook Exercise 3.7b and c • Write balanced chemical equations
Practical Practical investigation 1.2 • Find the equation for a reaction using the
Workbook weights of precipitates
Sometimes a learner does not understand that the formulae cannot be changed so in order to balance the
equation they simply change the formulae.
Lesson starters
1 Idea A (10 minutes)

Working in groups, ask learners to explain how they work out the charges on the ions of different elements.
For example, how do they know the charge on a sodium ion is +1 and the charge on an oxide ion is −2? Can
they produce a two-sentence explanation of how to do this?
2 Idea B (10 minutes)

Ask learners to discuss in groups how they know the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. They are not
allowed to say they just remember it. They may go back over the formation of an ionic bond between the two
elements and how electrons are transferred from the sodium to the chlorine. It should be pointed out at this
stage that the bond is between the two ions and because the charges are equal, the number of each ion is 1.
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Writing chemical formulae (20 minutes)

Firstly, learners should know the elements that form diatomic molecules:
H2 O2 N2 Cl2 Br2 I2 F2
Ask them to devise a simple mnemonic to help them to remember this set of elements. Alternatively, they
can just say the sequence phonetically: HONClBrIF.
The charges on ions with which they are not familiar, such as the transition metal ions, can be deduced from
the name given to the compound (see Coursebook Section 3.6 ‘Deducing the formula for ionic and covalent
compounds’ for details).
Assessment ideas: Ask the learners to write the formulae of as many ionic compounds as you think
necessary. These should include compounds with brackets around compound ions such as hydroxide (OH−),
sulfate (SO42−) and nitrate (NO3−). The syllabus says learners need to be able to name and recall the formulae
of the following ions:
NO3− CO32− SO42− OH− NH4+ Zn2+ Ag+ HCO3− PO43−
It is a good idea to use these formulae for compounds in the next activity. This exercise can be done
individually or in pairs, or even larger groups if preferred. At the end of the exercise, consider their answers
and iron out any difficulties. It is essential that the learners grasp how to write formulae using charges like
this, because it reduces greatly the amount of subject matter they have to memorise.
2 Balancing equations (25 minutes)

Assessment ideas: Give learners word equations and ask them to write the formulae of the compounds
and elements involved. Discuss how to balance these equations. They should also add the state symbols
after each formula. Examples are given in the Coursebook (Section 3.6 ‘Balancing chemical equations’).
The crucial first step is to identify which atoms are not equal on either side of the equation. Once these are
balanced, others will become unequal and these are then balanced until every single type of atom has been
accounted for.
Differentiation
Ask learners to balance equations which involve the use of brackets on both sides.
For example, Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6NaOH(aq) → 2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3Na2(SO4)3(aq). Either give learners the word
equation for this reaction:
aluminium sulfate (aq) + sodium hydroxide (aq) → aluminium hydroxide (s) + sodium sulfate (aq)
and ask them for the correct formulae to balance the equation, or give them the unbalanced equation and just
ask them to balance it.
Al2(SO4)3(aq) + __NaOH(aq) → __Al(OH)3(s) + __Na2(SO4)3(aq)
Support
Some learners take some time before they master how to balance equations. Start with easy equations and
simply increase the difficulty as and when you see that they can move on to the next level of difficulty.

Answer hinge-point Question 17 on iron(III) oxide and carbon monoxide in Coursebook Section 3.6
‘Balancing chemical equations’.
Ask learners to explain in their own words:
• either how they were able to write the formulae of different compounds (they must refer to all the
different types, including those where brackets are used around groups of atoms)
• or how they were able to balance symbol equations correctly.
Numeracy
Balancing symbol equations is an exercise in counting and ratios. They need to be able to identify
inequalities on both sides of the equation and correct these by using appropriate multiples to balance
the equation.
Topics 2.3.2a and b

Learners will:
•• write correct formulae using charges on ions
•• write balanced symbol equations
•• write state symbols in equations
•• write and balance ionic equations.

One hour

Coursebook 3.5 ‘Molecular formulae’, • Use charges on ions to write correct chemical
Question 14 formulae
3.6 ‘Balancing chemical • Write balanced chemical equations
equations’
• Write ionic equations
• Identify reactions that have ionic equations
Workbook Exercise 3.2a–d • Write an ionic equation for a reaction
Exercise 3.7a
Rarely, some learners make the mistake of making the formation of the sodium salt the subject of the ionic
equation.
Lesson starters

Review the work done previously on writing formulae and balancing equations by getting the learners to
write the balanced symbol equations for three reactions.

Ask learners to write the word equation and then the symbol equation (including state symbols) for the
neutralisation reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
Emphasise the removal of spectator ions from the equation.

Explain the following criteria for representing/not representing substances using ions:
•• solids (s), liquids (l) or gases (g), or simple molecules that are dissolved in water, for example, chlorine,
are not represented by ions.
•• acids are represented by H+(aq) and alkalis by OH−.
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Practical: Investigate reactions that involve ionic equations (25 minutes)

Reactions are suggested in Table 3.1, along with the final ionic equations:
Reaction and comments Ionic equation

Magnesium + hydrochloric acid (see Worked example 17 Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
in the Coursebook). Test for hydrogen and observe the
disappearance of magnesium.
Chlorine water + potassium iodide solution Cl2(aq) + 2I−(aq) → 2Cl−(aq) + I2(s)
Mix solutions and make observations.
Barium chloride solution (TOXIC!) + sodium sulfate solution Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
Iron(II) sulfate solution + sodium hydroxide (CORROSIVE!) Fe2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)
solution
Table 3.1
The learners need to work in pairs and carry out the reactions. They should be asked to construct their own
results tables. The toxic and corrosive solutions must be labelled.
Assessment idea: Assess their practical working, especially their care not to mix up the droppers used and
their adherence to safety procedures. You can also assess learners on their results table: is it appropriate?
2 Understanding reactions and writing ionic equations (15 minutes)

After being placed in groups, ask learners to write the word and then the symbol equations for the reactions
taking place in the practical earlier. Tell them that all sodium and potassium compounds are soluble in water,
and that for the third and fourth reactions, precipitates are formed. The first thing they should do is to write
the formula of the precipitate and then decide the ions that make it up. For each reaction mixture they should
decide what the actual reaction is and then write the ionic equation. Remember, a precipitate is a solid!
Differentiation
When sodium carbonate is reacted with sulfuric acid, carbon dioxide is one of the products. Ask learners to
write the ionic equation between a carbonate ion and an acid.
Support
Identify the precipitates for them and ask them to decide which ions are responsible for their formation.
Numeracy
The balancing of equations requires learners to add up the numbers of atoms (and charges) on both
sides of the equations.
Literacy
• When discussing the problems they had with the writing of the equations, they should use words
such as balanced, reactant and product in the correct context.
• Constructing a results table and writing observations requires the use of appropriate scientific
vocabulary.

In groups, ask learners to reflect on the following (see Coursebook Section 3.6 ‘Balancing chemical
equations’):
• What are the stages in balancing a chemical equation?
• What sorts of problems did they find when writing ionic equations?
• How do they know which species to include in the equation?
Topic 2.2.1
Learners will:
•• calculate the relative atomic, molecular and formula masses of different substances
•• calculate amounts of substances using the mole and the Avogadro constant.

One hour

Coursebook 3.4 ‘The mole and the • Explain how we know how many particles are
Avogadro constant’ present
3.4 ‘Moles and mass’, • Calculate the number of moles of a substance
Questions 6 and 7
Workbook Exercise 3.3ai and ii, 3bi • Calculate the number of moles
Exam-style question 2b
Rarely, some learners make the mistake of making the sodium salts formed the subject of the ionic equation.
Lesson starters
1 Idea A (10–15 minutes)

The aim of this activity is to demonstrate why we weigh, and don’t count, particles.
Explain that particles are incredibly small. It takes a very long time to count the particles in even a very
small amount of a substance. If you go to the market and ask for some beans, you do not ask for 250 beans.
You ask for 1 kilogram of beans. The next week, if you want half the number of beans you ask for half a
kilogram. You do not count the beans. They are too small and too numerous to count.
For this demonstration you need some small objects – such as discs, screws or nails – of a uniform size and
mass. You need two sets of the objects: one set should be 2× the mass of the other. In this example we will
use nails. Ask a learner to count out a certain number of the larger nails (you need at least 20–30 to make an
impression on the learners) and then ask them to state the mass. Without counting, ask another member of
the learners to weigh out half that mass using the smaller nails. When the nails are counted, there will be the
same number of each size nail.
Explain that the same can be done with particles. A carbon atom is 3× the mass of a helium atom. So if we weigh
out 12.0 g of carbon and 4.0 g of helium we know that we have the same number of atoms of each element.
From this, give learners the definition of 1 mole as the relative atomic mass of a substance expressed in
grams. 1 mole of carbon atoms weighs 12.0 g and 1 mole of helium atoms weighs 4.0 g. Similarly, 1 mole of
CaCO3 weighs 100.1 g.

Learners brainstorm what they remember from IGCSE/O Level about the mole concept. What type of
problem did they use it in? How did they calculate the number of moles? What information do they need?
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Masses and numbers of moles (25 minutes)

The learners have many formulae to remember so getting them to remember them all is very demanding. It
is better to try and understand the formulae rather than just trying to memorise them.
If you say that you want to weigh out 2 moles of carbon (relative atomic mass = 12.0) then you simply
multiply 12.0 by 2. The word ‘of’ in this sentence means ‘multiply’.
With learners in groups, ask them to discuss the relationship between the mass (m), number of moles (n)
and relative formula mass (Mr or Ar) (m = n × Mr). At the same time, ask the learners to rearrange the
m m
formula to obtain relationships that can be used to find n (n = ) and Mr (Mr = n ). Ask the groups
Mr
that obtain the correct relationships to explain their reasoning to the rest of the learners. The method of
cross-multiplication described in the Coursebook is probably the most versatile. This method can also be
described as ‘What you do to one side, you do to the other’.
m
For example, if we take the starting formula as n = , how can we get m and Mr from this?
Mr
To get m on its own, we need to multiply the right-hand side by Mr and therefore we must multiply the left-
Mr
hand side by Mr: n × Mr = m ×
Mr
m
To get Mr we can still start with n = , but it gets a little complicated. To get Mr on its own on one side we
Mr
n 1 m
divide both sides by m. This gives us = and then Mr =
m Mr n
Before you move on, it is sometimes helpful to remember that the relationships inside the equations tells
us the units for different quantities. In fact, this could be used as an aid to remembering the formulae/
equations.
m g
For example, for Mr = the units of Mr are = g mol−1.
n mol
Assessment idea: Once learners have discussed these three formulae you can give them different examples
which enable them to use all three formulae (e.g. Question 7 in the Coursebook).
2 Calculate numbers of particles and numbers of moles (15 minutes)

The learners can be given the formula for the number of particles (n × NA) and asked to calculate the
numbers of particles in, for example, 2 moles of carbon atoms and 1 g of carbon atoms.
More examples are required to give the learners confidence.
Assessment ideas: If time allows, give learners some more problems to solve. For example, how many moles
of hydrogen atoms are there in 2 moles of propane (C3H8)? Answer: 16
In groups, the learners can discuss this problem. If they were correct, how did they do the calculation.
Similar problems are:
•• How many moles of Cl− ions are there in 0.1 mol of calcium chloride (CaCl2)? Answer: 0.2 mol
4.4
•• What contains more carbon atoms: 4.4 g of CO2 or 1.44 g of carbon? Answer: 4.4 g of CO2 =
44
1.44
mol = 0.1 mol; 1.44 g of mol = 0.12 mol. The 1.44 g of carbon has the greater number of
12
carbon atoms.
Differentiation
As an extension to the previous assessment idea, ask learners to calculate the number of moles of oxygen atoms
in 0.01 mol of Al2(SO4)3.
Support
Some learners find calculation triangles helpful for these formulae. Figure 3.1 shows the relevant one for
calculating masses and moles.
n × Mr
Figure 3.1

Ask learners which method of rearrangement of the formulae they prefer.
Assessment idea
Give learners another formula to rearrange using the cross-multiplication technique or ‘What you
do to one side, you do to the other’ and ask them to change the subject to X. For example, the
arrangement in Figure 3.2.
Y To make Y the subject of

X= the equation multiply
Z both sides by Z
Y
Z×X = ×Z
Z
To make Z the subject of
Y
X= the equation divide
Z both sides by Y
flip this over

Y X 1
= so = to give Z
Z Y Y Z
and Z = Y
X
Figure 3.2
Numeracy
• The calculations involving formulae are obviously linked to numeracy.
• Learners have to become proficient at rearranging formulae. They must also become adept at
understanding the symbols and what information they represent.
Topics 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5 and 2.4.1a

Learners will:
•• find the empirical formula of a substance using moles
•• use moles to find the number of molecules of water of crystallisation in a hydrated salt
•• explain the terms hydrated, anhydrous and water of crystallisation.

One hour

Coursebook 3.4 ‘Moles and mass’ • Convert mass to moles
3.5 ‘Empirical formulae’ • Calculate the number of moles of a
substance
3.4 ‘Amount of substance’,
Questions 6 and 7 • Heat a hydrated salt to give the anhydrous
compound
3.2 ‘Hydrated and anhydrous
compounds’
Exam-style question 2a
Teacher’s Resource Practical Teacher’s Guide, • Find the empirical formula of hydrated
Practical investigation 1.1 copper(II) sulfate
Workbook Exercise 3.4a • Calculate empirical and molecular formulae
Practical Workbook Practical investigation 1.1 • Find the empirical formula of hydrated
copper(II) sulfate
Lesson starters

Place learners into small groups. Give them the formulae of a hydrated salt. For example, MgSO4.7H2O
[Mr MgSO4 = 120.4 and H2O = 18.0]. Ask the question: if you were given 1.204 g of MgSO4, what mass of
water will combine with this?
Hint: Are masses the same as numbers of moles? Ask learners to make a flow chart such as that shown in
Figure 3.3 to explain their train of thought.
Mass of Divide by No. of moles Multiply by 7 Number of Use Mass of

MgSO4 Mr, i.e. of MgSO4 (use moles of H2O m = n × Mr water
120.4 stoichiometry)
1.204 g 1.204/120.4 7 × 1 × 10–2 7 × 10–2 ×

mol = mol = 18.0 =
1 × 10–2 7 × 10–2 1.26 g
Figure 3.3
Give learners the three formulae: MgSO4.7H2O, MgSO4 and 7H2O.
Ask them to use these formulae in sentences to explain what is meant by the words anhydrous, hydrated and
water of crystallisation.
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Practical: Empirical formula of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals (20 minutes)

Introduce the practical investigation. The objective is to find the value of x in the formula CuSO4.xH2O.
The details for this practical are to be found in the Practical Workbook and the Practical Teacher’s Guide
(Practical investigation 1.1). It is also found in this Teacher’s Resource (Practical investigation 1.1).
Assessment ideas: Split the learners into practical pairs and the different masses of the hydrated salt are
allocated to each pair. Give learners time to read through the practical instructions and ask you questions
on any parts of the process they do not understand. You might need to remind them how to heat the solid
gently. The class-management processes are dealt with in the Practical Teacher’s Guide.
You can assess learners on their adherence to the procedure and how well they follow safety rules.
2 Analysis of results (20 minutes)

Collect the results. Plot the points on a graph of mass of CuSO4 (horizontal axis) against mass of
water (vertical axis). You can identify anomalous points at this stage and ignore these. Draw a straight
line of best fit through the remaining points. The strategy is in the Practical Teacher’s Guide (Practical
investigation 1.1). You could give learners the option of analysing the results using an Excel spreadsheet
and then using the charting option. Whichever option chosen, they should remember that the line of best fit
must pass through the origin. The Excel plot must also ignore anomalous points and have the line passing
through the origin. If there are some learners who take the IT option, their results could be compared with
those who plotted and drew their lines manually.
Assessment ideas: If time allows, the learners can discuss and ‘qualitatively’ evaluate the procedure. What
were the problems and why, for example, did they weigh and then reheat the compound?
The Mr of CuSO4 is approximately 160, so the mass of water that combines with 1.6 g (0.01 mol) of CuSO4
can be found from the graph.
Differentiation
•• Ask learners to calculate the percentage errors due to the apparatus they use. Errors are mainly from the
top-pan balance.
•• Suggest a better method than the one used here. For example, using an oven set to a reasonable temperature
is more accurate than using a Bunsen burner.
•• Learners can convert their masses to moles and plot the number of moles of each compound on the two axes.
Support
Give learners small masses to heat. This means their practical work will take a shorter time and will give them
more time to analyse their results.

The learners can carry out an evaluation as described in the Practical Workbook. How accurate were
their results? Can they describe the points that lie above the line (overheated) or below the line
(underheated)?
You should also ask them to explain why their graphs must pass through the origin.
Literacy
The learners have to follow written instructions to carry out the practical.
Numeracy
There are several mathematical skills needed in this lesson:
• graphical (and IT) skills
• using a formula to calculate the number of moles of water that combine with a certain number of
moles of copper(II) sulfate
• using ratios to find the whole number ratio and the value of x.
Topics 2.3.3, 2.3.4 and 2.3.5

Learners will:
•• calculate the percentage composition of a compound using relative atomic masses
•• find the empirical formula of a substance using moles
•• use the empirical formula and the relative molecular mass to find the molecular formula of a compound.

One hour

Coursebook 3.5 ‘Percentage • Use Ar values to find the percentage composition of
composition by mass’ a compound
3.5 ‘Empirical • Calculate the relative numbers of moles of elements
formulae’, Question 13 from percentage composition and hence the
empirical formula
Exam-style questions
4a and b • Deduce the molecular formula from the empirical
formula and the relative molecular or formula mass
Workbook Exercise 3.4d • Calculate empirical formulae and composition by
mass
Exercise 3.4b and c
Some learners automatically think that the molecular formula is always a multiple (>1) of the empirical formula
when, in fact, many molecular formulae are equal to the empirical formulae.
Lesson starters
Both lesson starters are referred back to during the main activities.

Learners use the Coursebook to write down the definitions of molecular and empirical formula.
Assessment ideas: Give learners the following set of instructions to find the molecular formula and ask
them to put them in the correct order:
1 Take the whole number ratio: this is the simplest ratio of atoms in the molecule to give the empirical
formula.
2 Divide the relative molecular mass by the mass of the empirical formula to give a number n.
3 Let there be 100 g of the compound.
4 Multiply the number of each atom in the empirical formula by n to give you the molecular formula.
5 Find the percentage composition of the compound.
6 Calculate the number of moles of each element by dividing their mass in the compound by their relative
atomic mass.
7 Divide by the lowest number to get the ratio of atoms of each element.
Answer: The correct order is 5, 3, 6, 7, 1, 2, 4.

Review the practical from the previous lesson and what they did to work out the formula of the hydrated
copper(II) sulfate. Once they have found the mass of water that combines with a certain mass of copper(II)
sulfate, ask how they find the ratio of one to the other.
Assessment ideas: If they had to find the empirical formula of ethene, how would they find the ratio of
atoms? Get learners to discuss this in groups and at the end of the allotted time they can report back and
explain their answers.
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Percentage composition of compounds (15 minutes)

Ask learners to work out the percentage composition of some simple compounds. The example of iron(III)
oxide given in the Coursebook (Worked example 8) is a very good example to start with.
Assessment idea: Learners can then calculate the percentage composition of some organic compounds (e.g.
ethene, benzene).
2 Empirical and molecular formulae of compounds (20 minutes)

You can now ask the learners to deduce empirical formulae. The compounds in Coursebook Worked
examples 10 and 11 can form the basis of this part of the lesson. You could use Worked example 10 to teach
the learners.
Assessment idea 1: Ask learners to do Worked example 11 and Question 12.
Coursebook Worked example 11 can then be used to work out the molecular formula from the empirical
formula and relative molecular mass. The empirical formula mass is 142 (P2O5) but the relative molecular
mass is 284. Therefore, the molecular formula = 2 × empirical formula = P4O10.
Assessment idea 2: Coursebook Chapter 3, Worked example 13 and then Question 13.
Differentiation
Give learners some more difficult empirical formulae to find, e.g. C2H6 and 1,4 dimethyl benzene (CH3C6H4CH3).
1,4 dimethyl benzene has a simple ratio of 1 : 1.25, which then reduces to 4 : 5. To set up these problems, simply
work backwards by giving the learners the percentage compositions and asking them to work out the empirical
formulae.
Support
Give learners help at the various stages and then gradually remove the support. The stages are outlined in
Section 3.5 ‘Empirical formulae’ in the Coursebook.

Ask learners to get into groups of four. They choose any compound they can think of and calculate
the percentage composition of the compound and its relative molecular or formula mass. They then
submit their compound’s percentage composition to the other groups in the class, who have to find its
empirical and molecular formulae and its chemical name.
Literacy
Learners have to order their thoughts/ideas and rationalise them when reordering the instructions in 1
Idea A.
Numeracy
They carry out several arithmetical operations in this topic.
Topics 2.4.1a, d and e

Learners will:
•• calculate the percentage yield of a chemical reaction
•• calculate reacting masses using moles
•• use the stoichiometry of an equation and moles to deduce the limiting reagent and excess reagent in a
chemical reaction.

One hour

Coursebook 3.5 ‘Percentage yield’ • Write and balance a chemical equation
3.6 ‘Chemical formulae • Calculate the amount of a substance in a
and chemical equations’ chemical reaction
3.4 ‘Amount of substance’ • Use the stoichiometry of an equation to work out
the relative numbers of moles of reactants and
3.5 ‘The stoichiometry of a products
reaction’
• Calculate the mass of substances from the
3.4 ‘Moles and mass’ number of moles required
Workbook Exam-style question 3 • Calculate percentage yields
Some learners have a problem with the use of the term stoichiometry used in this activity. It is simply the
relationship between the numbers of molecules of reactants with reactants, or reactants with products. A simple
internet search will yield video clips you can use if learners need some visual explanations.
Lesson starter
One suggestion is given here.
Idea A (5 minutes)
Ask the learners ‘How can we tell when a reaction has worked?’
‘What measurements can we use to judge if our reaction has been successful?’
‘How do we know we have got a good amount of product?’
This can be a fairly short discussion. They may come up with suggestions such as:
•• did the reaction happen as predicted?
•• did all the reactants disappear or change as expected?
•• did we see plenty of product formed?
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Reaction yield (10–15 minutes)

In a reaction we can see that we get some product, but we don’t know if all our reactants have reacted. To find
out, we must first know how much reactant we have put in and the amount of product we expect to get out.
Here is the reaction used along with the stoichiometry:
+ CuSO4(aq)
Equation: Zn(s) → Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
Stoichiometry: 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
Assessment ideas: Ask the learners to suggest ways to make sure that when zinc is added to copper(II)
sulfate solution all the zinc will react. Hopefully, they will suggest adding more than 1 mol of CuSO4 to 1
mol of zinc, or alternatively adding less than 1 mol of zinc to 1 mol of CuSO4. In this case the CuSO4 is the
excess reagent and the zinc is the limiting reagent. We can test our hypothesis.
2 Testing our hypothesis (30 minutes)

Outline the experiment to the groups/pairs.
•• We are going to add zinc metal to excess copper(II) sulfate solution. You will have 30 cm3 copper(II)
sulfate solution which contains exactly 0.03 mol (30 cm3 of 1 mol dm−3 CuSO4).
•• To make sure all the zinc reacts, the amount of copper(II) sulfate should be about three times that of
0.03
the zinc. Get them to calculate the mass of zinc required for this (mass required = = 0.01 mol of
3
zinc = 0.01 × 65.4 = 0.654 g of zinc).
Ask the learners to separate the solid copper formed from the unreacted copper(II) sulfate and make sure it
is pure, clean and dry. They can do this by washing with water and then rinsing using acetone.
They then have to calculate how much copper has been formed and if it is near to what they expected.
Assessment idea 1: Give learners 15 minutes to come up with a procedure that they think could be used.
If they are struggling with the assignment, they should be shown the apparatus and chemicals they need to
carry out the investigation. This includes some acetone that could be used to speed up the drying.
The actual procedure can then be demonstrated (unless time allows the groups to carry out their own plans).
As the demonstration proceeds, learners can be asked to come up and carry out the various steps. Learners
can also compare the method you demonstrated with your plan, and think of ways their plan could be
improved or which parts of it should be retained.
Assessment idea 2: Learners should be asked to write down comments on their method: this is an
evaluation. At the end of the lesson they can hand in their plans with their criticisms.
Differentiation
Ask them to suggest why adding excess zinc to the copper(II) sulfate would be more difficult.
Support
If the group find writing the experimental procedure difficult, they can be given some of the steps and asked to
add the missing ones.

Give learners the formula for percentage yield and then ask them to calculate the theoretical yield
given the atomic masses of zinc and copper. Note: the theoretical yield is 0.635 g (or 0.01 mol). These
calculations, the plan and its evaluation can be peer assessed in the next lesson.
Literacy
Learners will have to understand and use the terms percentage yield, excess and hypothesis.
Numeracy
The learners have to use the stoichiometries of equations and relationship between relative mass,
formula mass and number of moles.
Topic 2.4.1c
Learners will:
•• study moles in solution
•• calculate concentrations of solutions
•• Use moles and equations to calculate concentrations of solutions
•• Make up a standard solution.

One hour

Coursebook 3.7 ‘Solutions and • Work out the concentrations of solutions in g dm−3 and
concentration’, mol dm−3
Questions 20 and 21 n
• Use the formula C = to find C, n and V
v
Exam-style questions 6
and 8 • Use standard solutions in calculations
Teacher’s Practical Teacher’s Guide, • Find the percentage composition of a mixture of

Resource Practical investigation 1.3 NaHCO3 and NaCl
Workbook Exercise 3.6a and b • Calculations using solutions
Practical Practical skills section • Prepare a standard solution
Workbook
Practical investigation 1.3 • Carry out an acid–base titration
• Find the percentage composition of a mixture of
NaHCO3 and NaCl
25
The most common misconception is to not convert cm3 into dm3. For example, 25 cm3 = dm3,
i.e. V = 0.025 dm not 25 dm .
3 3 1000
Lesson starters

In the practical in the previous lesson, how did we know that the solution of copper(II) sulfate contained a
known number of moles?
The answer is ‘We knew its concentration!’ What do we understand by concentration?
Define concentration as the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 dm3 of solvent.
Assessment ideas: Put the learners into groups and ask the learners to come up with the equation for finding
the concentration using the symbols C, n and V. Once they have decided upon the formula, explain the units
for concentration, then rearrange the formula to give expressions for n and V. At the end of the time allocated,
the groups can exchange their answers with another group and discuss their answers with the other group.

In the practical in the previous lesson we knew the concentration of the copper(II) sulfate solution: it was
1 mol dm−3. Ask the learners ‘What do you think that means?’
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Calculating concentrations, number of moles and volume of a solution (20 minutes)

n
Learners write down the various combinations of the equation C = but also extend it to the mass of a
V
solute that is needed to give a certain concentration, using m = n × Mr
Question 19 in the Coursebook has questions that are appropriate here. Part b of this question can be used
to try out the formula for n that they deduced in the starter activity earlier.
Note: they can use C to represent concentration but they can also use [X] for the concentration of a
substance X. For example, the concentration of the sodium carbonate can be written as [Na2CO3].
2 Practical: Finding concentrations using titrations: making up a standard solution

(25 minutes)
You can demonstrate a titration, or learners can be guided using the photographs in the Coursebook
Practical activity 3.2 ‘Carrying out a titration’. Alternatively, an internet search on an acid–alkali or
acid–base titration will give links to video clips showing the method. Tell learners what is meant by standard
solution and why some substances are better than others for making up standard solutions.
You can then tell learners to make up a standard 0.100 mol dm−3 solution of sodium carbonate using
anhydrous sodium carbonate as a starting material.
Assessment ideas: Split the learners up into practical pairs and ask them to:
•• calculate the values in dm3 for different volumes in cm3.
•• calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate in 250 cm3 of solution and from this the mass of
sodium carbonate required (see ‘Calculating the mass of solute required’ in the Practical skills section
of the Practical Workbook).
•• make up the standard solution. The guidelines in the Practical skills section of the Practical Workbook
are very thorough. If these are followed, a suitable 0.100 mol dm−3 solution will be prepared. Learners
should make sure that their flasks are labelled and thoroughly mixed.
Differentiation
Get learners to write the balanced symbol and ionic equations for the reactions between sodium carbonate and
the hydrochloric acid.
Support
•• Provide learners with flow charts to help with both the calculation of the mass required for the standard
solution (see the flow chart (Figure P.1) in the Practical skills section of the Practical Workbook) and the
practical process for making the standard solution.
•• Demonstrate the process of making a standard solution.
•• Give them the option of using V in cm3.

Hinge-point Question 23 in the Coursebook.
Numeracy
The rearranging of formulae and conversion of cm3 into dm3.
Topic 2.4.1c
Learners will:
•• calculate concentrations and volumes of solution
•• titrate an acid against a standard alkali
•• use moles and equations to calculate concentrations of solutions and amounts of substances
•• study stoichiometry of reaction using titrations.

One hour

Coursebook 3.7 ‘Calculating • Calculate the number of moles of reactants from
solution concentration solution concentrations
by titration’
• Use the stoichiometry of equations to calculate the
3.7 ‘Solutions and number of moles of reactants
concentration’,
Questions 20 and 21 • Record titration results in an appropriate table
• Carry out rough and accurate titrations
• Analyse results and express these appropriately
Workbook Exercise 3.6b and • Calculate the number of moles of reactants from
Exam-style question 1 solution concentrations
• Use the stoichiometry of equations to calculate the
number of moles of reactants
Practical Workbook Practical skills section • Describe how to carry out a titration: good and bad
practice
Unless it is explained, the learners might think a rough titration is a ‘just about right’ titration.
Lesson starter
Idea A (10 minutes)

The equation for the titration is given to the learners.
Assessment ideas: Ask learners to calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate in 25 cm3 of their
standard solution.
Then they should use the equation (Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2) to calculate the number of moles
of HCl that react with this amount of sodium carbonate.
If they carry out the titration and find the volume of hydrochloric acid, ask them how they can work out the
concentration of the hydrochloric acid.
This set of calculations prepares the learners for the practical that follows.
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 The titration procedure (15 minutes)

Explain the titration procedure to the learners.
Assessment ideas:
•• Ask ‘What is the point of doing a rough titration?’
•• Ask why a burette reading of 25.52 cm3 is wrong but 25.55 cm3 is perfectly okay.
•• Ask ‘Why is a wet conical flask okay, but a burette which is wet with distilled water must be rinsed with
acid before the practical?’
•• Ask ‘Why is an indicator necessary for the titration and what is the end-point for the titration?’
2 Practical: Finding concentrations using titrations: carrying out a titration

(25 minutes)
The learners carry out the titration. If they work in pairs, they must share the work because this is an
essential skill and they both need to be capable of doing it in the practical exam.
Assessment ideas: They can be assessed on:
•• their ability to observe the end-point and not under- or overshoot.
•• recording their results to the correct degree of accuracy: usually 2 decimal places if the burette reads to
±0.05 cm3.
•• the correct use of a rough titration. This means that if they obtain a rough titration value of 26.00 cm3,
for example, then when they carry out the accurate titrations they run the acid quickly from the burette
to 25.00 cm3 and then add the acid slowly, one drop at a time until the end-point is reached.
•• careful titration near the end-point.
•• use of their results from the titration to calculate the number of moles of acid in a given volume and
hence its concentration.
Differentiation
Teacher’s Resource Practical investigation 1.7: Finding the concentration of a calcium hydroxide solution. They
can be asked to write the plan for this. This assesses their ability to use stoichiometry of a reaction, the numbers
of moles required for the reaction and the use of concentrations to calculate amounts of substance.
Support
They can be given an exemplar results table and use it to inform themselves how to fill in their own table.

Let us suppose we did not know the equation for the reaction but did know the formulae of the
reactants and their concentrations.
There are two possible reactions that could take place:
A Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2 and
B Na2CO3 + HCl → NaHCO3 + NaCl
Using their results, how do they know it was the second reaction that took place? For example, as
[Na2CO3] was 0.100 mol dm−3 and 25 cm3 were used, the number of moles n = C × V = 0.100 × 25 ×
10−3 mol = 2.5 × 10−3 mol.
CONTINUED
Also, if the [HCl] was 0.220 mol dm−3 and the volume required in the reaction was 22.75 cm3, then the
number of moles of HCl = 0.22 × 22.75 × 10−3 = 5.01 × 10−3 mol.
Therefore, in the reaction the ratio of Na2CO3 : HCl is 2.5 × 10−3 : 5.01 × 10−3 = 1 : 2, so A is the correct
equation.
Literacy
They have to read instructions and use technical terms such as stoichiometry, titre and end-point.
Numeracy
They continue to use various formulae and rearrange them, calculate averages and understand the
accuracy of the burette reading.
Topic 2.4.1b
Learners will:
•• study molar volumes of gases
•• study the stoichiometry of reactions from gas volumes
•• deduce the molecular formula of a hydrocarbon using volumes of gases.

One hour

Coursebook 3.8 ‘Calculations • Calculate molar volumes of gases: from volumes to
involving gas moles and vice versa
volumes’, Question 22
• Deduce the stoichiometry of equations using gas
Exam-style questions volumes
3e and f, and 7c
3.8 ‘Gas volumes • Deduce the molecular formula of hydrocarbons using gas
and stoichiometry’, volumes
Question 23
Workbook Exercise 3.5 • Do calculations involving gas volumes
Some learners misinterpret the number of moles for the number of atoms. For example, Cl2 is 1 mol not 2.
Lesson starters

Put an upturned 1 dm3 measuring cylinder full of water in a large trough. Blow up a balloon in front of the
learners. Ask ‘How can I tell how much gas is in the balloon?’ The learners suggest ways. Whatever they
suggest, you let the gas out of the balloon by holding the neck underneath the measuring cylinder so that
the gas displaces the water to give a reading of the gas volume. Then do a quick calculation:
V in dm3
Number of moles of gas in balloon =
24
Number of gas particles = n × NA
Hopefully, questions will follow like ‘How did you know that?’ and ‘What new formula have we got to learn
now?
Then tell learners that 1 mol of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure, and give them
the formula for V (i.e. V = n × 24 dm3 or V = n × 24 000 cm3). Individually, they then use the formula to
calculate the volume of n mol of gas and the number of moles of gas in V dm3 or cm3.

Tell learners that 1 mol of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at room temperature (20 °C) and pressure
(1 atmosphere), which is known as RTP.
Ask them to write the equation for the volume of n mol of gas at RTP. They should do this for the volume
in dm3 and cm3. Individually, they then use the formula to calculate the volume of n mol of gas and the
number of moles of gas in V dm3 or cm3.
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Reacting volumes of gases and formulae of hydrocarbons (25 minutes)

Give learners the description of Avogadro’s hypothesis, i.e. that equal volumes of gases under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
How can we know this to be true? Use the kinetic theory of gases to explain this hypothesis.
What use is this? Well if we know the volumes of gases that react, we can then work out the number of
moles of the gas that react.
The Coursebook has some examples that can be used; others are easily constructed. For example, 100 cm3
of methane reacts with 200 cm3 of oxygen to give 100 cm3 of carbon dioxide and 200 cm3 of water:
__CH4 + __O2 → __CO2 + ___H2O

Volume of gas 100 cm3 200 cm3 100 cm3 200 cm3
Number of moles of gas N mol 2N mol N mol 2N mol
(let 100 cm3 contain N moles of gas)
Divide through by N 1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
Final equation CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Assessment ideas: This is quite simple and needs only a few examples. The alternative is to use the balanced
symbol equation to find the volumes of reacting gases.
Question 23 is a good question to set at this stage. Any work can be self-assessed.
2 Relating formulae of hydrocarbons to the volumes of gases in the equation (20 minutes)
The next step is to use reacting volumes to find the formula of a hydrocarbon. Worked example 26 in the
Coursebook is a good example to use. At this stage, put learners into groups to discuss the links between the
reacting volumes and the formula of the hydrocarbon. For example, if the formula is CxHy and this is 1 volume,
then the number of moles of CO2 formed when the hydrocarbon burns in excess oxygen is equal to x. The
1 1
number of moles of water formed is y. From this the number of moles of oxygen is equal to x + y.
2 4
Assessment ideas: Give learners a little time to work this out and then ask them to make up their own
question. You can allocate a different hydrocarbon to each group and then ask them to devise their question.
Learners who need more support can be provided with writing frames to help them set up their question.
At the end of the exercise, groups can put their question into the collection and other groups are asked
to answer the question and find the formula of the unknown hydrocarbon. Each question should start
with: __cm3 of a hydrocarbon CxHy . . .
Differentiation
Use PV = nRT to find the volume in dm3 of 1 mol of gas. R = 8.31 J K−1 mol−1, T = 20 °C (convert to absolute
temperature), P = 1.01 × 105 Pa, and V is in m3 (1 m3 = 103 dm3).

Hinge-point Question 26 on ethene in the Coursebook. Note: they have to use two formulae here.
Numeracy
Learners need to understand ratios to do these questions.
Topics 2.4.1a and b

This is a synoptic lesson because it brings together different areas of the topic and requires their use to solve a
problem.
Learners will:
•• calculate reacting masses using moles
•• calculate relative atomic mass
•• describe the stoichiometry of reactions from gas volumes
•• calculate numbers of moles of a gas from its volume.

One hour

Coursebook 3.8 ‘Gas volumes • Do calculations involving gas volumes
and stoichiometry’
3.4 ‘Moles and mass’ • Find relative atomic mass from n and m
3.1 ‘Relative atomic • Identify reacting masses and the stoichiometry of a
mass, Ar’ chemical reaction
Teacher’s Practical Teacher’s • React known masses of magnesium with acid and
Resource Guide, Practical use molar volumes to find the number of moles of
investigation 1.2 magnesium and hence its relative atomic mass
Workbook Exercise 3.5b N/A
Practical Practical investigation • React known masses of magnesium with acid and
Workbook 1.2 use molar volumes to find the number of moles of
magnesium and hence its relative atomic mass
Lesson starter
Idea A (15 minutes)

The starter activity here needs to be introducing the practical and explaining the apparatus used.
The method is described in detail in the Practical Workbook: the Practical skills section and Practical
investigation 1.2.
The reaction is Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The magnesium reacts and forms H2 gas, the volume of which is measured using a gas syringe or by
displacement of water. Using the stoichiometry of the reaction, 1 mol of Mg forms 1 mol of H2. So if we know
the volume of H2 and hence the number of moles of H2 we know the number of moles of Mg. The relative
m
atomic mass of Mg is found from the equation Ar = n
In the practical, each group carries out the investigation on four different masses of Mg, and measurements are
repeated. The mass of Mg is very small and therefore difficult to weigh accurately. To overcome this, 10 cm of
Mg ribbon is cleaned and weighed and cut into 0.50 cm, 1.00 cm, 1.50 cm and 2.00 cm lengths of the ribbon.
The mass of each length is estimated from that of the 10 cm length. For example, if the 10 cm length weighs
1.5
0.160 g then 1.5 cm of Mg mass = × 0.160 g = 0.024 g.
10
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Practical: Relative atomic mass of magnesium using molar volumes (25 minutes)
The groups should try to carry out at least six determinations.
This is Practical investigation 1.2 in the Practical Workbook and Practical Teacher’s Guide. These give
detailed instructions on the method to use.
Assessment idea: Groups can be assessed on their adherence to safety procedures and the accuracy of their
determinations.
2 Analysis of results (15 minutes)

Learners should plot a graph of mass of Mg (horizontal axis = independent variable) against the volume of
gas produced (vertical axis = dependent variable). The graph can be drawn using the Excel charting option.
They can complete the graph and for homework:

•• find the mass of Mg that produces 24 cm3 of H2, i.e. 0.001 (1 × 10−3) mol
m
•• using Ar = n , calculate the relative atomic mass of Mg.
Differentiation
Support
The learners can be shown how the results for one determination can be used to determine the Ar for magnesium.

The learners reflect on what they have learned in this lesson. Are they more confident about the use of
the different formulae and relationships?
Numeracy
Graphical (IT skills if Excel used) skills are necessary, as is analysis of the line obtained.
Topics 2.1.1 to 2.4.1

Learners will:
reflect on Chapter 3 of the Coursebook. All the material earlier and the links in the Topic teaching plan at the
start of this chapter will apply.

One hour
Hopefully, these should become apparent in the class discussions.
Lesson starters

Learners need to evaluate what they did in the previous lesson and to reflect on their results, because it was
a synoptic exercise. (A detailed evaluation of the errors involved in the Practical Workbook is not necessary,
nor possible in the time allowed.)
Did the results from the learners who drew their graph by hand differ from those who used Excel? How
close to the actual value were their results?

The practical groups from the last lesson are paired together with other groups and discuss with them
what they found difficult about the practical. Was it the practical work itself or the theory behind it?
Each discussion group should write down their thoughts/findings. At the end of this process, learners can
come together and explain their findings and conclusions.
Main activities
class’s needs.
1 Brainstorming (15 minutes)

The learners take part in a brainstorming session on the topics covered in the chapter. If they feel more
confident to do this in groups and report back, then it can be done this way.
The more difficult topics can then be reviewed and what made them difficult discussed.
2 Exam questions and mark schemes (40 minutes)

Learners work through some relevant exam questions and/or questions from the Coursebook or Workbook.
Assessment ideas: After attempting the question(s) learners can be given the relevant mark scheme and asked
to mark their work. Mark schemes need to be interpreted and explained before they can be put into practice.
The learners need to take note that marks are awarded for showing their working. If the question is a numerical
one then if they get the wrong answer they can still get credit for the steps that led up to it. Did some of their
answers fit the criteria of the answer or were they too vague, too brief, etc? If you feel that the learners have
really mastered the topics, then you can present them with a question and ask them to construct a mark scheme
of their own and then compare it with the one provided by the exam board.
Differentiation
Learners can be presented with data from Practical investigation 1.4 in the Practical Workbook, on the relative
atomic mass of calcium using two different methods. They can be asked to provide the two answers. This is a
continuation and extension of the exercise for magnesium.
Support
Present learners with questions that are simple recall, such as definitions. If this is successful, then gradually
increase the difficulty.

In the short time available you may ask learners what they feel they need to do about the very
important topics in this chapter. Do they need another ‘synoptic’ lesson, or should they revisit the
topics as separate lessons, or should you incorporate the concepts learned here into other topics
wherever possible?
Literacy
The interpretation of the mark schemes requires learners to translate some technical terms into more
user-friendly language.
Numeracy
Many numeracy skills are practised during the topic, such as rearranging formula and use of units.

Teaching Notes Chapter 3 Asal Chemistry

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CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL CHEMISTRY: TEACHER’S RESOURCE

3 Atoms, moles and

Topic teaching plan

Syllabus Number of Outline of lesson content Resources

Explain the terms ‘hydrated’, 3.2 ‘Hydrated and anhydrous compounds’

Use the empirical formula and Workbook: Exercise 3.4b,c and d

Syllabus Number of Outline of lesson content Resources

Stoichiometry of reaction using

Syllabus Number of Outline of lesson content Resources

Topics 2.1.1 and 2.2.1

Suggested teaching time:

Links to other components in this series

Component Resource Description

1 Idea A (10–15 minutes)

2 Idea B (10–15 minutes)

1 Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass (15 minutes)

2 Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass (20 minutes)

WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS

Topics 2.3.1 and 2.3.2

Suggested teaching time:

Links to other components in this series

1 Idea A (10 minutes)

2 Idea B (10 minutes)

1 Writing chemical formulae (20 minutes)

2 Balancing equations (25 minutes)

WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS

Topics 2.3.2a and b

Suggested teaching time:

Links to other components in this series

1 Idea A (10 minutes)

2 Idea B (10 minutes)

Emphasise the removal of spectator ions from the equation.

1 Practical: Investigate reactions that involve ionic equations (25 minutes)

Reaction and comments Ionic equation

2 Understanding reactions and writing ionic equations (15 minutes)

WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS

Suggested teaching time:

Links to other components in this series

1 Idea A (10–15 minutes)

2 Idea B (10 minutes)

1 Masses and numbers of moles (25 minutes)

2 Calculate numbers of particles and numbers of moles (15 minutes)

WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS

Y To make Y the subject of

flip this over

Topics 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5 and 2.4.1a

Suggested teaching time:

Links to other components in this series

1 Idea A (10 minutes)

Mass of Divide by No. of moles Multiply by 7 Number of Use Mass of

1.204 g 1.204/120.4 7 × 1 × 10–2 7 × 10–2 ×

1 Practical: Empirical formula of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals (20 minutes)

2 Analysis of results (20 minutes)

WRAP UP AND REFLECTION IDEAS

Topics 2.3.3, 2.3.4 and 2.3.5

Suggested teaching time:

Links to other components in this series

1 Idea A (20 minutes)

2 Idea B (20 minutes)

CH4 + O2 → CO2 + _H2O