Marshall G.S. Hodgson Rethinking World History-Cambridge University Press (2014)
Marshall G.S. Hodgson Rethinking World History-Cambridge University Press (2014)
Marshall G.S. Hodgson Rethinking World History-Cambridge University Press (2014)
MARSHALL G. S. HODGSON
Edited, with an Introduction and Conclusion by
EDMUND BURKE, III
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Typeset in Palatino
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
1
I discuss the provenance of the essays included in this book in the introduction which
follows.
vii
viii Editor's preface
Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System, 2 vols. (New York: Academic Press,
1974, 1977); Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789-1848 and The Age of Reform,
1848-1875 (New York: New American Library 1962, 1975); Eric Wolf, Europe and the People
Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); Andre Gunder Frank,
World Accumulation, 1492-1789 (New York: Monthly Review Press 1978); Samir Amin,
Unequal Development (New York: Frank 1976).
ix
x Introduction: Marshall G.S. Hodgson and world history
son was concerned with locating the history of the civilization he called
Islamic in the context both of West Asian history and of all of prior
human history. "Mankind is the only ultimately tenable field of dis-
course of all human inquiry and consideration of meaningfulness," he
remarks at one point. Anything less might permit Eurocentric and pres-
entist biases to distort the basis of the inquiry. For this reason as well, he
compared the development of Islamic civilization at particular points in
its history with the history of Western European civilization the better to
defuse the incipient European exceptionalism which has marked most
orientalist writings about Islam.
Among Hodgson's earliest writings (1941) is an essay (written at the
age of 19) outlining a new conceptual approach to world history. For the
next 25 years he continually reworked this early piece, which went
through a number of different forms, always changing, always deepen-
ing.5 Over the years that followed, Hodgson's thoughts on how to
reconceptualize world history and the place of Europe in it were pub-
lished in a number of seminal articles. Others were included in The
Venture of Islam. Versions of these essays and others that he did not live
to complete were to be included in his unpublished manuscript, "The
Unity of World History."
Because of the way Hodgson worked, his unpublished book-length
work, "The Unity of World History," has not yet found a publisher. (He
constantly revised this manuscript, publishing parts in articles or borrow-
ing them for The Venture.) Much of what he has to say on the shape of
World History Course/7 Journal of World History I, 1 (1990), 23-76, which includes some
important pages on what might be called the "Chicago school" of world historians: Louis
Gottschalk, L. S. Stravrianos, and William McNeill (though in fact much separates the
approaches of the three men).
5 The Hodgson papers at the Department of Special Collections of the Joseph Regenstein
Library at The University of Chicago allow us to follow this evolution in detail. The essay
published here as Chapter 3, "World History and a World Outlook," which dates from
1944, was the first published expression of his distinctive approach to world history. In
1945, inspired by the title of an article by Margaret Cameron, he planned to call his world
history "There Is No Orient." Its purpose was to be "to combat western provincialism."
Later, in 1955, he spoke of what he called My Epic History: "I have in mind something on
the order of the Divina Commedia, an imaged world-view like Milton or Ibn Arabi, i.e.,
epic or occult with the hope it might displace works such a Toynbee's." In October i960
he referred to the book as "The Structure of World History: an Essay on Medieval and
Modern Eurasia." By 1962, the chapter outline resembled the table of contents of his
eventual "Unity of World History" unpublished manuscript (the last three chapters of
which are reprinted in the present volume). World federalism, for which he had a
youthful affection, gradually dropped by the wayside, as did the romantic enthusiasm of
casting it in the form of an epic. By examining the gradual transformtions of the project
over the period from its inception, we see the maturing of a young scholar into an
established professional.
xii Introduction: Marshall G.S. Hodgson and world history
6
"The Interrelations of Societies in History/' Comparative Studies in Societies and History, V
(1963), 227-250. An earlier version of this article was published in Cahiers d'histoire
mondiale/Journal of World History I (1954), 715-723. (Both articles are themselves rework-
ings of Hodgson's 1941 unpublished letter, written while he was an undergraduate at
The University of Chicago.) His unpublished "Unity of World History" manuscript from
which we have excerpted chapters 11-13, included in this volume) itself derives from this
precocious piece.
Introduction: Marshall G.S. Hodgson and world history xiii
*4 Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978). See also Hichem Djait, Europe and
Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Malcolm Kerr (ed.), Islamic Studies:
A Tradition and Its Problems (Santa Monica: Undena Publications, 1980); Bryan S. Turner,
Marx and the End of Orientalism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1978); and Jean-Claude Vatin,
Connaissances du Maghreb: Sciences sociales et colonisation (Paris: C.N.R.S., 1984).
Introduction: Marshall G.S. Hodgson and world history xv
*7 Chicago Today (1967), 40-50. It is included here as Chapter 4 in its final version, that
found in The Venture of Islam (Book 6, Chap. 1).
Introduction: Marshall G.S. Hodgson and world history xix
what might have happened had it done so. Similarly, if modernity had
first emerged in Islamdom, Hodgson suggests, the egalitarian and cos-
mopolitan tendencies of modern society would have been heightened.
But instead of occurring within the chrysallis of the nation-state (a form
tied to the Western experience), the modern world would be character-
ized by an egalitarian universal state under the aegis of a super-ulama
and a super-shariah.
The fact that the Industrial Revolution occurred in Western Europe
was, to be sure, freighted with consequences for the future. New pat-
terns of social investment and a new mentality (which he calls techni-
calism) led to a breakthrough to fundamentally new levels of social
power. By the end of the sixteenth century, these changes had so far
altered Western European society as to move it to a new level - though
what this might mean in actuality was only gradually to be worked out.
Hodgson broke with the modernization paradigm in seeing that mo-
dernity was from the outset a global process. While the West was the
epicenter of these changes, once having occurred somewhere, condi-
tions for development were fundamentally transformed everywhere.
Even states like Afghanistan, Thailand, and Morocco, which fell under
the looming shadow of the West only late in the game, were in important
ways affected by these changes beginning in the sixteenth century. (Here
Hodgson anticipates Eric Wolf's observation that the isolated peasant
village so dear to anthropologists was in fact a trope. Wolf argues that
upon investigation, even the most remote village was affected by the
emerging world economy and Western-dominated system of states.)
An important aspect of Hodgson's reevaluation of modernity is his
insistence that in historical time it is the discontinuities and not the
continuities of Western history which are most striking. He notes that
the ascending curve which runs from ancient Greece, to the Renais-
sance, to modern times is an optical illusion. In fact, he argues, for most
of history Europe was an insignificant outlier of mainland Asia. Further-
more, he notes, the Renaissance did not inaugurate modernity. Instead,
it brought Europe up to the cultural level of the other major civilizations
of the Oikoumene. It did so in some measure by assimilating the ad-
vances of the other Asian civilizations. The list of inventions which
developed elsewhere and diffused subsequently to Europe is a long one.
It includes gunpowder firearms, the compass, the sternpost rudder, deci-
mal notation, and the university, among others. Seen in this light, the
European experience looks much less original. This is not to deny that
there were original European developments. But in the context of three
millennia of agrarianate citied life in the Afro-Eurasian Oikoumene,
xx Introduction: Marshall G.S. Hodgson and world history
there was a tendency for civilizations to achieve a rough parity with one
another as cultural innovations diffused throughout the Oikoumene.
There is a deep tension in Hodgson's thought between his tendency to
view modernity as a world historical process and as linked to particular
cultural trends deeply rooted in the West. "Just as an understanding of
the history of Europe cannot be reduced to that of the history of England
because industrialization first developed there, so the history of the
world cannot be reduced to the history of the West, because industrial-
ism first spread there." This tension may be seen best in his concepts of
the Great Western Transmutation and technicalism. In his theory, these con-
cepts distinguish the agrarian age from the modern age. They are what
characterizes our time from all that came before it. Modernity, for Hodg-
son, was linked to the increasing spread of technical specialization
across the entire band of citied societies from the sixteenth-century emer-
gence of gunpowder firearm weapons. As innovations accumulated,
especially in the West, the result was a qualitative change in the level
and kind of human social organization. This shift he likens to that which
civilization underwent at Sumer in the emergence of agrarianate citied
life. It was this new cultural attitude, and not industrialization, which
was the hallmark of the modern age. (Denmark, he explains, is indubita-
bly modern, yet predominantly agricultural.)
Hodgson's emphasis upon the formative role of culture - and his com-
mitment to the civilizational approach - is apparent in his use of the
concept of technicalism. Technicalism is "a condition of calculative . . .
technical specialization in which the several specialties are interdepen-
dent on a large enough scale to determine patterns of expectation in the
key sectors of society." While this cultural tendency may be found else-
where, only in the West did the effort to maximize technical efficiency
become exalted above other values. When Hodgson developed this idea
in the 1950s, it seemed a helpful gloss on Weber's rationalization. In the
1980s, its defects are apparent. By turns overly abstract, single-mindedly
culturalist, and Eurocentric, technicalism seems to us a conceptual tool
of rather limited utility. In the wake of recent work emphasizing the
broad patterns in global social and economic change over what the
French call la longue duree, the limitations of Hodgson's thought are
apparent. Because it focuses upon culture, the civilizational approach
favored by Hodgson has only a tenuous grasp on the crucially important
long-range demographic, economic, and social transformations which
accompanied (perhaps even preceded) the onset of the modern age.
In sum, Hodgson's effort to situate the rise of the West in a global
context had a rather mixed result. In some respects, his conceptual in-
Introduction: Marshall G.S. Hodgson and world history xxi
It has been long pointed out that the destinies of the various sections of
mankind began to be interrelated long before the twentieth century, with
its global wars and cold wars; or even the nineteenth century, the cen-
tury of European world hegemony. Here we will study certain of the
historical ways in which these destinies were intertwined; in this way we
may distinguish more valid modes of tracing large-scale history and of
comparing the societies involved in it, from a number of popular but
unsound modes of trying to do so. I shall speak mostly of the ages before
modern times, noting only briefly at the end of the paper certain crucial
ways in which modern interrelations among human societies have been
different from earlier ones.
This paper was delivered originally as a lecture at the downtown College of the University
of Chicago in a series on "The Idea of Mankind/' sponsored by the Committee for the
Study of Mankind. It contains a sketch of ideas which the writer hopes to substantiate
more fully; meanwhile, it constitutes an advance over the writer's "Hemispheric In-
terregional History as an Approach to World History/' in Cahiers d'histoire mondiale, Vol. I
(1954)/ PP- 7*5-723.
4 I Europe in a global context
world map in fact is not that it distorts the shape of North America, nor
even that it shows Greenland so large - our conception of Greenland
makes little difference. Rather, it is that it shows India so small, and
Indonesia, and all Africa. (I call such a world map the "Jim Crow projec-
tion" because it shows Europe as larger than Africa.)
nian languages changed, much cultural lore was carried over from one
period to the next. In the vast domain of Indie tradition east and south
from the Hindu-Kush range, the Indus and Ganges valleys formed a
somewhat similar core; there the Sanskrit and Pali languages developed,
which became classical as far away as Cambodia and Java. Finally, the
Hoang-Ho and Yangtze valleys in China formed a fourth creative core-
area, from which cultural influences spread to an ever-increasing dis-
tance in all directions, within a constantly expanding China and beyond
it to such lands as Japan and Vietnam.
Western scholars, at least since the nineteenth century, have tried to
find ways of seeing this Afro-Eurasian zone of civilization as composed
of distinct historical worlds, which can be fully understood in them-
selves, apart from all others. Their motives for this have been complex,
but one convenient result of such a division would be to leave Europe, or
even Western Europe, an independent division of the whole world, with
a history that need not be integrated with that of the rest of mankind
save on the terms posed by European history itself. But such attempts, if
pressed consistently, leave us with a false notion of both world history
and even European history. For even among the four great nuclear re-
gions, the cleavages were not decisive enough to sustain such an inter-
pretation. A brief survey of some of the more obvious cleavages will
enable us to assess their significance.
If one tried to group these great cultural regions so as to divide the
whole of the Afro-Eurasian historical complex into two portions (which
is not often seriously attempted), the least useful division would be one
in which Europe formed one portion, the "West," and the other three
formed a second portion, the "East"; for the cleavage between Europe
and its nearest neighbors was unusually slight. The lands north of the
Mediterranean were always very closely linked with those of the Fertile
Crescent and Iran. I have listed the Anatolian peninsula (the western
half of the present Turkish Republic) as part of Europe, since it was one
of the chief formative centers of Greek culture, and has always shared
the fortunes of the Balkan peninsula; but it is commonly listed as part of
the Middle East, and not entirely without reason. The Mediterranean
Basin formed a historical whole not only under the Roman empire but
before and since; even at the height of the Middle Ages a land like Sicily
brought together creatively Greek, Arab, and Latin. Greek thought be-
came an integral element in the Middle Eastern tradition, while Middle
Eastern religion had a central place in European life.
A somewhat sharper division existed before Europe and the Middle
East on the one hand and the Indie lands on the other. Greeks and Arabs,
io I Europe in a global context
Latins and Persians, have had much the same reaction to India, in medi-
eval times, finding it alien to a degree that they have not found each other
alien. The Hindu-Kush and the Baluchistan desert formed a more serious
barrier than the Taurus. Yet even so the constant thriving trade between
the Middle East and India was reflected in important cultural exchanges,
which reinforced the fact of a partly common background. For, long be-
fore the coming of the Indo-Europeans assured a common origin to the
languages and myths of India, Iran, and Greece, the Indus Valley civiliza-
tion had been closely linked with that of Mesopotamia.
The greatest breach in continuity was between China on the one hand
and the Indian, Middle Eastern, and Mediterranean lands on the other.
The Himalayas were more effective even than the Hindu-Kush. Until
modern times, direct contact was usually limited to mercantile expedi-
tions. Alexander invaded both Greece and the Punjab; the Turk, Timur,
campaigned in Russia and on the Gangetic plain; but though Timur
dreamed of China, he could scarcely have reached it. Yet the Mongol
armies at one point mastered much of China and at the same time won
victories in Germany, in Iran, and on the Indus. As we know, Buddhism,
originating in India, colored deeply the life of China and Japan; while
numerous important inventions, among them gunpowder, the compass,
paper, and printing, apparently came at various times from China to the
Middle East and so to India and Europe.
As Eurasian history is studied, it becomes clear that these interrelations
were not purely external, accidental cultural borrowings and influences
among independent societies. They reflect sequences of events and cul-
tural patterns shading into each other on all cultural levels. The four
nuclear regions are imperfect historical abstractions. All regions formed
together a single great historical complex of cultural developments.
'Till modern times, the four core-areas were the most creative centers;
but there were always lesser creative centers beyond them, such as
Tibet; and the core-areas themselves cannot always be taken as units.
Very early the cultural traditions of the western and eastern Mediterra-
nean regions began to be distinguished, 'till finally Greek and Latin,
Orthodox and Catholic, developed relatively independently of each
other. Iran and Central Eurasia often seemed to have had their own
history apart from the Fertile Crescent and Egypt. Northern and south-
ern India presented a major contrast to each other. Finally, there is no
point where the sort of differences that existed between the great regions
could be decisively distinguished from the sort of differences that existed
between particular nations. Yet all our modern serious attempts at under-
standing world history are based on all the assumptions of a series of
i The interrelations of societies in history 11
distinct societies, distinct culture worlds, each with its own inner unity
and with only external relations to the others. Universalizing efforts,
such as that of Ranke, are only seeming exceptions, based on optical
illusions which made Europe seem the world, and all other regions
isolated and parochial.
As we consider the origins of the great civilizations, it will become
evident both why it is impossible to draw any sharp lines within the
Afro-Eurasian historical complex, and why none the less historians con-
stantly try to draw such sharp lines. As we know, literary culture arose
very nearly at the same time, but in different (though usually urban)
forms, in the Indus, the Tigris-Euphrates, and the Nile valleys and proba-
bly somewhat later in the Hoang-Ho and other less independent places
such as Crete. This process seems to have had a common, interdepen-
dent development at least from the Indus to the Aegean; that is, in the
areas which became the subsequent cores of the Indian, Middle Eastern,
and European traditions. Some sort of Neolithic life had been wide-
spread for some time; when it once crystallized into urban, literate forms
in one place, it did so in many; and then rapidly spread over wide
regions. It was only when developing civilization had come to a certain
point - at about the same time in the main centers of the Afro-Eurasian
zone - that the great regional traditions can come to be distinguished.
They grew out of a relative breakdown of the local cultural traditions in a
more cosmopolitan setting, into which many local strains had intermin-
gled, from the Aegean to the Indus valley. The distinction among the
different great regions was secondary, and based largely on accidents
not only of geography but of history, even from the start.
This point is supported by the fact that in the marginal areas, such as
Central Eurasia, where influences from the several core-areas over-
lapped, the culture cannot be reduced to a mixture of those of the main
cultural regions. Commonly, all areas had their own traditions reaching
back into Neolithic times, and forming directly an integral part of the
broader Eurasian cultural whole. The French have emphasized this in
the case of ancient Gaul; it is equally true of Malaysia or of Central
Eurasia. In the Oxus-Jaxartes valleys, no doubt Semitic-Iranian influ-
ences had the greatest sway of any from outside; the writing systems
came from the Fertile Crescent, for instance. For long periods, again, the
Oxus-Jaxartes region was linked with northern India both politically and
to a large degree in religion, literature, and the arts. Buddhism flour-
ished there (it was from there that it came most readily to China). Chi-
nese influence was strong recurrently, not only when the area was under
Chinese political domination. Even Hellenism flourished there for a pe-
12 I Europe in a global context
riod. Yet the history of the Oxus-Jaxartes basin possesses its own continu-
ity over time; it cannot be read simply as a function of the history of the
several great cultural regions. Moreover, the historical context in which
its history makes sense can be nothing less than the whole Eurasian
civilized zone.
tions on the one hand and by the general cultural level of the civilized
zone on the other.
When historians speak of civilizations or societies, in such connec-
tions, they are usually referring primarily to certain limited, if very
important, aspects of civilized life. Normally, before modern times, a
given area was indeed associated, at any given time, much more closely
with some neighboring areas than with others. These associations have
been of three main types, political, literary, and religious. The political
associations have usually been relatively transient, and only rarely come
into consideration here except as reinforced by literary and religious
associations.
In the early days of civilization, each language area seems to have
developed with relative autonomy from every other; but fairly early
certain languages came to be recognized as unusually rich in cultural
values, and were cultivated as cultural languages even by peoples which
did not use them as the vernacular. Thus Sumerian and Babylonian came
to be classical languages for the Fertile Crescent and to some degree of
deference to that classical tradition formed in some sense a single civiliza-
tion. They possessed common terms of reference and common stan-
dards; and sometimes the recognition of a classical literary tradition
carried with it varying degrees of common legal forms, common political
ideas, common artistic patterns. This became especially true by the end
of the first millennium B.C., when local cultural traditions within the
main geographical regions had been largely submerged.
But by the Middle Ages, the rise of the religions of salvation had
established bonds which were as strong as, or even stronger than, those
of literary tradition; such bonds sometimes cut right across the lines of
literary association. In the regions from Europe to India, religious affilia-
tion became more important than literary, and peoples came to be linked
together as Christian or Zoroastrian or Buddhist, rather than as using
Greek or Cuneiform or Sanskrit. In China and the Far East, religious
affiliation was eventually outbalanced by literary affiliation, and Chinese
society was ruled in the end in the name of the Confucian classics rather
than of Buddhist or Taoist faith. In any case, on the "high cultural" level
most educated men found themselves associated with a given lettered
tradition, "literary" or religious, normally to the exclusion of any others.
The importance of such groupings for the development of human life
can hardly be overestimated, particularly for that of the ideal and the
imaginative life, religion, art, belles-lettres, and even law and political
and social institutions. To some degree even the life of the peasant was
molded by the ideals set forth in the lettered tradition cultivated by the
14 I Europe in a global context
educated elite of his area. But it is not because of any implications for
peasant life, but because of literary and philological implications, that
historians have concentrated attention on them. They are indeed the
central concern of a humanistic historian. But in the course of giving
them almost exclusive attention, many historians have misinterpreted
them; they have absolutized these lettered traditions into "historical
worlds" to an illegitimate degree.
Such societies were never closed wholes; there were always fields of
activity, even important fields, that were but superficially molded by the
central tradition in question. As in the case of the geographical regions
on which they were often based, there were always territories where
two or more traditions competed, and actual life, even on the high
cultural level, was a synthesis of diverse elements. These were not
anomalies, as our theorists have tended to count them. Indeed, different
sorts of lettered tradition mingled in different degrees in given societies.
Thus it is possible to regard Byzantine life on the one hand as a continua-
tion of the ancient Greek culture and on the other hand as part of a
Christian complex, wider in area, but more restricted in time. Reveal-
ingly, there existed lesser lettered traditions of the same basic sort, which
had less extensive effects, but cut across other lines. Thus the society
formed by the Platonic-Aristotelian philosophers, clinging to a particular
strand of the Greek literary tradition, cut across the lines formed by
Christianity, Islam, and Judaism; these philosophers lived lives largely
molded by their common philosophical heritage, and often had more in
common with each other than with any of their respective religious
groups. More tenuous, but perhaps even more important, was the in-
terregional tradition of natural science, originating in Babylonian and
Greek writing, taken up in Sanskrit and later in Arabic, and transmitted
still later to Chinese and Latin - a vigorous tradition of wide implica-
tions, which cut across all the main cultural lines of the Afro-Eurasian
zone.
Islam was the community which succeeded perhaps most strongly in
building for itself a total society, demarcated sharply from all culture
before and beyond its limits. Though it appeared relatively late in Eur-
asian history, as the religions go, it developed its own system of com-
prehensive law - where the Christian communities took over pagan
Roman law. It created its own classical literatures, with only a limited
reminiscence of earlier Middle Eastern traditions. Social organization,
economic patterns, the arts, all carried an unmistakable Islamic color-
ing. Moreover, though the Islamic society was far the most widespread
among its contemporary medieval societies, yet an unusually strong
i The interrelations of societies in history 15
changes forms a single story. In the sketch that follows, we can see some
of the main lines of development of interregional relations, and its most
important turning points. These are matters of the development of in-
terregional relations, and so not necessarily the main events of human
history as such, but in fact the development of the Afro-Eurasian in-
terregional configuration involved directly some of the most significant
aspects of the history of its various regions; hence the sketch is rather
like a brief world history. At any rate, it is closer to a true world history
than is the traditional historical image of the West, with which it may be
mentally compared.
Very early the expansion of the area of civilization took on a fundamen-
tal importance. The early isolated river-valley civilizations, islands in a
sea of barbarians, were in touch with each other at best through tenu-
ous, long-distance trading; yet if it is true that one important feature
they had in common was certain processes of working metals, and if in
the very search for those rare metals their traders and rulers forced an
expansion of the civilized patterns into their hinterlands, then it is this
requirement common to them all that led in turn to a new condition
which determined the fate of them all. For in time this came to depend
on the fate of larger regions of civilization. Only in such regions was the
cosmopolitanism of the Amarna age possible, such as prevailed at least
in the Middle East, when diverse literate nations found themselves for
the first time neighbors. Thus one large-scale situation led to develop-
ments which produced a new large-scale situation. But even the larger
regions of the Amarna age were still surrounded by yet larger areas
scarcely touched by urban culture. From these wider regions, borne by
the improved military horsemanship developed in the presence of and
in response to the civilizations themselves, came the several waves of
great invasions, especially at the end of the second millennium B.C.
These invasions, largely led by Indo-Europeans, could almost swamp
and eventually transform the developed regions of the Middle East, of
northern India and possibly also of northern China. So ended the period
of the bronze-age cultures, with their recondite, basically pictographic
scripts - though the already typical relative isolation of China may have
permitted the survival of such a script there.
A world of Greeks, Hebrews, Persians, Indo-Aryans, and Chou Chi-
nese emerged from those invasions in the first millennium B.C. Among
these there prevailed a new historical climate, that of the iron age - in
which the zone of civilization expanded to hemispheric dimensions, and
some of the main constant elements of the Afro-Eurasian interregional
configuration were already visible. Despite the distances involved, there
was already clearly a degree of community of destiny, though whether it
i The interrelations of societies in history 21
with repercussions also in the Far East. Then Hellenism itself - perhaps
even in India, where the imperial impulse came from the northwest -
helped to make the world ready also for the age of the great regional
empires, that of Rome in the Mediterranean, of the Mauryas and their
successors in India, of the Han in China. For these empires reflected in
some degree, all of them (even that of the Hellenophile Parthians, the
most obscure of them), the work of the classical sages, Stoic or Buddhist
or Confucian, in human integration. The relatively stable and wide-
spread order brought about by this handful of empires in turn affected
interregional relations. The Romans soon complained of the loss of gold
to distant India. This was surely a symptom of a wider movement of the
same sort as Hellenism. As the direct force of Hellenism receded, what
may be called Indicism, in varied forms, spread equally widely - in the
Far South East, in the Middle East (especially Iran and Central Eurasia),
in China itself; and it had repercussions even in Europe. Indicism in-
volved no spectacular conquests such as that of Alexander, but it is
possible that its effects went deeper in a wider area. But the most impor-
tant result of the empires was, as the early Christians themselves saw in
the case of the Roman Empire, that each of them cleared the way for
one, or more than one, of the great universal religions. The most promi-
nent fact about the interregional as about the regional aspects of the
following period was the towering position of the religions.
For meanwhile, in the wake of the sages had arisen (out of more local
antecedents) the great universal religions, with their scriptures, their
exclusive moral and cosmological creeds, their hope for the ordinary
individual beyond death, and their demand for his personal commit-
ment now.
These appeared now either in the form of faiths like Christianity and
Mahayana Buddhism, created in this mold from their inception, or of
old faiths made over like Rabbinical Judaism and (apparently) the Hindu
Shaivism and Vaishnavism. From the cities as centers, everywhere they
moved out to prevail over the population; early in the first millen-
nium C.E., throughout the Afro-Eurasian zone one or another of them
achieved political power and attempted to gain an exclusive recognition
for itself. They left practically no gaps, though they were some areas
where none was fully successful in its rivalry against the others; among
them, they practically stamped out the old paganisms or else subordi-
nated them to the new spirit. Simultaneously with the drive of the
religions for power arose - with or without the inspiration of the almost
universally present Indian influences, the ascetic and monastic tenden-
cies which came to dominate one aspect of Afro-Eurasian life for more
than a thousand years. With the advent of the universal religions, re-
i The interrelations of societies in history 23
and, using them, spread them from China to Western Europe. Islamic
merchants carried widely some technological discoveries of China; most
notably paper. At the same time that Islam was thus changing in-
terregional conditions, other Afro-Eurasian developments gave Islam
itself new directions. New regions, such as the Far South East, were
being more fully developed; there Islam made rapid headway, so out-
flanking the older centers. Islam promised itself, not without reason,
that it would soon be absorbing the whole world.
During these centuries of the appearance and the later expansion of
Islam, there was taking place at least the usual cumulative improvement
in technique, notably in military and even financial techniques; the
range of commerce expanded, as in sub-Saharan Africa, which now
effectively entered the Afro-Eurasian arena of civilization with the ad-
vent above all of the camel in the Sahara; or as in the far north-west
(where a subarctic link to North America aborted). The diverse strains of
learning were being integrated in scholastic-type syntheses of the old
philosophical traditions with the dominant religions, from Shankara,
who in ninth-century India finally disposed philosophically of Bud-
dhism, to Chu Hsi and Aquinas in the thirteenth century. Practically as
widespread as scholasticism was a marked institutional cultivation of
love-mysticism (in the form of bhakti in Hinduism, Sufism in Islam, and
the mystical traditions in eastern and western Christianity) - a mysti-
cism which was often associated with the rise of numerous vernacular
languages alongside the handful of classical ones dating chiefly from the
Axial Age.
Here again it is hard to know what extent the parallel developments in
learning and religion were purely parallelisms, resulting from a common
set of historical problems without much actual interaction in any form.
Certainly to a degree it was simply that common problems were being
met, and sometimes they were answered differently - thus, in contrast
to all other regions, in China in this period there was a clear decline of
the universal religions, Buddhism and Taoism, to the profit of what was
essentially a philosophical system of the "Axial Age," Confucianism.
Nevertheless, by this time the interactions among regions - as a result of
Islam, or of the Mongols, or of scientific or artistic borrowing, and the
like - were so frequent, and involved even the isolated China and the
distant Western Europe so freely, that these developments cannot be
fully disengaged from each other. Whether merely parallel growths from
the past, or the fruit of a contemporary climate of needs, they formed the
inescapable context of interregional contacts, which commonly assumed
a religious guise.
i The interrelations of societies in history 25
time Latin. Only in the High Middle Ages did Western Europeans begin
truly to rise to the creative level of the core-areas of civilization. At the
start of the Crusades they were still crude and ignorant as compared
with either Greeks or Arabs in fields like medicine and chemical technol-
ogy; they were not up to the "Greek fire" of the Arabs; by the end of the
Crusades the Latins had for the first time become more or less their
equals.
The famed Westward march of empire, as we have seen, dissolves into
a general expansion of civilization in all directions of the compass. West-
ern Europe was a frontier region rather in the same sense as the Sudan
or Malaysia, though it began to develop urban, literate culture earlier
than either of those areas. It shared with them a dependent relation to
the older cultural centers. As in those areas, the flow of cultural learning
was quite one-sided - from China, India, the Middle East, and (above
all) the eastern Mediterranean to the Occident, with little going in the
opposite direction. For a long time this was reflected even in in-
terregional trade. The Occident, like other frontier areas to the south or
the east, had primarily natural resources, including slaves, to offer,
rather than perfected finished goods. Accordingly, local Occidental
events - the ups and downs of local urbanization and learning - were of
relatively little importance to the world at large. Medieval Islamic writers
were strongly aware of Byzantium and India and China, but except at
moments and places of direct contact had little more interest in the far
Occident than in Tibet or East Africa. The main features of the Afro-
Eurasian historical context, the "mainstream" if there was one, were
little affected by events in such far corners.
Perhaps the Occident had advantages in its frontier position, some-
what similar to those which Korea and Japan seem to have had in
roughly the same period, being equally removed from the main lines of
interregional intercourse. In virgin soil, as it were, the Occidentals were
able to develop independent cultural variants upon older themes, rela-
tively undisturbed by the cultural and military turmoil which often pre-
vailed from the Aegean to Bengal. Moreover, till the later Middle Ages
the West Europeans always had attractive space beyond the current
limits of civilization in which to expand their sphere of activity (some-
thing which was largely denied to the Japanese). The clue to much of the
Occident's character may lie in its long being a frontier region. In any
case, comparisons between the Occident and other peripheral regions,
which stood in other relations to the core culture areas, might be more
fruitful than between the Occident and those centers themselves; for
instance, as regards the relation between local creativity and receptivity
to outside influences.
28 I Europe in a global context
picture of the world. But they have not yet escaped the temptation to
make geography and history center upon themselves. One need only
examine the table of contents of any proper Western "world history."
Civilization began in Mesopotamia and Egypt (with perhaps some local
variants in India and China); but (it would seem) soon history was
almost a monopoly of the Greeks; and though other peoples might still
be curious, in their quaint ways, hereafter it was really only Europe they
counted - and after the rise of Rome only Western Europe; here was the
home of truth and liberty.
If during long centuries it was hard to find either truth or liberty in
Western Europe, this period was regretfully labelled the Dark Ages of
mankind; but in modern times the West Europeans have duly gone forth
to enlighten (and subdue) the world - so that the history of a henceforth
"Westernized 7 ' world may be safely reduced almost to that of the West
itself.
The map of the world is constructed accordingly. Westerners distin-
guish five or six "continents": Africa, Asia, North and South America -
and Europe. It is sometimes ingenuously remarked how much smaller
Europe is than the "other continents" - yet in political discussions, in
grouping statistics, or in historical comparisons these divisions repeat-
edly recur as if fixed by nature.
In European "world atlases" each European country has its own map,
with the rest of the world in a few pages at the end. The map ordinarily
selected to show the world as a whole is ideally suited to reinforce this
way of seeing mankind. On the Mercator world map not only is Europe
in the upper center: it is represented as a good deal larger than the other
great culture areas. Most of these lie south of the fortieth parallel, while
Europe is almost wholly north of it, where Mercator's projection begins
to exaggerate the size of things enormously.
Accordingly even on the world map, which ought to provide a sense
of proportion, there is space to name a great many places in Europe,
while in other populous centers like India or China, shown on a much
smaller scale, only a few chief places need be indicated. Although equal-
area projections of the world have long been available, in which shapes
as well as sizes are much less distorted. Westerners understandably cling
to a projection which so markedly flatters them. They explain (as if they
were engaged in nothing but sailing) that the true angles on the
Mercator map are of convenience to navigators; and in atlases and wall-
maps, in books of reference and in newspapers, when Westerners turn
to see what the world looks like as a whole their preconceptions are
authoritatively gratified.
34 I Europe in a global context
The story is often told of a small tribe whose word for "mankind" was
the name for the tribe itself. Other tribes were merely incidental in their
picture of the world - perhaps not even fully human. Chinese, Hindus,
Muslims, and Westerners alike have smiled perhaps too quickly at the
rather perilous naivete of that small tribe.
3
World history and a world outlook
pean and Near Eastern cultures objectively side by side in a single his-
tory, where we could see not only what details Europe got, but also what
she failed to accept; and more important, in what ways both developed
in common? There is danger, in studying one country, that one may
analyze all its events in terms of that country alone, whereas if one looks
around he sees evidently related events elsewhere, that shows causes
and development cannot be purely national but must be international.
Likewise in studying Europe, should we assume that we are safe in
looking for the causes of European developments within Europe alone?
I would go so far as to believe that if we began to study the history of
the world as a whole, and not in the unbalanced way we have pretended
to study it, we would discover the European history - in all its phases,
social, economic, artistic, religious - has in the main, at least until re-
cently, been a dependent part of the general development of civilization.
Studying it in that light we will receive a new understanding both of
Europe and of the human race. It will not do categorically to deny this
surmise; the only way to show its falsehood is to study world history
from this point of view, and see.
There is a further reason for studying world history as such, even
apart from its value as history: its value in breaking down our ethno-
centrism. What I have here to say could be said for most of the social
sciences, but a world history is a particularly suitable way to meet the
problem. We Americans need almost as much as anything else these
days to acquire a healthy realization of the position we hold in the
modern world. It is strong, to be sure, but precarious. We have only
about 6 percent of the world's population. [Ed. note - current when
published in 1944]. So far, we have been more highly industrialized than
most of the rest of the world. But India and China are becoming industri-
alized, and we have learned to our sorrow that Japan already is.
Consider that the population of the world can be divided into four
roughly equal parts: 554,000,000 in China and Japan; 526,000,000 in
Hither and Further India; 534,000,000 in Europe with Britain; and
556,000,000 in all the rest of the world. 1 Even all Europeans and their
descendants overseas make up at most about a third of the world popula-
tion. We Europeans have been lording it over the rest of the earth; the
other nations are already objecting, and their objections seem likely to
increase. Is it not time that we wake up to the fact that we are not the
only people in the world that matter?
Teachers and writers of the social sciences, and especially historians,
1
League of Nations statistics for 1941. [Editor's note: current when published in 1944].
38 I Europe in a global context
can do much to bring us to the world outlook that is necessary. And now
is the time to bend every effort toward that aim. There is a map pub-
lished I expect by the New Yorker showing that United States as seen from
that city. On that map Manhattan becomes bigger than Illinois. Chi-
cagoans laugh at that; but Chiang Kai-shek [President of Republic of
China in 1944 - Ed. note] does not laugh when he sees that we Ameri-
cans have just this kind of a view of the world: America and Europe are
very big, the rest is insignificant. We must change that map!
I do not suggest, of course, that America and Europe be given no more
attention in our schools and libraries than China and India. Particular
histories of phases especially important to the reader are very important.
But just as we don't write histories of the modern Occident three-fourths
of whose content deals with the United States, but rather have special
books and courses meeting our special need for American history, so we
should not allow our special need for Occidental history to destroy our
chance to learn world history. A general history - whether a thin volume
for the public, or a quarter or a semester course for the student - is also
needed, to supply an undistorted framework into which a particular
history can be set as an elaboration of one or another part of the general
history.
Now if it is of the utmost importance that our historians and social
scientists in general build a "global," world outlook, then there are many
things we can do about it. Specifically, we should do two types of things:
first, encourage the writing of world history. I believe I am safe in saying
that there is not a single history book in existence which attempts to
present as one picture, with no undue prominence for Europe, the devel-
opment of civilization all over the Old World. 2 Second, even if that
cannot be done just now, we should not sabotage the possibility of
people thinking in terms of a "global" world, by continuing to talk in
terms which give the lay mind a distorted picture of the world, and so
help to maintain the already disastrously provincial ideas which we
have.
The things I shall mention in this respect may seem minor; and they
would not be important if it were not that the prejudice which they
confirm is already with us. But unfortunately it is, and it is surely unwise
to pamper and feed it, even in little things.
For instance, the Mercator's projection map of the world literally does
Perhaps the informal letters of Nehru should be considered a regular history, and hence
a rather inadequate exception. Toynbee's work is, of course, a study, not a narrative
history.
3 World history and a world outlook 39
for our distorted world-view very nearly what the New Yorker map does
for New Yorkers. On Mercator's projection, England, actually smaller
than the Indian state of Hyderabad, appears nearly three times the size
of that region. This is because Mercator exaggerates the north - North
America, Europe, Russia - at the expense of areas farther south, like
India or the Near East. And it is our own already exaggerated countries
that tend to be in the north. When other maps of the world, based on
better scales, and serving every purpose the Mercator can, are available,
it seems serious negligence to go on using so distorted a map, in class-
rooms or elsewhere.
There are, then, three general types of phrases which I urge to avoid.
First come those about the geographical nature of Europe, which elevate
that peninsula to the status of a continent. Geologically speaking, to
divide Eurasia into two continents at the Urals is silly. The peninsula of
India is only a little smaller than Europe, and has a much more real
division from the rest of the continent. If there is any historic division
between Europe and the rest of Eurasia, it is the line the Greeks used,
about in the middle of "European Russia," where the peninsula ceases to
be peninsular: for there has been found if anywhere the dividing line
between Slav and "Central Asian." But this is no continental division.
The reason I urge that this elevation of Europe to continental status be
abandoned should be evident. An amusing instance of how it misled an
intelligent author will help to make it clear. Van Loon (after noting the
absurdity of calling Europe a continent, but not wanting to add to the
confusion by denying it that status) tries to compare the historical posi-
tions of "Asia" and of Europe.3 He says that while "Asia's" rivers ran "in
any old direction," Europe's all flowed straight to the sea - hence Eu-
rope expanded and "Asia" didn't. The statement might have made sense
if it had compared comparable areas and populations - Europe with
India or China, for instance; but in that case, the whole point about the
rivers would have been gone. Van Loon might be commended for not
wanting to "add to the existing confusion" if the existing confusion were
not already so great that it could hardly be added to.
Therefore, in order to avoid encouraging the idea that Europe is a
continent on a par with the rest of Eurasia, we should: (1) not refer to
"the whole continent" of Europe, but rather to "the mainland," or "the
whole peninsula" of Europe; (2) avoid that use of maps which carry a
pointless line through the middle of Russia; (3) not speak of "Asiatic" as
if it characterized anything specially concrete as does "European" or
or India; they were just carrying on a little further the process by which
an American artist can become "more Parisian than Paris." The difficulty
of an American or Frenchman understanding India is only in degree
greater than that of an American understanding France.
Therefore, the need is not just to point out that "the East is just as good
as we are"; it is to get rid of the idea that the "East" is one cultural entity
complementary to that of Europe at all. Hence we should among other
things: (1) refuse to refer to this or that characteristic as "Eastern" - even
when a careful study has shown this to be true of all "Eastern" lands and
of no "Western" lands (a rare situation) - because of the danger of sup-
porting the idea that the Occident is coordinate with the sum of all the
"East"; (2) avoid all use of the terms "Eastern" and "Orient" as ambigu-
ous, and use instead Far Eastern, Indian, Near Eastern, African, Chinese,
etc.; (3) be exceedingly careful in the use of the terms "Western," "Occi-
dental," etc.; (4) stop talking about the "incomprehensibility of the East,"
and refer if necessary instead to the "incomprehensibility of cultures other
than one's own."
The third type of phrase which I hope we will avoid is that which
speaks of Europe - or of the most direct predecessors of European
culture - as always being "in the center of the stage of world history."
Thus, I have seen a chart of history, with dates across the top; bars in the
space below running parallel to the dates, arranged to show "the length
of time a people is important in history"; and dots preceding and follow-
ing the bars "to remind us that these lands were still inhabited before
and after they were the center of the stage." Egypt and Babylonia start
out in the upper left-hand corner, become after 500 B.C. rows of dots
extending to the present. Further down and to the right come the He-
brew and the Greeks, then Rome, then still further down and to the
right, a double bar of the Moslem and medieval European cultures, and
in the lower right hand corner the modern West. Since the lands east of
the Indus form more than half of the Old World's population, if the
"center of the stage" is to be placed with any one group, how does it
manage to be west of the Indus at all? It is more reasonable to say that
Europe "was isolated from the main stream of history" than to say that
India was.
Actually, of course, the chart is deliberately invented to illustrate what
the author thinks is the "slow march westward of civilization" - a fiction
which has proved useful to some American nationalists. The unsound-
ness of the impression it makes can be shown by pointing out that the
Moslem civilization which it graciously ranks coordinate with the medi-
eval European is really found in the same lands as the Babylonian and
42 I Europe in a global context
ancient Egyptian (still shown as dots on this chart) and therefore does
not, as the chart tries to imply, continue the "march to the west."
The impudence of such a chart is amazing. Except for Greece, which
on the map looks more Near Eastern than European, and whose ties
have always until the last century been eastward rather than westward,
Europe can be said to have produced very little of world importance
before the late Middle Ages; until then there is not the slightest trace of
civilization's moving west. Even vaunted Rome depended on Egypt and
the eastern Mediterranean not only for her wheat, but for her teachers
and models. The largest and richest cities of the Empire were in the east,
where civilization had always been, and it was there that the bulk of
science and culture continued to be produced.
The reason for this chart, however, is easier to understand than its
impudence. When we have studied history, we have always studied
whatever culture was farthest west - nearest to our northwestern Eu-
rope. Thus when Greece comes into the light, we switch our whole
attention to Greece - and then are surprised when, under Hellenism,
lands other than Greece have a great deal to contribute. Meanwhile Italy
having begun to be civilized, we switch our attention thither, never
returning east of the Adriatic again, but rather turning as fast as possible
to the forests of Britain, Gaul, and Germany (and are again amazed at
the time of the Crusades to find that the east is better developed than
they).
When Christian culture west of the Adriatic shows itself to be slow in
getting started in spite of its bit of brilliance at the beginning, we decide
that a dark age has fallen over the whole world! We even develop the
crust to claim that a chieftain who tries to overcome local difficulties is
the chief character in the world, in the age of Geber at Baghdad, and the
T'ang dynasty in China! Charlemagne himself knew better.
In order to avoid encouraging the idea that "Babylon, then Greece,
then Rome, then northwestern Europe have occupied the center of the
stage of history," historians should, among other things: (1) stop talking
about the "known world," as that expression is usually used - known to
provincial Europe; (2) stop talking about Rome's being "mistress of the
civilized world" - or of "her world," since the ordinary person will not
get the difference subtly admitted between these phrases; (3) stop talk-
ing about the fall of the Roman Empire, when only the loss of three or
four western provinces is meant - remember that Rome was in the
hands of the Empire centuries after the traditional A.D. 476, as was most
of the west Mediterranean coast up to the Moslem invasion; and (4) stop
talking about the Dark Ages as if they were a period of history.
3 World history and a world outlook 43
There are many other points at which we must avoid encouraging our
provincialism, but I hope we will note at least these in writing or in
teaching. My fundamental hope remains that someone will undertake to
write a real world history, giving us a perspective view of ourselves, an
undistorted framework into which to fit our own civilization and times.
4
The great Western Transmutation
44
4 The great Western Transmutation 45
pened in Sumer soon (as ancient time-spans go) determined the fate of
much of the Eastern hemisphere. Among these societies on an agrar-
ianate level, the character of historical change was so altered that what
had come before we sometimes call "pre-history": for instance, its pace
was immensely speeded u p , so that a degree of change which before
consumed thousands of years now consumed merely centuries. Simi-
larly, after the Western Transmutation the kind of changes that earlier, in
agrarianate times, had required hundreds of years now required, at
most, decades.
Moreover, just as civilization on an agrarianate level had appeared in
one or at most a very few spots and spread from there to the greater
part of the globe, so the new modern type of life did not appear
everywhere among all citied peoples at the same moment, but first in
one restricted area, Western Europe, from which it has spread every-
where else. It was not that the new ways resulted from conditions that
were limited entirely to the Occident. Just as the first urban, literate life
would have been impossible without the accumulation among a great
many peoples of innumerable social habits and inventions, major and
minor, so the great modern cultural mutation presupposed the contribu-
tions of all the several citied peoples of the eastern hemisphere. Not
only were the numerous inventions and discoveries of many peoples
necessary - for most of the earlier basic ones were not made in Europe.
It was also necessary that there exist large areas of relatively dense,
urban-dominated populations, tied together in a great interregional
commercial network, to form the vast world market which had gradu-
ally come into being in the eastern hemisphere, and in which European
fortunes could be made and European imaginations exercised.
What was the relation among all these changes, that they should all
happen at once? What was it that made for such a relatively sudden and
comprehensive transformation of the society, with such far-reaching ef-
fects? It is clear that the changes were closely interrelated and, indeed,
interdependent. However, this was not always in the sense that particular
changes in one field depended on particular changes in another (thus
scientific and industrial developments long went parallel, with only rela-
tively superficial contacts); rather, all the changes presupposed common
social resources and even common psychological patterns of expectation. 3
For historical purposes, one ought to analyze the Great Transmutation
as a historical event or process, not merely as the presence of a new state
or age of human culture; but such attempts have been infrequent.
Schumpeter, however, successfully transforms what even for the Marx-
ists is a relatively static capitalist "stage" of society into a complex and
real equilibrium, and a foreseeable end. In such a perspective, the analy-
ses of the capitalist market by the conventional bourgeois economists as
if it were a condition essentially based on an approximated equilibrium,
take on an unreal air: at most, they are analyzing short-term equilibri-
ums in a process which itself is creating and modifying the market which
they purpose.
In this perspective my own study is doubly lacking. I have treated the
Transmutation primarily as a shift from one state to another, as being
completed with the generation of 1789, when it was achieved in nucleo in
certain fields in certain places. In the long run, it must probably be
treated as a completed process only from the perspective of the day
when all relevant fields of social life and all parts of the world will have
been technicalized, if such a day comes. From such a vantage point, the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries will seem merely preliminary,
though they will still retain their special status. At present, however, I
cannot venture to assume such a perspective.
Hence many have seen the Transmutation as the expression in many
fields of a single overall basic change: a change from what is called a
"traditional" to what is called a "rational" society. In a "rational" society,
choices can be determined less by the dictates of ancestral custom and
3 From the time of Burckhardt, we have had many perceptive attempts to analyze just
what "modern man/' that is a European of the Technical Age, really "is." However, apart
from some distorted information on what is called "Oriental," these attempts have usu-
ally made use only of data from within west European and ancient Greek history. Hence
they have blurred the difference between local stages within the Occidental evolution,
and changes more universally relevant. Area-studies men, on the other hand, rarely
know anything about any part of the world before the nineteenth century. Hence I have
had to develop my own analysis.
50 I Europe in a global context
The historical conditions that allowed this at all, allowed it in many fields
of endeavor at once. As a result, the previous precariousness of any
cultural complexity beyond the agrarianate base-level of the rural-urban
symbiosis was at last overcome. A new higher base-level was presum-
ably established.
These new impulses carried everything with them, including old insti-
tutions. Existing institutions had, to be sure, proved sufficiently open to
make such an advance possible. (Probably any set of mature institutions
can provide a great deal more flexibility than is at first apparent.) But
such institutions were hardly well adapted to it, surely no more so than,
say, the Islamicate institutions. Yet they were pressed into serving the
new possibilities, or were superceded. A good deal of institutional rigid-
ity was implicit in the Occidental corporative expectations, and some of
this rigidity acted as an obstacle to the new impulses. (For instance, the
church Inquisition was more oppressive to the ordinary thinking citizen
that anything found in Islamdom.) Nonetheless, this very corporative
structure - when the occasion was ripe - did act to protect individual
innovation at least as effectively as might the social mobility and the
sharia autonomy of Islamdom.
At the core of the new innovation was the pattern of multiple technical
specialization. Such technical specialization was not altogether new:
since the introduction of gunpowder weapons, that aspect of military
practice had represented a microcosm of the innovative technical special-
ization which was to be the hallmark of the Transmutation. But now it
reached a breadth of scale, a "critical mass," which allowed much more
extensive institutionalizing of such innovation than before, an institu-
tionalizing which was to embrace and finally dominate all the key sec-
tors of the whole society. Economically, it appeared in forms of industrial
and commercial investment in the seventeenth century in northwest
Europe during the seventeenth century: capital was systematically re-
invested and multiplied on the basis of continuing technical innovation
and of anticipated expansion in market patterns. Intellectually, it ap-
peared in the work of such associations as the Royal Society: in many
cultures there had been associations for cultivating existing scholarly
learning, which might welcome the occasional piece of new information.
In the seventeenth century the Royal Society aimed explicitly at gather-
ing and disseminating that new knowledge which would replace the
old, and did so largely in expectation of the continual new inventions of
the by then professionalized instrument-makers and the new observa-
tions they would make possible.
One must suppose that the intellectual side of the movement was
54 I Europe in a global context
dependent on the economic side, but not in the sense that the natural
sciences benefitted directly from the inventiveness of industry. Rather,
the expansion of industrial investment released more resources to the
whole economy. These were then made use of, among scholars, in a
manner consonant with the expansive mood of which the pace was
surely set by the exhilaration associated with the new mercantile and
industrial ventures. The intellectual development was apparently quite
autonomous. After a certain point is reached in the development of
natural sciences, at any rate, it cannot advance further without a dispro-
portionate amount of human investment on all fronts at once: i.e., in-
creasing specialization in many different fields. Whether or not we sup-
pose that a lull in scientific work in the Occident after 1300 resulted from
the difficulty of proceeding further with the then available level of hu-
man resources, it nevertheless seems that the science had reached the
point where the sudden increase of such resources could have great
liberating effects - and precisely in those aspects of knowledge that
were most dependent on multiple specialization. To the extent that in-
dustrial experience entered into scientific advantage, it was mostly by
way of the increasing skills and technical resources of the instrument-
makers, whose specialized innovations surely confirmed the techni-
calistic tendency in science.
In both scientific and economic life, the scale of increasing technical
specialization brought with it qualitative changes. Perhaps most obvi-
ously it reached a level on which it paid to invest the requisite time,
funds, and concern into institutions that embodied and further con-
firmed the technical specialization. These very institutions, then, helped
to hasten the process. Gradually, in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, it became so well-rooted and widely ramified in Occidental
society that no social process or historical event originating outside the
process could reverse it or seriously slow it down.
This institutionalization presupposed further a close interrelation
among specializations. There was no mere conglomeration of individual
technical advances. As isolated technical specialization, the techniques
of mechanized cotton spinning, for instance, could be reckoned equiva-
lent to the highly specialized and relatively efficient ancient techniques
of the Coptic land surveyors in Egypt. Especially within the main fields
in which the process occurred, all depended on the growth of an increas-
ingly inclusive and interdependent nexus of technical specialism, such
that the technical efficiency of any particular activity was increased by its
use of the fruits of other specialties, and it in turn served to increase their
efficiency. For such a process to be carried far, a major part of all the
4 The great Western Transmutation 55
activities of a society must become involved. Once this process was well-
established, new discoveries and inventions, along with the human and
financial investment needed to realize them, grew at a geometric rate of
progression. Each new round of inventions, once exploited, cleared the
way for yet another.
It will readily be seen that such a technicalistic process left behind most
basic presuppositions of all agrarianate society. Even those agrarianate-
level societies that were not themselves immediately agrarian - being,
say, pastoralist or mercantile - had depended for their existence on the
social relations prevailing in their agrarian hinterland, in which the agrar-
ian surplus provided the chief income on which the carriers of the high
culture, the chief market of the mercantile cities, depended. The growth
of inter-dependent technical specializations freed the income structure of
the privileged classes in large areas from primary dependence on agrarian
exploitation of the agriculturalists.
It did so, of course, not because industrial production could take the
place of agricultural in providing the common necessities of life, such as
food. Rather, what the non-agricultural sectors of the economy could
support now was the special income of the privileged, the carriers of the
high culture; and this was not only in a few immediate urban situations,
as before, but in the overall economic nexus. Even with no increase in
the agricultural surplus, that is, with no increase in the number of non-
agricultural laborers that could be fed, technical specialization could
vastly increase productivity, and hence total production, till so much of it
was nonagricultural that a correspondingly large proportion of income
in the society need not be determined by agrarian relationships. If the
technicalistic process was to progress far (and if the proportion of the
privileged in the society was ultimately to expand) not only greater
productivity per laborer was required, but also more laborers (and also
more agricultural raw materials). Hence even the limitations on agricul-
tural production, imposed by localized manual and animal methods,
must be escaped by extending the new social process to agriculture itself
(though a partial alternative could be to import agricultural products
from distant lands not yet undergoing the technicalistic process - which
could mean exporting manufacturers thither, displacing the local crafts-
men, and turning those lands more solidly to agriculture than before).
All phases of the new roles of agriculture and agrarian relations were to
become significant in the future of Islamdom.
This overall process, and then the condition of society in which it has
resulted, I call technicalization, which I will define as a condition of ratio-
nally calculative (and hence innovative) technical specialization, in which the
56 I Europe in a global context
ardy any sense of a cosmic whole. The natural science traditions had
maintained also in the Occident that degree of intellectual autonomy
they had early won from commitment to the intellectual predispositions
of overall life-orientational traditions. This autonomy had made itself ap-
parent on occasion among both Muslims and Christians in a relative em-
piricism, bound to but not overwhelmed by philosophic notions of the
teleological and hierarchical nature of entities. Now, with intensive spe-
cialization, the autonomy of the natural-science traditions was pushed
much further, and the accompanying empiricism became almost routine.
Every major scientist found himself forced to try to work out for himself
(if he cared) his own sense of the cosmic whole, and alert laymen were
left with "all coherence gone." By 1800 the technicalist spirit had spread
from astronomy and physics to chemistry, geology, and biology. From
Descartes to its culmination in Kant, the new epistemological philoso-
phy was inspired by the new technicalistic science and by its very disen-
gagement from ultimate questions.
Finally, in social life, administration came to reflect a like technicalistic
tendency, though at first with traits less unprecedented from a world
point of view. The new absolute and "enlightened" monarchies (in-
spired in part by older Chinese precedents) were still at first bringing
Occidental administration up to an effectiveness already achieved in
some parts, some time earlier, for instance in the Ottoman empire. But
by the time of the French Revolution, the increase in the efficiency of
legally operated social control, the technical precision of its files and its
reports, and (more important) the implementing of the whole concep-
tion of government as a public service to be judged by its usefulness, had
gone beyond even Sung China and had made obsolete every earlier
governmental tradition in Europe. In the following decades they all
found it necessary to reconstitute themselves, or be reconstituted, on a
new basis.
As the interdependent range of technical specialties widened, the new
standards of efficiency necessarily came to hold not only for a small circle
of learned men or experts, but for a large section of the west European
population. It was only because British clerks and factory hands had
gradually grown accustomed to working on the new basis that it was
possible for those who introduced power machinery at the end of the
eighteenth century to find workers to make the delicately adjusted ma-
chines and workers to run them without catastrophe. (It was only later,
after the power-machinery was well-established, that relatively raw re-
cruits could be trained in large numbers.) Increasingly large proportions
of the population were involved in even the intellectual innovations, as
60 I Europe in a global context
the use of printed books spread amongst Protestant and also Catholic
townsmen. Almost any major undertaking came to depend on the fairly
immediate contributions of a great variety of specializations, each increas-
ingly technical and difficult for an outsider to penetrate without dispropor-
tionate training. In some degree, practically the whole population, and
certainly all the more ambitious elements in it, came under pressure to
cultivate a technicalistic viewpoint and technicalistic expectations.
Indeed, from the viewpoint of the moral qualities involved, it may be
said that technicalization has proceeded far enough to characterize social
organization generally at the point when technical specialization is suffi-
ciently diverse and intricate so that it has become the socially de-
terminative situation that a given worker or scholar is no longer able to
follow in detail the whole of the process of which his own work forms a
fragment. Goethe, the greatest writer of the generation in which the
Transmutation culminated, has suitably been called the "last of the uni-
versal men"; yet even he cannot have hoped to follow minutely all the
technical processes in which the tools were cast which made the ma-
chines to service his theatrical innovations. Either Ibn Khaldun or Leo-
nardo could still have done the equivalent in their time.
There was, thus, something of a dehumanizing implication in techni-
calism. At the same time, the Transmutation also saw important moral
changes of a creatively human kind. A distinctive ideal human image
(or, rather, a complex of such human images), new equally to the Occi-
dent and to the rest of the world, was becoming increasingly attractive in
wide circles. Closely related to the growth of technicalism was the
spread of the image of the man who would undertake new and imagina-
tive efforts with resourcefulness and dedication - no longer merely as a
private adventurer, but as representatives of hopes for new patterns of
life in a wider public. This "projector," satirized from the time of Ben
Johnson and immortalized by Swift in Gulliver's Travels (and given more
level-headed advice in Kipling's If), became increasingly a recognizably
effective type among the proliferating business classes as investment
increased - active not only in business affairs but in science, administra-
tion, and even religion.
Seemingly in contrast to the image of the "projector," but not unre-
lated to it, was the image of the man of humane "civilization." Indeed,
the time of the Transmutation saw new moral standards of an explicitly
humane bent which had little to do directly with the technicalistic spirit.
Notable was what may be called a "gentling of manners," based on the
active expectation that much of what had always been acknowledged as
an ideal might be realized in practice. The manners of the better classes
4 The great Western Transmutation 61
were being softened and "civilized." Consistently with the new gentler
tastes, heretics were being left alone and even torture was being dis-
pensed with, both as punishment and as means of extorting informa-
tion. The idea was arising that with more "philosophical" or else "natu-
ral" education, and freer laws, human minds and spirits generally might
be enlightened and "perfected."
Much in the newer human images recalls earlier similar images: for
instance, the glorification of individual effort found in different forms in
the Iranian heroic tradition of Firdawsi or Rumi, and in still different
forms in the chivalric tradition of the Occident satirized by Cervantes.
But the tone now was the reverse of aristocratic. Indeed some strands,
conservatives found disquietingly vulgar. It was surely one of the contri-
butions of the Renaissance (though it might have come from some other
florescences almost as readily) to glorify a human image of boundless
individual initiative on a quite mundane and pragmatic level. Such an
image is crucial in defining the possibilities open to a society, and, in this
way, in keeping them open.
It was doubtless the optimistic spirit, as well as the economic expan-
siveness, produced by the progress of technicalization in its proper
spheres that made such idealism suddenly appear practical. Yet the ideal-
ism does seem to have helped mitigate the arbitrariness of state officials
and especially the destructiveness of warfare, which after 1648 became
increasingly limited in aims and disciplined in conduct. It is quite possi-
ble that without such mitigation, governments might (as had happened
before) have killed the goose that laid the golden egg. They might have
allowed the work of scientists and investors to be disrupted, thus show-
ing that further technical specialization would not, in fact, pay. 4 By the
generation of 1789, the new moral outlook burst out in the most diverse
directions and contributed importantly to the psychological gap between
the West and the other societies. By then, as we shall note, it was carry-
ing a considerable element of the expressly technicalistic mood.
The "gentling of manners" initially, at least, largely took the form of a
religious and aesthetic development, by no means so epoch-making
(especially as compared with what had happened in some other flores-
cences in agrarianate times) as the scientific and economic develop-
ments, yet not to be overlooked. Particularly in religion, partly under the
impact of the new philosophy, the evolution marked by several figures
4 John U. Nef, the same man who has brought to our attention the basic role of the "earlier
industrial revolution" in England, has brought out this point also in several works and
notably in Cultural Foundations of Industrial Civilization (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1958).
62 I Europe in a global context
For Muslims all this had a special moral significance. At least in some
measure, the Occidentals had managed to solve the moral dilemmas of
citied society as they had confronted the human conscience since the
beginning of civilization, and especially as they had been articulated in
the Irano-Semitic spiritual tradition, in which, indeed, the Occidentals
shared. They had developed institutions which seemed to assure at least
personal legal security and a sustained high level of social order and
prosperity in which even the least advantaged increasingly began to
share. Moreover, even on the level of individual purity they had estab-
lished standards of individual honesty, industry, loyalty, and modesty,
and a capacity to rise above personal competitiveness, which, while far
from assuring moral perfection in Europe, yet were increasingly visible
in the more responsible classes.
For an unbiased devotee of sharia Islam there was much to admire.
Taking its cue from Muhammad himself, the sharia had posited egalitar-
ian justice and had presupposed a degree of social mobility, stressing
individual responsibility and the nuclear family. More than any other
great religious tradition it had catered to bourgeois and mercantile val-
ues. It had struggled persistently against any merely customary author-
ity and usage in the name of universal law and the dignity of the individ-
ual, and had borne, sometimes vocally and sometimes more silently, a
witness to the crucial place jointly of good government and of personal
morality in human prosperity, which it acknowledged as a divinely sanc-
tioned good which it was a human responsibility to guard. In all these
matters, the Christian European peoples following the Great Transmuta-
tion went far in translating ideal into reality From fairly early in the
nineteenth century, in fact, there were to be alert and respected Muslims
to declare that the Europeans were leading a better life by Islamic stan-
dards than were the Muslim societies themselves.
In fact, to be sure, the basic moral problems of society were not yet
fully solved. Such progress as had been made had been by way of
altering the very terms in which such problems had been posed since
Sumer, and this has been done at a cost which no one could yet be
prepared to evaluate. Some Muslims were sceptical, from the start, of
the value of the power and prosperity of the new Europe, and eventually
many were to be disillusioned when the solutions proved imperfect.
Historical humanism
Unless a scholar is content to accept his categories (and hence the ques-
tions he can ask and hence the answers he can arrive at) as given by the
accidents of current predispositions, he cannot escape the obligation of
justifying his selection of units for study, which means justifying his
point of view. Such a justification, in turn, must imply an explicit stand
on his role as a scholar. If there were unanimity in these matters, they
might be left tacit - at least, if the given scholar were in accord with the
rest. Fortunately, several quite different viewpoints guide historical stud-
ies generally, and Islamic studies in particular, in our present world.
Historical studies have been called "idiographic" as describing dated
and placed particulars, as do many phases of geology or astronomy, in
contrast to "nomothetic" studies such as physics and chemistry, which
are supposed to lay down rules to hold regardless of date. This distinc-
tion has its usefulness so long as one bears in mind certain consideration
sometimes forgotten. Firstly, whether the objects of the questions are
dated or dateless, the questions themselves (as befits a cumulative pub-
lic discipline) ought to be, in some degree, of timeless significance to
human beings: sometimes perhaps leading to manipulative power, but
always leading to better understanding of things that matter to us hu-
manly.1 Moreover, any discipline, ideally, should not be defined exactly
by the category of the objects it studies nor even by the methods it uses,
and still less by the form of its results - though empirically these may be
1
Increased predictability through the "lessons" of history, and hence increased power of
manipulation, may sometimes supervene through historical study; but it is surely not its
true purpose. On the other hand, prediction as a means of verification sometimes plays an
essential role in historical inquiry. This is not, of course, prediction of "the future" - that
is not the proper purpose of any scholarly or scientific discipline - but prediction of
future evidence, which may come in the form of laboratory experiments, of field surveys,
or (in the case of history) of newly found documents.
72
5 Historical method in civilization studies 73
tionalizer" alone. Nonetheless, the two viewpoints can issue in the use
of differing units and categories in defining the field of study. I believe
that in pre-Modern civilization studies, at any rate, the more inclusive
view that I am labeling "exceptionalizing" cannot be left out of account if
the humanly most significant questions are to be got at. It is on this
principle that I have constructed this work.
Some historians, relatively "typicalizing" in viewpoint, intend primar-
ily to articulate intelligibly their chosen portion of the total cultural envi-
ronment as it impinges by way of interacting events on the present
human inquirer. They intend to present that environment as it is struc-
tured in space and time (asking, in effect, how things came to be as they
are now) much as an astronomer studies the particular structure, in
space and time, of the solar system. Some may even hope that their
work may ultimately serve chiefly to elucidate dateless regularities of
culture change, not tied to any dating or placing (at least within the
particular span of time and place which h u m a n culture as a whole pre-
supposes). Such historians, if fully consistent, must be concerned first
with the typical, and then with the exceptional only as it serves to make
clear (or perhaps account for) what is or has been typical. If they study a
state, or a novel, or a sect, they will study it primarily as typifying, or at
least causing, general political or esthetic or religious patterns - at least
the patterns of the time, and perhaps preferably those of all time.
On the other hand, from what may be called a more humanistic view-
point, the reason for studying the typical is rather that thereby we may
be better able to appreciate the exceptional, seeing more fully in just
what way it is exceptional. We need to know works of artists or acts of
statesmanship which are typical of a period just so that we may the
better place the excellent, the outstanding. 2 We study Islamdom as a
whole, as a great complex historic event, as well as the various less
extensive events that compose it, not primarily as examples of some-
thing more general but as something unrecurrent and unrepeatable, and
as having importance precisely for that reason. In consequence, we can
be as concerned with the great failures as with the great successes, and
as concerned with the potential moral implications of an act as with its
immediate outcome.
Such inquiry remains legitimate public inquiry, and not just private
2
This is not reducible to esthetic criticism, of course, let alone to straight moral judgment.
The difference between the art historian and the art critic - and the corresponding differ-
ence in other fields than art - is a matter of the historian's concern with culture as such in
its dimension of continuity over time. But such a concern cannot do away with the sense
of greatness; it rather puts it in perspective.
5 Historical method in civilization studies j$
3 It is for this reason that every "why this?" presupposes at least one "why not that?"
"Might-have-beens" are built into the inquiry of any historian, whether explicit or not,
just as they are built into that of any other scholar or scientist.
4 On the self-determination of each new generation - as against "blind tradition" - com-
pare the section on determinacy in traditions, below.
5 Historical method in civilization studies JJ
On scholarly ^recommitments
Because of the central role, in historical studies, of human loyalties and
commitments, the personal commitments of scholars play an even
greater role in historical studies than in other studies, a role that stands
out in special relief in Islamic studies.
On the most serious levels of historical scholarship - where the hu-
man relevance of major cultural traditions is at issue, such as that of
religious or artistic or legal or governmental traditions, or even that of
whole civilizations - historical judgment cannot be entirely disengaged
from the basic precommitments of inquirers. Indeed, it is not necessarily
desirable that it should be: the very issues can arise only as we are
humanly deeply engaged. Inquiries by pure specialists, seeking only to
straighten out this or that detail brought up by some greater scholar who
was humanly engaged and had discussed the great issues, may bring
useful clarifications but often miss the main points. Precommitment can
lead the unwary - and often even the most cautious scholar - to biased
judgment. Bias comes especially in the questions he poses and in the
type of category he uses, where, indeed bias is especially hard to track
down because it is hard to suspect the very terms one uses, which seem
so innocently neutral. Nevertheless, the bias produced by precom-
mitment can be guarded against, the answer to it cannot finally be to
divest ourselves of all commitments, but to learn to profit by the concern
and insight they permit, while avoiding their pitfalls.
Such basic precommitments are always to a degree idiosyncratic in
really serious scholars; yet the deeper they are, the more fully they are
likely to be rooted in one of the major cultural traditions of ultimate
overall commitment. In fact, certain of these traditions have loomed
especially large in determining the viewpoints of the masters of Islamic
studies, who have done the most to set the problems and the framework
within which other Islamicists have worked. I shall mention five, three
old and two new. The Christian tradition - in Catholic or in Protestant
form - has been deeply determinative for many Western scholars, as has
Judaism for still others. More recently, increasing numbers of scholars
y8 I Europe in a global context
helps account for so many intelligent persons not seeing the truth as the
apologist sees it, it also suggests that the apologist too is deceiving
himself if he thinks he is qualified to judge the rival tradition. A view of
Islam as a Christianity manque, or the reverse, however elegantly formu-
lated, must be received with great scepticism.
But the readiest alternatives, among those willing to concede some
truth to a rival tradition, are equally unsatisfactory for making a compari-
son. One may resort to syncretistic assimilation, as if superficially similar
elements in the two traditions could be identified; but this is bound to
falsify one tradition or both - if only by not recognizing the genuineness
of the demand, at the heart of each, for exclusive historical commitment.
For instance, in both traditions there is a demand for moral behavior on
the basis not of arbitrary human custom but of divine revelation; and at
least in broad areas, the moral norms implied in the two revelations are
much alike. Yet for Christians, being based in revelation means being in
response to redemptive love as it is confronted through the presence of a
divine-human life and the sacramental fellowship of which that is the
source. For Muslims, being based in revelation means being in response
to total moral challenge as it is confronted in an explicit divine message
handed on through a loyal human community. The two senses of revela-
tion not only contrast to one another: they exclude one another categori-
cally. Yet to abstract from them is to make pointless both the Christian
and the Muslim demand for a revealed morality over against human
custom.
To avoid the over-explicit identifications of syncretism, one may resort
frankly to reducing both traditions to some lowest common denomi-
nator - a formless mysticism or a vague appeal to the common goodwill
of mankind. But in practice this means appealing to the prestige carried
by the great traditions, on behalf of something that can rise above the
level of impotent platitudes only as the quite private viewpoint of an
individual.
The two traditions, as such, must be recognized as incompatible in
their demands, short of some genuinely higher synthesis presumably
not yet available to us. And we must retain this sense of tension between
them without interpreting the one by the standards of the other. This
may be accomplished in some degree, through a comparison of the two
structures, of what sorts of elements tend to get subordinated and what
tend to get highlighted. In such a perception, those committed and those
with no commitment can join, provided each maintains a sensitive hu-
man awareness of what can be humanly at stake at every point. But this
is possible only so far as the elements chosen can be evaluated in some
5 Historical method in civilization studies 81
On defining civilizations
In civilization studies - the study of the great cultural heritages (espe-
cially those dating from the pre-Modern citied ages) - what may be
called a "civilization" forms a primary unit of reference. Yet the specifica-
tion of such units is only partly given by the data itself. In part, it is a
function of the inquirer's purposes.
Once society has become fairly complex, every people, even each sector
of the population within what can be called a people, has had a degree of
cultural self-sufficiency. At the same time, even the largest identifiable
group of peoples has never been totally self-sufficient. Even the cultural
patterns so large a group have in common will show interrelations with
those of yet more distant peoples. Social groupings have intergraded or
overlapped almost indefinitely throughout the Eastern Hemisphere since
long before Islamic times. If we arrange societies merely according to their
stock of cultural notions, institutions, and techniques, then a great many
dividing lines among pre-Modern civilized societies make some sense,
and no dividing line with the Eastern Hemisphere makes final sense. It
has been effectively argued, on the basis of the cultural techniques and
resources to be found there, that all the lands from Gaul to Iran, from at
least ancient classical times onward, have formed but a single cultural
world. But the same sort of arguments would lead us on to perceive a still
wider Indo-Mediterranean unity, or even (in lesser degree) the unity of
the whole Afro-Eurasian citied zone. In these circumstances, any attempt
to characterize a less extensive "civilization" requires adopting an explicit
basis on which to set off one body of peoples from another as a civilization;
but too often such groupings have been taken as a given, on extraneous
grounds, and characterizations have then been attempted without regard
to the basis on which the grouping was made.
82 I Europe in a global context
were "borrowed" into it at the point when their exponents began to use
Arabic. The resulting picture of cultural development is, I believe, erro-
neous. In principle, a field of study such as "whatever culture happens
to be attested in Arabic documents" can be legitimate; but its relevance
is limited. If, for instance, we deal not with Islam but with Arabic as
our point of departure, so regarding Iranians as outsiders, we think of
Bedouin notions as "surviving" while Iranian ones "influence" the later
culture from outside. The Arabic culture of the High Caliphate then
takes on two traits: (a) suddenness; (b) a derivative character, as largely
"borrowed." What a difference in tone, if rather we should look at the
problems posed by an overlay of Arabic "borrowing" upon Iranian and
Syriac "survivals"! Accordingly, we must respect the challenge pre-
sented by men like Toynbee, who defines his civilizations according to
criteria based on inner cultural development. When he divides what
has been called "Islamic" civilization among three different civiliza-
tions, I believe he is in error, but he reminds us that if we make it a
single civilization we must give some reason why.
The reason for distinguishing a "civilization" cannot be a single, uni-
versal one, however; it must almost be special to each case. For no more
than language does any other one criterion necessarily determine a
grouping that will be worth studying as a major large-scale culture. Even
a localized culture, at least on the level of citied and lettered life, cannot
be defined simply in terms either of component traits or of participant
families. In cross-section, a culture appears as a pattern of life ways re-
ceived among mutually recognized family groups. Over time, it may be
more fully defined as a relatively autonomous complex of interdepen-
dent cumulative traditions, in which an unpredictable range of family
groups may take part. It forms an overall setting within which each
particular tradition develops. But even within one relatively local cul-
ture, some traditions - a given school of painting, say, or a particular
cult - may come to an end, and new ones may take their places. It is not
possible to distinguish, in any absolute sense, authentic or viable from
unauthentic or unviable traits in a culture, or even authentic from
unauthentic traditions. Yet a culture does have a certain integrality. The
consequences and the meaning of any given trait, inherited or newly
introduced, will depend at any given time on what implications it has for
the ongoing interaction, the dialogue or dialogues into which it fits (or
which it confuses). The consequences and ultimate meaning of any
given particular tradition will in turn depend on its implications for the
cultural setting as a whole. These implications will be more decisive, the
more they touch the most persistent and widely ramified features of the
84 I Europe in a global context
culture. Over time, then, what sets off a culture as an integral unity in
some degree is whatever makes for cultural continuity in that particular
culture.
On the wider and more rarefied level of what may be called a "civiliza-
tion," cultural identity is even more problematic and what will make for
continuity is even less predictably formulable. We may indeed describe
the most likely situations in general terms which may seem to settle the
matter. If we may call a "civilization" any wider grouping of cultures in
so far as they share consciously in interdependent cumulative traditions
(presumably on the level of "high culture" - of the relatively widely
shared cultural forms at the urban, literate level of complexity and so-
phistication), then the shared traditions will be likely to center in some
range of "high" cultural experience to which the cultures are committed
in common. This may be a matter of literary and philosophical as well as
political and legal values carried in lettered tradition, with or without
explicit allegiance to a given religious community. (Usually, lettered tradi-
tion is indissociable from the continuity of written language; yet there
need not be cultural identity except marginally between two groups,
especially in different periods, using the same language. Many would
refuse to put ancient Attica and Christian Byzantium in the same civiliza-
tion just because both used Greek and even read Homer. What matters
is the dominant lettered traditions, with their attendant commitments,
in whatever language.) When such major lettered traditions, then, are
carried in common, often there will be continuity likewise in social and
economic institutions generally. All cultural traditions tend to be closely
interdependent. Often the integration within one area has been so
marked and the contrasts between that area and others so strong that at
any given time a demarcation line has been quite clear, and that line has
tended to perpetuate itself. Thus we get, especially in cross-section, the
impression of clearly marked civilizations parceling out among them-
selves the Eastern Hemisphere.
But this apparent clarity should not persuade the historian to take his
categories for granted. There will always be "borderline" and "anoma-
lous" cases which are quite as normal as the major groupings. It would
be hard to place such peoples as Georgians and Armenians unequivo-
cally within any one major "civilization." In any case, it cannot be clear
in advance what sorts of life patterns will in fact be found to be shared
among the peoples forming what can be called a "civilization." Each
civilization defines its own scope, just as does each religion. There may
even be several sorts of basic continuity which may overlap in range.
Thus, depending on one's viewpoint, Byzantine culture may be seen as
5 Historical method in civilization studies 85
On determinacy in traditions
However a civilization be defined, it must not be hypostatized, as if it
had a life independent of its human carriers. The inherited cultural expec-
tations at any given time form part of the realities that members of a
given society must reckon with. They even put limits on what the most
alert of those members can see in their environment. But they have no
effect except as they interact with the actual environment and the imme-
diate interests of all concerned. The determinacy of tradition is limited,
in the long run, by the requirement that it be continuingly relevant in
current circumstances.
Continuing relevancy is crucial to recall especially when cross-cultural
comparisons are being made. For instance, in an attempt to understand
why it was in the Occident that, eventually, technicalized society arose,
scholars have looked to the state of the Occident in the centuries preced-
ing the transformations. This can be done along two lines: by studying
the special circumstances of the time when the transformations began
and the special opportunities open to Occidentals at that time; or by
studying inherent differences between Occidental culture and other cul-
tures. In the latter case, a comparative study of the High Medieval Occi-
dent with its contemporaries is fundamental.
It is this latter case that has seemed the easier in the past. An adequate
framework of overall world history was lacking as a basis for studying
the special characteristics of the time of the transformation itself, where-
as the chief other societies were just well enough known as isolated
entities to allow specious global generalizations to be made about their
cultural traits, traits which could be contrasted to subtle traits traceable
in the more intimately understood Occident. Moreover, studying inher-
ent traits in the Occident did have undeniable relevance to a related
question, often confused with the question why it was the Occident that
launched Modernity. The special form that modern technicalization
took, coming where it did, certainly owes much to special traits of the
86 I Europe in a global context
given fully free play only under the auspices of Islam. The triumph of
Islam was made possible by its special adaptation to that bias, but its
triumph in turn allowed that bias to determine the subsequent course of
Irano-Semitic history. Nevertheless, the consequences of such institution-
alization cannot reach very far in independence of the predisposing
conditions. They can allow a tendency already the strongest in that field
to become fully effective, and they can then reduce fluctuations that
might result from variations in the underlying conditions, so that a tem-
porary or a local deviation from the general norm will not produce a total
cultural disruption. But if altered basic conditions long persist, the corre-
sponding attitudes and their institutionalization will soon be changed to
match.
Historical change is continuous and all traditions are open and in
motion, by the very necessity of the fact that they are always in internal
imbalance. Minds are always probing the edges of what is currently
possible. But even apart from this, we are primarily human beings with
our personal interests to pursue, and only secondarily participants in
this or that tradition. Any tradition must be regularly reinforced by
current conditions so that it answers to current interests or it will perish
by drying u p - or be transformed into something relevant. Whatever
unity of patterning we may be able to discover, as to primacy of orienta-
tions or as to validation of norms of organization - whatever sense of
common style we may find in the culture, that is - may be very perva-
sive and persistent and yet be essentially fragile. As soon as new positive
possibilities open up, the unity of patterning is quickly vulnerable. To
the extent that a homogeneous and compelling style is attained, in fact,
it must be regarded as a delicate flower, not a tap root; it is not some-
thing imposed by cultural necessity, though the range of potentialities
may be given so, but something achieved by creative effort.
A special word has to be said about one of the crudest, yet remarkably
pervasive forms of hypostatizing a cultural tradition - or, in this case, a
whole series of them. The misimpression that "the East" has latterly
been awaking from a "millennial torpor" is still remarkably widespread.
It results, of course (like the term "East" itself), from the profound
ignorance of world history not only among modern Westerners but
among others as well, whose eager vaunting of the antiquity of their
institutions was taken at face value by Westerners.
We may single out two types of scholar who have reinforced the
misimpression. Western tourists, whose moods played a large role even
in scholarship, easily mistook the exotic for the immemorial, and were
necessarily blind to subtler institutional changes. Their impressions,
90 I Europe in a global context
My concerns with world history are several. Perhaps I can outline some
of the points at which I think world history is important, and this will be
more useful than anything else, for it leads to everything else. In the first
place, while all historical study results from the fact that people already
have some sort of sense or image of history, which it is desirable to refine
and correct, this is especially true in the case of world history. Our image
of the physical and temporal pattern of the human world as a whole, is
fundamental to our sense of who we are. No one is without some image
of the sort, however crude. The problem of the person who would
present world history is to move from whatever images his students
have, to a more satisfactory image. Of course, this does not mean that he
will first take a survey of what images are present and then proceed to
correct each one. Pedagogically, this would be too clumsy. Yet one of his
most important functions is to do something like this in effect.
There are several images of the world likely especially to appear
among the American public. One is a Christian or "Judeo-Christian"
image. This is almost always far more refined in college students than it
is on the Sunday-school level, but it has far more profound effects on the
world-historical image than merely the establishment of the dividing
point between B.C. and A.D. A second image that will occur occasionally,
and is more significant generally than might be expected from its explicit
occurrences, is the Marxist image of world history. This, too, comes in
several different forms - for instance, according to what is made of that
"Asiatic system of production." The most important basis for an image
of world history present among us is the Westernist image. This is very
subtle and very persuasive, and goes back directly at least to Hegel. It
divides world history into three categories: the Primitive, the Oriental,
Extracts from a letter of Marshall Hodgson to John Voll, December 19, 1966. Used with
permission.
91
92 I Europe in a global context
and the Western. The Primitive is not really historical at all and is human
only in a curiously ambivalent sense. The Oriental is either a preliminary
stage, as with Hegel himself, or a complement in certain ways to the
Western. In any case rationality, liberty, and progress are characteristics
of the Western. Sometimes the "Oriental" is "one-sidedly" spiritual;
sometimes it is given credit for still more; but always its patterns were
essentially formed in some sort of antiquity and it has been degenerating
since.
The Westernist image of world history, which as you know is re-
inforced by our usual maps of the world, which put the Western coun-
tries on a much larger scale than the others, is reinforced in a thousand
subtle ways, intentional and unintentional, by historical scholarship. If
one reads a "history of technology" it is a history of Western technology,
and inventions within the West and introduction from beyond the West
are treated as exactly the same sort of "progress," and little effort is
made to distinguish time or place outside of the limited Western area.
The result, in our sense of what humanity is, is obvious. I have just been
reading some materials on ancient Greek religion, especially Orphism.
What is astounding and persistent is the trichotomy between Primitive,
Western, and Oriental. In this case "Greek" is only what is not "Primi-
tive" or "Oriental"; what is Greek is whatever is limpidly rational; what-
ever is not is assumed to be non-Greek, and the history is oddly man-
aged to fit this categorization. The Orphic material is compared to the
Mazdean of any age, and the fact that giving high rank to the concept of
Time appears in the Mazdean tradition is used as evidence that it is not a
philosophical concept, but an "Oriental" one. No consideration is given
to the possibility that the abstract Mazdean concepts cited must have
arisen at a particular time and possibly in a process analogous to what
was going on in Greece. Indeed, it is taken for granted that anything
"Persian" must be static and pre-Greek and even pre-Orphic. Even
though something of this outlook is being overcome in some cases now,
the outlook is extremely pervasive and underlies the majority of the
work in Islamic studies. Institutional liberty and legality, rationality and
pure morality, literary and artistic form, are all identified with certain
segments of what is called "Western" and other experiences are judged
in terms of the resultant norms. Moreover historical relevance is judged
in terms of impact on Western Europe, and the significance of Islamdom
recedes as it recedes from the Mediterranean.
Now lately we have been seeing a new kind of attempt at world
history, which may be called the four-region pattern. It has been brought
to its first fulfillment (in the first genuine world history ever written) in
6 On doing world history 93
Bill McNeill's "Rise of the West." This orientation was developed essen-
tially among anthropologists or, more precisely, pre-historians. It has
begun to shake up the Westernist approach rather seriously on some
levels, especially in the form given it by Toynbee. (In this respect, Toyn-
bee represents a very different sense of world history from Spengler,
who was still operating in a Hegelian framework.) The four-region pat-
tern, however, is far from adequately developed as yet. From its anthro-
pological ancestry it inherits a strong emphasis on diffusionism. More-
over, it has not had the same basic philosophical underpinning that
either Christian, Marxist or Westernist images have had. It has been
rooted in merely empirical observation and has not yet been guided by a
fundamental sense of what happens historically. Consequently, it is not
immune to being taken over by an essentially Westernist approach. Both
the diffusionism and the Westernism are highly displayed in McNeill's
book.
I find that book is unpalatable partly because I disagree with his analy-
sis of most of the particular civilizations he presents, such as the Hellenic
and the Islamicate; but even more because of its unphilosophical struc-
ture. The diffusionism of culture traits cannot be properly understood
without a very great stress on the total context which determines the
nature of any diffusion which took place within it. McNeill is not at all
adequate in tracing the development of an overall world-historical con-
figuration as context for particular events. Then McNeill displays a per-
sistent Western bias, despite his very sincere attempts to get beyond it,
which obviously results from the Westernist ideology and its philosophic
pre-suppositions which he has not yet sufficiently analyzed in order to
emancipate himself from them. This lack is reflected not only in the
weird notion of Greek science and of the eternal European belligerence
and the like, but most significantly in his choice of the time for demarcat-
ing modern from pre-modern. The choice of 1500 instead of 1600 as the
round number here, is disastrous. It causes him, for instance, to treat
Portuguese expeditions not as one more venture within an essentially
agrarianate-level historical complex, which was rather readily contained
in the course of the 16th century by the other peoples in the Indian
Ocean, but rather as a part of the modern technicalistic advance. This
necessarily obscures the nature of the modern advance, making it simply
continuous with the Renaissance, and disguising its very innovative
relation both to the West and to the rest of the citied historical complex of
which the West was a part. In short, an adequate basis for world-
historical studies, beyond the older bases grounded in certain ideologi-
cal pre-commitments, has not yet developed.
94 I Europe in a global context
To me, one of the main reasons for studying world history is to disci-
pline the several communal allegiances such as the Judeo-Christian and
the Westernist. I do not hope to see those allegiances undermined, still
less destroyed. But I would like to see a basis for conversation and dialog
among them. A Westernist image of world history, if not disciplined by a
more adequate perspective, can do untold harm; in fact it is now doing
untold harm. That is why I lay so much stress on not assuming "deca-
dence" in the Islamic society before the 18th century unless one has
really good evidence. As long as no one has studied natural science
being produced in Islamdom after the Latins stopped translating from
Arabic, we have no right to say that it declined, on the basis of very
occasional peeps at its quality. With every decade the time at which the
so-called decline is supposed to begin gets pushed farther forward to-
ward modern times. Since the scholars work primarily with older
material - have to do so in fact - it is not surprising that they have not
gotten to the more recent works yet; but we must not assume what they
will find. But in any case, natural science is not the proper basis on
which to measure even the rationality of a civilization. This is why the
work of such men as Henry Corbin, reminding us of the great impor-
tance of philosophical figures in the 16th and 17th centuries, is so impor-
tant. Indeed I have been increasingly realizing that without a study of
the later philosophical tradition and in particular of that tradition in the
central areas of Islamdom (i.e., not Egypt which never was very impor-
tant, but Iraq and Iran which were in recent times largely Shi'i), much of
the 19th-century development of modernism in Islamdom is unintelligi-
ble. For instance, I think it very significant that al-Afghani has been
found to have been trained at Najaf, and to have evoked some of his
most important response (perhaps more important than in Egypt) in
Iran. Again, it is for this same reason that I find so appalling the reduc-
tion of the Islamic area, in our manners of thinking, to the boundary
lines of the British Middle East Command in the Second World War; in
particular the eternalizing of the British boundary down the middle of
Iran splitting Khurasan in two. To make use of current political bound-
aries in our discussion of historical materials turns out, with remarkable
frequency, to be another means of reinforcing Westernist biases. One of
the most important tasks of world history, as I see it, is to give people a
sense of the pattern of time periods and geographical areas which is free
of the multifarious Westernist presuppositions.
II
Islam in a global context
7
The role of Islam in world history
Until the seventeenth century of our era, the Islamicate society that was
associated with the Islamic religion was the most expansive society in the
Afro-Eurasian hemisphere and had the most influence on other societies.
This was in part because of its central location, but also because in it were
expressed effectively certain cultural pressures - cosmopolitan and egali-
tarian (and anti-traditional) - generated in the older and more central
lands of this society. The culture of Islamdom offered a norm of interna-
tional sophistication to many peoples as they were being integrated into
the hemispheric commercial nexus. It also offered a flexible political frame-
work for increasing numbers of long-civilized peoples. In this world role,
the Islamicate society and culture demonstrated persistent creativity and
growth, though some periods were more creative than others, until quite
modern times; then the development was disrupted, not by internal deca-
dence but by unprecedented external events. These are viewpoints that I
have been forced to develop in the course of attempting a general history
of Islamicate civilization, viewpoints that seem to emerge cumulatively
from recent studies in several particular fields as well as from the synoptic
approach I have adopted. I think they are important for historians, even
those outside of Islamic studies, to take cognizance of, though neither the
full grounds for them nor their precise implications or limitations can be
presented completely here.
In the sixteenth century of our era, a visitor from Mars might well
have supposed that the human world was on the verge of becoming
Muslim. He would have based his judgment partly on the strategic and
political advantages of the Muslims, but partly also on the vitality of
their general culture.
Their social and political eminence leaps to the eye. In the eastern
hemisphere, where lived nine-tenths of mankind, allegiance to Islam
was far more widespread than any other allegiance. Muslims, that is
persons committed to worshipping God according to the teaching of
97
98 II Islam in a global context
cated. The Portuguese, who had navigated the stormier Atlantic, had
gained a certain degree of technical superiority over the Muslims. Only
the Chinese shipping from the Pacific was larger and stronger. The Portu-
guese also had bases in West Africa inaccessible to the Muslims, which
gave them a political advantage. They proceeded to attempt to monopo-
lize certain parts of the Indian Ocean spice trade, trying especially to cut
off the limited portion of that trade which went up the Red Sea and the
Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, serving as source of supply for their
own European rivals, the Venetians.
It is only now coming to be realized how far the Portuguese were from
marking the start of a European hegemony. At first they had some suc-
cess, partly by taking advantage of rivalries among the Muslim powers.
Neither the Ottoman nor the Timuri Mughal power, oriented away from
the Southern Seas, proved of much help against them, though the Otto-
mans sent one expedition as far as Sumatra (and at one time planned to
cut a ship canal between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean). But by the
later part of the century, the Muslims of the Indian Ocean had them-
selves matched the Portuguese technical advantages and had succeeded
in containing them, reducing them to one element among others in the
multinational trading world of the Southern Seas. Muslim political
power continued to spread in the Malay Archipelago, and the spice
trade up the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf seems to have been as great as
ever.1
In the far north, Muslims were also facing a challenge from Christian
Europeans. The Muscovites, who had become independent of Muslim
rule in the preceding century, were building up a vast and powerful
domain, and actually succeeded during the century in overpowering the
Muslim states on the Volga. The Ottomans attempted to turn the tide by
cutting a ship canal between the Don and the Volga (at Stalingrad,
where, finally, the Soviet Union has in fact cut a canal), so as to ensure
regular communications between the Black Sea and the Caspian. They
failed, partly through the jealousy of the other northern Muslim powers.
But the northern powers themselves actively staved off the Russian
advance for a time. The Ozbegs of Bukhara helped by sending peasant
colonists north to the Irtysh basin (the original "Siberia") so as to stiffen
1
The man who has done most to revise older ideas on the sixteenth century in the Indian
Ocean is Jacob C. van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society (The Hague: van Hoeve, 1955).
The modifications of his thesis by M. A. P. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European
Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague: Nijhoff,
1962), have not reversed his conclusions.
ioo II Islam in a global context
the Muslim khanate there, which was based on a rather sparse popula-
tion, against the steady influx of the Russians.2
The Europe of the Renaissance was not yet able to do more than dent
the vast mass of Muslim power, and indeed the Christian Europeans
themselves (as we know) lived in some dread that "the Turk" might
overrun them all. When the French temporarily gave the Ottomans a
naval base on the southern coast of France, they were regarded as trai-
tors to the most pressing of common European causes. But, at least late
in the century, an extraordinary perceptive visitor from Mars might have
been able to foresee a change. Already by the end of the sixteenth
century, basic transformations were beginning in Occidental economic
and scientific life, transformations that were to result, within two centu-
ries, in the unquestionable supremacy of the Christian European powers
throughout the world. During these two centuries, largely as a result of
changes in the Occident, the economic and cultural life of Muslim peo-
ples was to be denatured and undermined.
But meanwhile, in the sixteenth century and well into the seven-
teenth, the Muslims found themselves at a peak point not only of politi-
cal power but also of cultural creativity. This was especially the case in
the old core area of Muslim culture, the Fertile Crescent and the Iranian
highlands; but the Muslims of India took a great part and also, to some
degree, those of the Ottoman empire. The subsequent time of decline
has cast a shadow over the greatness of the age, which by no means
leaps to the eye any more; yet it was quite as much Muslim cultural
splendor as Muslim political power that might have persuaded the Mar-
tian visitor that Islam was about to prevail among mankind, and some of
the monuments of that splendor are known even to the relatively casual
modern Westerner.
In the visual arts, a new tradition of painting (what we usually call the
"Persian miniatures"); beginning in the fourteenth century, came to a first
climax at the end of the fifteenth century with Behzad, and in the six-
teenth century was further developed in several directions - including
not only formal illustration but pen-and-ink genre scenes and fine portrai-
ture. At the same time, an architectural tradition was developing whose
most famous point of culmination was the Taj Mahal in India, completed
in 1653. In the field of letters, the three great Muslim languages were
Persian, Arabic, and Turkish, though numerous lesser languages also
On Ottoman and other Muslim political and economic activity in the sixteenth century,
an illuminating recent survey is W. E. D. Allen, Problems of Turkish Power in the Sixteenth
Century. (London: Central Asian Research Centre, 1963.)
7 The role of Islam in world history 101
were developing literary forms in that period. Poetry remained the pre-
eminent form of expression: the sixteenth century was the age of the
"Indian style/' later rejected by Persian critics as too recherche in the
unpoetic days of the eighteenth century, but recently being recognized
again for its subtle and creative command of all the resources of allu-
sion that rich Persian poetic tradition has built up in the preceding five
centuries. In Turkish and Persian prose, especially, the old solid tradi-
tion of historical, geographical, and biographical literature was supple-
mented with a new vogue for revealing autobiographies which matched
the portraiture of the time in its interest in the private and personal:
notably the Turkish memoirs of Babur, Timurid conqueror of north
India. 3
We have little idea what was being done in the natural sciences. In the
time of the great observatory at Samarqand, in the fifteenth century,
Muslim astronomers certainly were abreast and possibly still ahead of
those in China and the Occident, where, after a peak in the thirteenth
century under Muslim influence, scientific studies had become less ac-
tive in the fourteenth century. But the rows and rows of Arabic and
Persian scientific works of all sorts that survive have scarcely been cata-
logued and still less read since the end of the eighteenth century.4 In
philosophy, however, the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries saw
much vigorous new inquiry, the most prominent figure being Molla
Sadra, whose doctrine of the mutability of essences inspired a series of
philosophic movements still having repercussions among twentieth-
century Muslims. 5
It is conventional for modern scholars to assume that Islamicate cul-
ture underwent a decline or decadence after the collapse of the High
Caliphate or, at latest, by the time of the Mongol conquest in the thir-
3 The master study on Persian literature now is that of Alessandro Bausani, in A. Pagliaro
and A. Bausani, Storia della letteratura persiana (Milan: Nuova Academia Editrice, i960),
which pinpoints the newer insights into sixteenth-century poetry. I might add that Mar-
tin Dickson of Princeton University, though he has not yet published much, has helped
those who know him perceive the cultural vigor and variety of this period.
4 C. A. Storey, Persian Literature: a bio-bibliographical survey (London: Luzac, 1927-1984), the
volumes of which are still appearing, suggests in its sections on the sciences the wealth
waiting to be investigated.
5 The most important recent writer to bring out the importance of Islamic philosophy in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is Henry Corbin: perhaps even more revealing
than his works dealing directly with Molla Sadra is volume I of his Histoire de la philosophie
islamique (Paris: Gallimard, 1964). But already the Indian poet and inspirer of Pakistan,
Muhammad Iqbal, in the last pages of his The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (Lon-
don: Luzac, 1908), had indicated to the perceptive reader what active seeds lay in Molla
Sadra especially.
102 II Islam in a global context
with a newly transformed West. In this case, one would expect that the
greater figures in the centuries just before 1700 would remain un-
appreciated; for when modern investigation began, to suggest what of
the later work was worth reading would be second-rate epigones. Such
men would indeed be aware of the famous earlier names, but would
incapable of judging among more recent figures, not yet fully winnowed
by fame when the best men's attentions were diverted. A picture such as
is reported would naturally result, especially in the less central lands.
Such evidence as there is would be consistent with this hypothesis. We
must await further investigations before we can decide whether, even in
the special field of natural science, there was any actual decadence.
One reason for the assumption of an earlier and ingrained decadence
is a question that naturally arises, given the usual notions of world
history, in a modern perspective. Westerners often ask what it was that
went wrong, that the Muslim lands, once powerful, did not go on to
share in the great Western transformations of the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries and enter modern times on a par with the Occident. We
shall deal very briefly with that question later. The answer does not lie, I
am sure, primarily in any prior internal failure of Muslim society; and
certainly not in any special obscurantism of Islamic religion. On the
contrary, before we can properly pose the question of what happened in
the eighteenth century, we must first understand how Islam came to
have so great a success for a thousand years. This will require that we
turn back to the origins of Islam and its history - and this, in turn, will
require us to understand the yet earlier Irano-Semitic cultural traditions
of which the Muslims were the heirs. And then we will find our way
forward to the sixteenth century.
The immediate background of Islam in the Arabian Hijaz, like that of
Christianity in Palestine, is significant; but in both cases, the actual for-
mation of the religion took place in a wider setting, which was at least as
important as the local milieu of the founder. Islam was first established,
as the allegiance of a major community, in the extensive zone of Semitic
and Iranian lands between the Nile and the Oxus rivers. Islam has often
been interpreted chiefly in terms of its Arabian environment, and ele-
ments identifiable as tracing back to sources outside Arabia have been
envisaged as borrowings; but it is truer to the dynamic of events to
recognize that, from the beginning, its development presupposed and
built upon the cultural resources of the whole wider region.
Mecca depended for its existence on commercial ties with the Fertile
Crescent and was keenly aware of the shifting political forces in the
region as a whole. Muhammad's political policy seems increasingly to
7 The role of Islam in world history 105
have taken into account the regional balance of power.8 Though the
majority of the local population was pagan, several Arab groups had
adopted Jewish or Christian allegiance; Muhammad's preaching in
Mecca presupposed a general acquaintance with the monotheistic tradi-
tions, which Muhammad claimed he was sent to confirm - and to cor-
rect. Jews were especially strong in Medina, where Muhammad went in
622 to lead an independent community that would put his ideals into
practice. Many of the religious disputes that were agitated among Chris-
tians and Jews in the region at large found an echo at Mecca and Medina.
It is possible to interpret much of the Quran as an attempt to get behind
those disputes to common basic essentials, to the faith of Abraham who
was before Jews and Christians. Almost immediately after Muhammad's
death in 632, his community made itself master of the whole region from
Nile to Oxus. In doing so, it did not enter essentially alien territory.
When Islam was announced there, the new doctrine did not seem
strange, and indeed increasing numbers found it quite a logical further
step in their own religious development.
The conquered peoples were expected, in principle, to carry on essen-
tially in their old ways, maintaining their old religious allegiances. But it
was not many generations before the majority of the urban population
insisted on adopting Islam, and even those who did not do so tended to
use Arabic as a common medium of culture. The Muslim empire had
been based on a pastoralist military force, but that force had been led by
urban merchants whose outlook was not incompatible with that of the
mercantile elements in the conquered lands. In any case, in marked
contrast to other pastoralist empires, the one created by the Arabs stayed
in one piece and endured; and, as the Arabs were assimilated into the
regional population, they did not adopt the local languages and religious
systems but instead were able to impose their own language and alle-
giance on the various peoples they had conquered.
After a century, the empire ceased to be a strictly Arab state; it came
to be dominated by the converted peoples in the name of a suprana-
tional Islam, though for some time the common language of culture
was Arabic. The religion, at first scarcely more than a ruling-class code
and a powerful but ill-defined spiritual impetus, was deepened and
broadened by the contributions of the various peoples from Nile to
Oxus; these included many of the presuppositions of the sharia law
8
The implications of Muhammad's campaigns toward Syria, in the light of Byzantine-
Sasani vicissitudes at the time and of earlier Meccan history, have not yet been fully
explored; Wm. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956),
has gathered much suggestive material.
io6 II Islam in a global context
9 The work of Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1950), brings out the remarkable role of al-Shafi, but we have yet to pin
down how it was that the basic expectations about religion that governed the formation
of the sharia came to be so close to those governing the Jewish Halakha law; studies of
correspondences in detail between sharia and Halakha scarcely touch this deeper ques-
tion. The parallelism cannot simply be derived from primitive Islamic principles, for
quite diverse consequences could be and were drawn from those.
10
Particularly "A Comparison of Islam and Christianity as Frameworks for Religious Life/'
Diogenes (i960), pp. 49-74 (badly mangled in editing); also "Islam and Image/' History of
Religions, vol. 3 (1964), pp. 220-60, where I also develop in more detail some of the
argument here presented.
7 The role of Islam in world history 107
I have tried to pinpoint the relations among these lettered traditions as forming a world-
historical phenomenon in "The Interrelations of Societies in History/' Comparative Studies
in Society and History, vol. 5 (1963), pp. 227-50.
io8 II Islam in a global context
J
3 The most ambitious attempt to analyze these events from a world-historical viewpoint,
that of Franz Altheim, Utopie und Wirtschaft (Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann, 1957),
comes to a very different conclusion from the present essay; it suffers from a drastic
schematism as well as an arbitrary interpretation of details - its analysis of Muhammad,
for instance, is weirdly anachronistic; but it has suggestive data.
** The several works of H. Lammens, notably La Mecque a la veille de Vhegire, (Beirut:
Imprimerie catholique, 1924), which pointed out the extensive dimensions of the
Meccan system, are full of over-daring suggestions and have been justly criticized; but
their main conclusions still stand and have not even been fully replaced by the several
subsequent studies in a similar vein.
ii4 II Islam in a global context
society: public offices, as such, were ruled out; everything became the
responsibility of the community as a whole and therefore of the individu-
als who made it up. The Caliph might have a function, but it was, in
principal, minimal. Wherever Muslims were found in sufficient num-
bers, the sharia law would allow them to constitute their own fully legiti-
mate social structure in all needful respects. And the authority of the
sharia law was such that (though several other sorts of laws were used
alongside it) no alternative institutions, which might have neutralized its
effect, could achieve legitimation and hence long-run durability.
Because sharia law was formed and maintained by the private initiative
of private persons, special provision had to be made to ensure unifor-
mity and predictability. It was widely held that a jurist must declare
himself the adherent of one or another of a handful of recognized
schools of law, and if a particular point had been agreed on by the
majority of his school in the past, he had to follow the majority. Such
requirements have been regarded as enforcing excessive rigidity. But if
one looks not at the elementary textbooks but at the authoritative collec-
tions of legal decisions, it turns out that in each of the main legal schools
ways were found to adapt to changing circumstances at a pace sufficient
for pre-modern needs.
One consequence of this autonomy and exclusiveness in the sharia law
was an undermining of the legitimacy of any agrarian absolutist author-
ity, including the Caliphate itself. But another consequence rather made
up for this; to give a religious community as such a viable total political
role as the basis for society. This gave the Irano-Semitic populations at
last a common vehicle for their traditions, representing, as their several
religious communities had long begun to do, the populistic urban ideals
over against any agrarian government. Into the Islamic framework and
the Arabic language were transferred - and often directly translated -
most of the more vital elements of the Irano-Semitic heritages: the ele-
ments of monotheistic religion, of course (the old popular lore, and
much of the more elite wisdom, received an Islamic dress); but also
belles-lettres, history, science, and philosophy. Nestorians and Mono-
physites learned Arabic to write their medical treatises even when they
did not turn Muslim. At last the region from Nile to Oxus had its com-
mon literary language, like the other great regions. That language was
built up precisely upon the prophetic heritage; and now its commu-
nalism, which before had fragmented the region, united it.
The Muslim sharia law represented the most radical of the old tenden-
cies. It was highly egalitarian, and therefore, perhaps, what may be
called contractualistic. A very wide range of relations were left to con-
n6 II Islam in a global context
*s Ira Lapidus, in Muslim Cities in the Later Middle Ages (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, 1967), has studied how, in Mamluk Syria, the garrisons were in fact drawn
into the urban structure of contract and patronage; so complementing the fundamental
analysis of the separation of the occupying garrisons from the civilian life made by
H. A. R. Gibb. (He has also noted the intershading of merchant and ulama families.)
n8 II Islam in a global context
horizons (often such areas coincided partly with the hinterlands of trade
routes): in sub-Saharan Africa, in the Volga and Irtysh river basins, in the
Malaysian islands, and in such marginal areas as Bengal and even Yun-
nan in China. Finally, Islam came to prevail politically and socially in the
lands of most ancient civilization: in the old core area of Sanskrit culture,
in north India; and in most of the old core area of Hellenic culture, in the
Anatolian and Balkan peninsulas. Here conquest came first, and the
Muslim cadres came only later to reinforce it and make it irreversible. By
the sixteenth century, most of the East Christian, Hindu, and Theravada
Buddhist peoples found themselves more or less enclaved in an Is-
lamicate world where Muslim standards of taste commonly made their
way even into independent kingdoms, like Hindu Vijayanagar or Nor-
man Sicily.
Speaking very broadly, then, and referring only to certain dynamic
points, we can say the role of Islam in Afro-Eurasian history was to
institutionalize the more egalitarian and cosmopolitan tendencies in
Irano-Semitic culture, giving to urban and communal expectations associ-
ated with mercantile prominence a key role (though, indeed, not a mas-
ter role). This made possible the spread of the Irano-Semitic traditions
across the hemisphere under the aegis of a single order bound together
by a common allegiance. This social order, finally, formed the chief part
of the wider world context impinging on the other societies of the
hemisphere - which were able to offer adequate alternatives to it only in
the extreme northeast and northwest of the Afro-Eurasian land mass.
We can hardly, then, look on the middle periods of Islamicate history -
the centuries between about 945 (the collapse of the Caliphal state) and
about 1500 (the rise of new major bureaucratic empires) - as decadent,
despite their decentralization and militarization. The tremendous expan-
sive power of Islamicate society in those centuries shows that even po-
litically the decentralized system was extraordinarily successful; for it
answered the needs of an increasingly cosmopolitan world. It was an
effective development of the cultural tendencies that had produced Is-
lam itself and its Caliphate. Given the pre-Islamic communal develop-
ments between Nile and Oxus, the High Caliphal state can (in one
perspective) be regarded almost as an interlude, a transition from the
agrarian monarchy of the Sasanians to a more decentralized social order
long since increasingly congenial to the region, to its special expansive
strength and creativity.
Culturally, likewise, we must be hesitant to write off the later forms of
Islamicate art or literature (especially the Persian literature, more widely
7 The role of Islam in world history 121
Robert M. Hartwell, in a doctoral thesis at the University of Chicago in 1963, has made
clear the comprehensive extent of the abortive industrial revolution in Sung China; thus
throwing revealing light on the phenomenal cultural flowering in Tang and Sung China.
7 The role of Islam in world history 123
earlier in many cases for the Occident, but the whole development can
be attested in internal Muslim materials).18
In any case, the empires, as we have seen, scarcely represent a
decline; rather they took up the positive cultural developments of the
preceding several centuries and carried them further - notably in the
Isfahan of Shah Abbas the Great in Iran and the Agra of the Emperor
Akbar in India. The empire of Akbar marvelously impressed Western
visitors for its prosperity and urbanity even though by the end of
Akbar's life the great transformations in the West were already getting
under way; but its greatness cannot be ascribed simply to Akbar's eccen-
tricities. All the notable ideas on which he built his empire and which his
successors long maintained, such as the doctrines of sulh-e hull, universal
conciliation, were foreshadowed among Muslims in the preceding two
centuries, though never before so fully worked out as by men like Fayzi
and Abulfazl in Akbar's time.
Yet the more industrial society of the Occident was even then begin-
ning a further internal transformation which, by the end of the eigh-
teenth century, had destroyed all the older bases of historical life in the
Afro-Eurasian complex. Until that point, the level of social power in the
Afro-Eurasian citied lands had advanced at a fairly even pace across the
hemisphere. The technical resources and social complexity of the Span-
iards, the Ottomans, and the Chinese in the sixteenth century were
about equally removed from those of the ancient Sumerians - or of the
Aztecs - and would have allowed any one of those powers to over-
whelm such a less highly developed society. For though development
was always very uneven, yet in the conditions of the Agrarian Age, if
any given cultural bloc caught up with the others within four or five
centuries, the rough balance could be maintained. But in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, the pace of change was enormously
accelerated within one of the cultural blocs. What happened in Christian
Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries doubtless emerged
in part from the increased role of industrial investment there that had
begun earlier; and it presupposed the special florescence of the time of
Renaissance and Reformation. But even that florescence did not pass
beyond the sort of agrarian-based limitations on the historical processes
that had prevailed since the Axial Age, even since Sumer. It was no more
innovative than like earlier florescences - those of the Axial Age every-
18
For the development in a relatively backward part of Islamdom, Egypt, see David
Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms in the Matnluk Kingdom (London: Valentine, Mitchell,
1956).
124 11 Islam in a global context
generally were already well beyond what the Islamicate tradition could
yet offer; and they were discovering also that the new advances de-
pended on a large-scale investment in multiple specializations - notably
the "instrument-makers" and the technology on which they in turn
depended - not available to a non-Westerner. Further advance in the old
traditions was pointless, but adoption of the new traditions was impossi-
ble. Creativity, intellectual as well as economic, was almost impercepti-
bly strangled.
It was at this point - at the end of the sixteenth century, that the
long-standing ecological and historical foundation of the greatness and
creativity of the Islamicate version of Irano-Semitic culture disappeared;
for now it no longer answered the social and intellectual needs of a
world increasingly cosmopolitan on a mercantile basis, but rather faced
a transformed world whose cosmopolitanism was on a quite new basis.
Unable to keep up or to insulate themselves, most of the non-Western
societies were instead undermined and overwhelmed. In the sixteenth
century, the Muslim peoples, taken collectively, were at the peak of their
power, by the end of the eighteenth century they were prostrate. The
Safavi empire and even the Timuri empire of India were practically de-
stroyed, and the Ottoman empire was desperately weakened; and such
weaknesses could no longer be compensated by internal developments
at the old pace, but invited Occidental intervention - which occurred
massively, directly and indirectly, by the beginning of the nineteenth
century. If it was any consolation, even the unparalleled power, wealth,
and culture of the Chinese were subjected to the same fate.21
The fate of the Islamicate civilization is not, then, an example of a
biological law that every organism must flourish and then decay; for a
civilization is not a organism. If anything, that fate exemplifies, rather,
an economic principle that a successful institution may invest so heavily
in one kind of excellence, adapted to one kind of opportunity, that it will
be ruined when new circumstances bring other sorts of opportunity to
the fore - perhaps as a result, in part, of the very excellence with which
the first opportunity was exploited.
I have gone into more detail on the world-historical situation of modern Muslims in
"Modernity and the Islamic Heritage: Dilemmas of the Concerned Individual in the
Modern Acceleration of History/' Islamic Studies, Journal of the Central Institute of
Islamic Research, Karachi, vol. I (1962), pp. 89-129.
8
Cultural patterning in Islamdom
and the Occident
about 1600, the basic conditions of agrarianate historical life itself began
to be altered in the Occident, and comparisons after that date therefore
introduce considerations alien to any direct comparison between two
cultures as such.
Chinese merchants and princes to which they had sunk by a few centu-
ries later. In the Indian Ocean basin, trade no longer depended simply
on a few northerly markets, but was active along all the shores.
In the same thousand years the technical competence of human being
in the Afro-Eurasian civilized zone had markedly increased. "Greek fire"
had been invented and then gunpowder; the compass had been put to
work on all the seas; paper had spread from China to all regions, and
printing was in use in the Far East and at least some of its elements were
known elsewhere. Innumerable lesser inventions and discoveries had
been made in the field of practical and of artistic technique, in the cultiva-
tion of plants and animals, in abstract scientific knowledge; some were
of local application and some of general use; some of the most spectacu-
lar originated in China, but every region could be credited with some;
and all (whether taken up elsewhere or merely adding to a local complex-
ity) cumulatively contributed to a heightened level of availability of hu-
man resources everywhere in the Oikoumene. It was indeed, in part,
some of the new discoveries that helped make possible, directly and
indirectly, the expansion that had taken place in the area of civilized
interaction; and this expansion, in turn, added to the potential sources
of new discoveries. As in each millennium that had preceded, cumula-
tively the pace of history had quickened. (Whether mankind was progress-
ing is a different question.) Here again, Islamdom shared at least as
much as any other society in the overall development.
There was a third field of change during the previous millennium, less
tangible than the geographical and technical accretions. This was a broad-
ened and deepened experience with philosophical and religious life. Not
only from Nile to Oxus but in all the major citied regions the rich cre-
ations of the classical Axial Age had been deeply assimilated, marve-
lously differentiated, a thousand and one of their possible implications
worked out minutely. The labors of Ghazali and Ibn al-Arabi in appreciat-
ing and integrating the Irano-Semitic life-orientational traditions, as they
had developed by their time, were matched in differing ways in the
other regions by figures like Shankara and Ramanuja in India, Chu Hsi
in China, Michael Psellus and Thomas Aquinas in Europe, all roughly
(as world history goes) contemporaries. At least as important as any
intellectual formulations was the maturing of traditions of personal expe-
rience with various aspects of the mystical life, and of institutions (usu-
ally monastic) which embodied these traditions, a maturing which had
taken place likewise in all the great Oikoumenic regions.
Within this wider and more sophisticated world, Islamdom occupied
an increasingly central and already almost a dominant position. The
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 129
yet were more widely influential than any other bloc in shaping the
cultural interchange and even the political life of the whole Oikoumene.
But it was not merely the geographical centrality of the Muslim heart-
lands that put them in a pre-eminent position. It was the cultural and
social mobility of the Muslims, their cosmopolitanism, that allowed
them to take full advantage of their central position. Within the setting
of agrarianate-level Oikoumenic society, the Islamicate culture was maxi-
mally adapted to an expansive and dominant role. It was to maintain
this role, becoming steadily more dominant in the Oikoumene, until the
Oikoumenic historical circumstances were totally altered - at the hands
of the Occidentals.
The sources of Occidental strength and growth are the object of one of
the most intriguing inquiries of world history. The sources of Islamicate
strength and persistent vitality pose almost as great a world-historical
problem, and one perhaps equally intriguing. To compare the two soci-
eties at their most nearly comparable stages can help to show to what
degree the strength of each can be ascribed to its particular cultural
composition, and to what degree to the overall circumstances in which
its peoples found themselves.
ing such structuring in Islam and in Christianity can bring out the conse-
quences of the persistent primacy in Islam of a sense of personal moral
responsibility. But at best such a comparison is full of pitfalls. To evaluate
in any way a pattern of ultimate orientation seems to imply judging one
ultimate standard by another - or by a standard less than ultimate. In
our case, to see either religious tradition from the viewpoint of the other
(the commonest procedure) amounts inevitably to showing the one as
weak in the other's strong points. To judge them both by a standard
alien to either (sometimes attempted in reaction) is to risk missing just
those points that are most distinctive and for that reason incommensu-
rate with any more common human norms. Yet, fortunately, human life
is not divisible into watertight compartments. Apart from such explicit
physiological defects as color-blindness, the sorts of experience accessi-
ble to one human being are at least in some measure generally accessible
to other human beings, so that there are no ultimate barriers to mutual
comprehension between different cultural frames of reference - at least
so far as such frames of reference are open to diverse temperaments
within their own ranks. Hence what is called a phenomenological
approach - such as a comparison of the structuring of comparable ele-
ments in two traditions - allows at least an opportunity of genuine ap-
preciation, and will guard maximally against the effects of the inevitable
precommitments of the inquirer.1
Despite the tremendous variety of religious orientation that has arisen
in different sects or orders within the Christian tradition, a central theme
has retained its hold on Christian imaginations under all sorts of circum-
stances, a theme ever presented to them anew especially in the writings
of Paul and of John: the demand for personal responsiveness to redemptive
love in a corrupted world. An equally wide variety of religious orientation
has arisen among Muslims of different allegiances and tariqas, and
among them also a central theme has retained its power under the most
diverse circumstances whenever the Quran has been taken seriously:
the demand for personal responsibility for the moral ordering of the natural
world.
These themes have been presented in contrasting cosmologies. Chris-
tians have seen the world as first corrupted with Adam, thenceforth to
be patiently redeemed by a loving God, tirelessly forgiving His people so
soon as they respond to His grace, and finally revealing Himself most
1
This is not to say that one can actually dispense with those precommitments. On the
inevitability and, indeed, the creative value of Christian, Westernistic, and other high-
level precommitments, particularly in Islamic studies, see "On scholarly precommit-
ments" in the section on historical method in Chapter 5, above.
136 II Islam in a global context
fully among them as a perfect Life of suffering love, to which they need
only respond with love, to be saved from the corruption and made
whole. Muslims have seen the world as the proper sphere of Adam's
viceregency; when Adam strayed into error, he turned to God for guid-
ance and was guided; rather than a source of taint in his descendants, he
is a model to them. Thenceforth, God continued the guidance through a
series of prophetic summonses to a total pattern of living; finally He
revealed His transcendent unity most clearly through a perfect Book; if
people allow it to remind them of what they are if left to themselves,
they will turn to Him and His guidance will enable them to live right and
to rule the world in justice. The central event of history for Christians
was Christ's crucifixion and resurrection, which most decisively evoke a
sense of God's love in him who opens himself to their impact, and lead
him to respond to others in the same spirit. The central event of history
for Muslims was the descent and preaching of the Quran, which most
decisively evokes a sense of God's majesty and his own condition in him
who opens himself to its impact, and leads him to reflect and submit
himself to its norms.
For Christians, the Law, the necessities imposed by social living, is
transcended as people are liberated, in loving response, to act through
the inward power of God's free spirit; the Sermon on the Mount pro-
vides a standard of true living. For Muslims, the laws and customs of
humans are reoriented toward a universal justice; humans, stirred out of
their petty neglectfulness by confrontation with God's words, are to act
as the viceregents of God in the whole creation; the jihad, the struggle
for social righteousness, provides a standard of true living. For Chris-
tians, the kind of religious experience most honored is the acceptance of
redemptive grace, which means a process of rebirth, of inward transfor-
mation. For Muslims, the kind of religious experience most honored is
the acceptance of prophetic vision, which means a process of chasten-
ing, of concentrating his attention, of inward refocusing. Christians
share their experience in a redemptive fellowship, a special sacramental
society, the church, which is to be in the world, redeeming the world,
but is not of the world; within which, normally, some have been or-
dained to offer again the tokens of God's love to the rest in recurring
reenactment of Christ's sacrifice. Muslims share their experience in a
total society, comprehending (in principle) the whole of human life, the
Ummah, built upon standards derived from the prophetic vision; com-
prising a homogeneous brotherhood bearing a common witness brought
to mind daily in the salat worship and impressively reaffirmed en masse
each year at Mecca.
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 137
and in the more formal events of law and social intercourse among
especially the privileged classes. Any persistent cultural pattern is likely
to be making sense in terms of the calculable interests of those who
practice it. Hence it is doubtful if one should say of any given major
society (though it is often said) that such and such practical alternatives
were closed to it because of such and such unalterable culture traits. If,
in the long run, a given society failed to develop along a line which
might seem to us advantageous, this is generally to be explained in
terms of the practical options open to members of the society at the time:
one can expect to find that, in fact, given the total situation, the neces-
sary steps were not sufficiently advantageous to sufficient numbers in
any given generation to make them worthwhile. One need not invoke
the dead hand of the past, supposedly exercised through traditionally
imposed attitudes, religious or not. In a history such as this, therefore,
the interests of particular groups and the problems of particular periods
are put in relief.
Nevertheless, those norms that are given primacy in prestige, on the
level of high culture among the privileged classes, have a pervasive and
enduring efficacy. In a crisis, they underlie the ideals that imaginative
individuals will bring to bear in working out new ways of action; they
offer a guide that aspiring groups in the society can make use of as they
try to approximate to the privileged classes' ways; above all, it is these
norms that confer legitimacy. Other things being equal, those ideas,
practices, and positions of power or authority that are recognized gener-
ally as legitimate can survive times when their current expression or
implementation is temporarily weakened; for each person expects that
the others will support them, and so he will be guided more by the
positions' long-term prospects of strength than by a short-term weak-
ness. A dog is obeyed in office: even a fool will be obeyed for a time if he
is recognized as legitimate ruler. Hence norms given cultural primacy
and legitimizing some cultural forms at the expense of others have a
pervasive influence so long as the traditions that support them retain
their long-term relevance. A global comparison between two cultures, as
in this chapter, will necessarily bring out any more persistent constants
of this sort that can be perceived.
It is not only norms in the sphere of ultimate commitment, but also in
other spheres, artistic, intellectual, and socio-legal, that mold the climate
of a society. The straightforward moral appeal of the Islamic religious
tradition was complemented on the social level, in Islamdom in the
Middle Periods, by what may be called a "contractualistic" pattern of
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 139
if we cannot rule them out altogether. To this end, we must bear some
things in mind as presuppositions of both societies. We must make our
contrast against the background of any common necessities or commit-
ments that would produce a common pattern of which the individual
regions would be developing variant forms. Here this is not a matter
simply of a common agrarianate substratum, but of a common dynamic
situation, with an active historical dimension.
Apart from the broadest possible lines of what minimally distin-
guished any agrarian land tenure and any urban-based government,
there were no norms of social organization evidently common to all
agrarianate-level society. Yet there was one widespread tendency with
its own norms which, if allowed full play, could determine legitimacy in
a wide sphere: the tendency to subordinate everything to a great territo-
rial bureaucracy. Such a tendency could be traced back at least to the
great empires that arose in each of the core areas at the end of or soon
following the Axial Age. Where it prevailed, agrarian relations were
regulated, at last, by bureaucratic oversight from the center of imperial
government, cities were administered from there, even crafts guilds or
monasteries were likely to be subject to imposition of rules and even
rulers from above. This was the organizational side of the absolutist
ideal, invoked in the name of peace and equal justice against the tyranny
of the strong. In significantly differing forms, such a pattern dominated
many sectors of social organization to a great degree in the Byzantine
and the Chinese societies long after the fall of the early post-Axial Age
empires.
But territorial bureaucracy, though universally present in some de-
gree, was more usually limited in its overall social effects by equally
potent alternative sets of social expectations. In the Occident and in
Hindu India, any tendencies toward territorial bureaucratic domination
were inhibited drastically by systems of deep-rooted particularism.
These two rich agricultural regions, flanking the central lands of Is-
lamdom on either side, had in common not only the obvious reverence
for images (which Muslims called idolatry) but also, less obviously, a
somewhat comparable social organization. In both societies, from the
time of the Rajputs and of feudalism, innumerable social bodies main-
tained or developed their private (caste, or corporate and estate) laws
and customs, and were integrated among themselves less by any com-
monly recognized authorities than by an intricately hierarchical system
of mutual obligations, in which every social unit retained its indefeasible
autonomy.
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 141
societies. But the Occidentals carried it to its logical extreme - while the
Muslims systematically excluded it almost altogether.
This corporativism was an admirable way of envisaging social rela-
tions, elegantly worked out and to a remarkable degree effective in
practice. It has been compared to a Gothic cathedral, the form of which
was also worked out in High Medieval times. Both the "corporative"
tendency in government and the art of the Gothic cathedral, as well as
several other sorts of artistic and intellectual works of the time, seem to
reflect a common sense of fitness as to form. Restating our description of
hierarchical corporativism in slightly more general terms, we may say
that those who articulated the norms of the time seem to have seen
satisfying order in a pattern of autonomous fixed units arranged in hierarchi-
cal mutual relations in a closed and fixedly structured whole. Writers cast
allegorical poems and even scholastic treatises into such a form, and
something of the same feeling is traceable in the honor paid to demon-
strative geometry as a model discipline and to the syllogism as a form
into which to put thoughts even when they were not very syllogistic in
content.
In Christian thought, in any case, the spiritually significant events of
history were seen as having miraculously unique status within a total
sequence of sacred dispensations, set off self-contained from ordinary
history. This answered to the sacramental organization and the redemp-
tive, supernatural, role of the church. The Occidentals now stressed
even more than other Christians the autonomous corporate unity and
hierarchical structure of the church and of its hisotry from the time of
Adam.
Wherever a sense of fitness was called for, especially wherever valida-
tion and legitimation were consciously required, such a sense of style
could come into play: in art, in theology, in government, in etiquette,
even in science. It determined at least the form in which legitimation was
made, if it did not always make a great difference in substance. And this
sense of style could have sufficient effect upon practice to affect related
activities, where there was a less conscious demand for legitimation; for
certain types of expectation tend to prove mutually compatible, and so
reinforce each other. Thus could be achieved, at least for a few decades
in a portion of northwestern Europe, on the level of public expectations,
a relatively homogeneous style ("High Gothic") in a wide range of activi-
ties. This style had been being prepared and formed, in some of its
aspects, for some centuries; and elements of it, at least, proved suffi-
ciently attractive to color a great part of Occidental culture for a long time
144 H Islam in a global context
2
Such a contrast has been stressed by Henry Corbin in several works, including his
Histoire de la philosophie islamique (Paris: Gallimard, 1964). It has also been hinted at in less
scholarly circles, as by Aldous Huxley in Grey Eminence (New York and London: Chatto &
Windus, 1941), and elsewhere. Such writers have taken a personal position which not all
may share. But that this was a problem posed by the special structure of Christianity, and
that it called for a special solution (successfully or not) will be more widely granted.
146 II Islam in a global context
conclusion could eventually be drawn that the state had its own norms
not subject to the ethical considerations applying to private actions. The
Muslim principle, in contrast, denied any special status to public acts at
all, stressing egalitarian and moralistic considerations to the point where
it ruled out all corporate status and reduced all acts to the acts of person-
ally responsible individuals.
It is incorrect, in this perspective, to refer to these as "private acts,"
since the antithesis public-private in social activity is precisely what the
Muslims denied while the Occidentals carried it to an extreme. Of
course, what I am speaking of here is a highly schematic perspective, of
limited reach. On neither side was the contrast carried out fully in the
Earlier Middle Period. Moreover, in some perspectives the difference
between Occident and Islamdom dwindles to the accidental.
In both cases, one can describe what happened, when the bureau-
cratic absolutism disappeared, as private possession of public office.
Among the Muslims, some sense of a public realm with its own norms
did not disappear. For instance, the position of the caliph, as certifying
agent legitimizing other rulers, retained an echo of that sense of a bu-
reaucratic public order which had been maintained in High Caliphal
times; from this centralizing perspective, the rights of an amir and of an
iqta holder were public rights in private hands. In any case, it was
always realistically recognized that a king, at least, must act for his own
safety - for public reasons - in ways repugnant to proper ethics. Yet
both iqta holder and amir were thought of as individual men in direct
relations with other men - and this fact affected the manner in which
they could raise revenue, their relations to other officeholders, and even
the succession to their office.
Among the Occidentals, the devolution of authority to a multiplicity
of autonomous offices had threatened to wipe out that very distinction
between private and public which had been inherited from earlier times,
and to which the eager lawyers were trying to give such a broad effect in
the new setting. For a time, feudal relationships, for instance, could
have been interpreted in a highly contractualistic sense. But the most
characteristic drive was to reinterpret the devolution of offices and the
whole feudal system in a corporative sense, in which it was the office,
not the man, that was autonomous. Thus, on principles utterly alien to
Islamdom, even rights to the kingship of Jerusalem could be bought and
sold. However unrealistic in some ways, then, the two principles we
have contrasted make explicit certain attitudes that were singularly for-
mative in the two societies in the period.
These personal responsibilities of office in Islamdom were conceived
148 II Islam in a global context
3 J. Schacht, "Notes sur la sociologie du droit musulman," Revue afrkaine, vol. 96, nos. 432-
33 (1952), brings out nicely the degree to which the spirit of contract suffuses the sharia
and even other sorts of Muslim law.
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 149
times been the glory of its law courts, when they served to defend an
unpopular position, but have more often been their shame. (Some West-
erners seem to have confused a formalistic pattern in law with indepen-
dent objectivity and predictability as such in law, looking to the Roman
legal heritage with its formalistic bent almost as if it alone fully deserved
the status of "law"; even though they would decry those excesses of
formalism and literalism which even Occidentals have recognized as
such.) The sharia may seem to some to have exaggerated in a contrary
direction. Law is a natural field in which to emphasize moral values to
the exclusion of even the most practical considerations of other sorts, but
the sharia law perhaps went further in this direction than most systems.
In its law of contracts, the actual intent of the parties was usually pre-
ferred (in principle) to the verbal form; perhaps the Marwani-age insis-
tence on living witnesses as guarantors of any written contract retained
its vitality in part as a means of assuring the primacy of intent. More
generally, there was a tendency to insist on equity even when a person
seemed willing to renounce his own rights.
The secondary institutions of law were molded to the respective legal
patterns. The Occidental advocate was expected to argue the case of one
party against the other in disputes, making the most of even a morally
dubious case, often on the basis of his knowledge of technicalities. Such
a stance might seem morally unsound, but it ensured that special circum-
stances in each particular case were not overlooked. The Muslim mufti
might be as concerned as the Occidental advocate with the ambiguities
of practical situations. But he was expected to give priority to eliciting
and settling the decisive moral issue impersonally as it arose in such
situations - advising the judge rather than either one of the parties con-
cerned. In principle, he should not know who was on which side. The
Occident saw a luxuriant growth of legal fictions - notably corporative
ones, in which a corporate body was accepted as a legal entity on a par
with persons, so as to exercise the autonomous rights attached to offices
when such offices clearly pertained to a group as such. Such legal fic-
tions as the sharia encouraged (especially the hila "tricks" used in com-
merce) were not essential to the law but incidental to its application;
their function was normative, safeguarding a standard toward which the
reality might, with opportunity and goodwill, be moved.
Modern Westerners have tended to see the moralism of Muslim law as
a major defect. So far as, in its insistence on personal responsibilities, it
denied any independent sphere to public law over against private, they
feel, it had no means of legitimizing and hence taming the public reality.
Because of the unconditioned universality which, at least in pre-Modern
152 II Islam in a global context
times, was ascribed to any serious moral code, a moralistic law was
relatively rigid and incapable of adaptation to varying conditions of time
or place. Finally, in renouncing formalism in some respects (by no means
all) it lost a technique which in the Occident often proved useful in
preserving the rights of the individual, whether used wisely or foolishly,
from interference by public opinion or by state power, however benevo-
lently intended.
Yet the Muslims' extensive mobility among social milieus and across
geographical and political boundaries was made possible by that same
sharia, and in its own way (together with the freedom of inner interpreta-
tion that went with it) ensured a wide range of personal liberty. Nor
could the law have ensured this mobility without a high degree of legal
fixity. This fixity was, indeed, constantly threatened by the fact that not
all Muslim law in any one place was sharia law; but the sharia success-
fully maintained its central position and was kept adequately integrated
through changing conditions by the judicious recognition of latter-day
fatwas by jurists respected throughout the Dar al-Islam. Because of the
independent position, then, which the relative fixity of the law gave to
its interpreters, both ulama and Sufi's were in a position to hold the
political powers within bounds - never in so wise a sphere as desired,
yet never without substantial effect.
In Modern times, both of the legal patterns have had to be modified.
Occidental formalism has latterly had to give way even to sociological
considerations as to what legal concepts mean in social reality, while
Muslim moralism has been forced to retreat before the new organized
power of the state and the impersonal requirements of the machines.
The Occidental formalistic law was doubtless appropriate to the corpo-
rative Occident. There a person's status was determined by his position
in various bodies intermediate between the individual and the total soci-
ety. As a member of such bodies - municipalities or estates or the
church - he enjoyed special liberties, defined historically according to
the situation of the particular body; he had not so much the rights of a
man, or even of an Englishman, as those of a burgher of London. De-
spite the attempt to invoke ancient Roman law as if it could form a
universally applicable code, such particularistic rights could not in prac-
tice be defined on universal principles but depended on the historical
events which gave rise to them, such as the granting of a city charter.
The greater the formalism with which such rights were interpreted, the
more secure they were from interference in later circumstances when the
original power relations might have changed. The Muslim moralistic law
was equally appropriate to Islamicate contractualism, where ascriptive
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 153
status was minimized, at least in principle, and the decisive ties were
those of contract and of personal patronage. What mattered to the Mus-
lim was not particular liberties but a more generalized liberty, based on
his status as a free Muslim. Such a position was best guaranteed by
principles which could apply everywhere and always, without prior
covenant or special historical connection.4
4 That sharia law was grounded in the principle that liberty was to be presumed as the
natural human condition, and was not to be abridged without reason, has been pre-
sented effectively by David de Santillana, "Law and Society" in The Legacy of Islam, ed.
Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guillaume (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931), pp. 284-
310.
154 II Islam in a global context
universal; in the Occident this was hardened into a rule, but in Islamdom,
though the feeling was potent, it was not allowed any formal recognition.
More sophisticatedly, some Westerners have tried to find an alternative
scheme of fixed succession such as seniority, which will sometimes fit the
facts a bit better. Sometimes they have labelled "usurper" a candidate who
rose to power by rebellion. Then (since the exceptions to such "rules"
prove disconcertingly numerous) they have complained of the irregular-
ity of Muslim succession and its failure to follow a fixed rule which would
supposedly have obviated succession disputes. But in Islamdom, formalis-
tic succession by unilinear heredity or collegial voting was rare at best, not
because Muslims were less inclined to rationalize their social arrange-
ments but because the contractual spirit called for a different sense of
legitimacy in successions. Succession was open to some choice or even
negotiation: to the fixed succession of the formalistic Occident we may
counterpose the succession by contest of the contractualistic Islamdom,
where a personal responsibility was to be undertaken by the best man.
It did not necessarily contravene this principle when contest was fore-
stalled by designation by the predecessor; it was as if he who was al-
ready charged with a responsibility had likewise the responsibility of
seeing that his charge would be carried on by someone suitable. Other-
wise, of course, contests were to be settled by consultation among the
notables felt to be representative of the affected social body. It was the
very point of succession by contest, to adjust various group interests
according to current actualities - and this could be done only with a
certain amount of bargaining. Then if formal contract was invoked it
was, of course, at the final stage, in the form of a rubber stamp. Consulta-
tion should obviate an armed contest, but if not, then an armed contest
seems to have been felt to be a misfortune rather than an actual break-
down in the social process.
An incidental - but essential - consequence of this approach was (on
the whole) the elimination of utter incompetents. It was even a legal
requirement that the candidate had to be at least minimally qualified;
occasionally, at least in religious contexts, this was insisted on to the
point of formal public examination by the notables. It was rare (though
not unknown) for a child, a woman, or a physically incapacitated man to
be accepted for long unless he had a powerful protector; for, as the
political ruler was essentially an amir, a military commander, a woman
was disqualified insofar as she was not qualified to a be soldier at all.
Analogous considerations prevailed in other fields of action.
In the process of consultation, the Islamic principle of universality had
its way. For the most part those were recognized as notables who had
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 155
peasants were tied servilely to the soil and subject to the grossest indigni-
ties from their legal masters, but household slavery had practically died
out. Thus the hierarchical principle prevailed even in family life: the
closer to the top, the higher the rank, while even the servile mass at the
bottom were governed by their own fixed rules.
In Islamdom, the egalitarian principle surely accounts in part for an
opposite situation. Well-to-do men, themselves of no birth, surrounded
themselves by preference with the only sort of persons whose depen-
dence could be counted on: slaves; and where all classes mingled so-
cially, their wives could not assert their inaccessibility by the aloofness of
a hierarchical rank but preserved it rather by a rigid female segregation.
If there was more than one sex partner, all shared the household alike,
and none was hostess save to her own friends, who, however, might be
drawn from any social level she chose. The peasants were legally and
usually factually free men, while in the homes of the wealthy, slaves
were preferred to free servants, though not necessarily treated any
worse, and steadily emancipated. We may suggest that slavery by im-
port (as against a more home-bred peasant serfdom) was retained in
Islamdom partly because of the relative access of the wealthy Muslim
cities to frontier areas of the Oikoumene where captives were available;
but primarily because an egalitarian and socially mobile society seemed
to require, in an agrarian age, such a class to set off those who momen-
tarily had risen to the top.
Both in Occident and Islamdom, a correlative of the social system was
a good deal of arbitrary and destructive military activity. Military power
was limited in its effects in the two societies in quite different ways. In
the Occident, the military were rooted in the land and their activities
were increasingly being formalized, even idealized. The barons could
indulge in persistent petty warfare and indiscipline, harassing peasant
and townsman in a steady stream of quarrels which rules about suspend-
ing local hostilities for weekends could barely alleviate. But it was with
difficulty that they could combine really massive armies under one chief
for general indiscriminate slaughter, to concentrate power in one hand,
the chances of fixed succession, modulated by dynastic marriages or
even by purchase of succession rights, were as important as outright
political and military skill. No ruler extended his sway far beyond his
hereditary lands, generally rather small tracts at best. It was already a
sign of new times when, in the fifteenth century, the duke of Burgundy
gathered together so much arbitrary force that he could destroy the city
and the entire population of Liege, pursuing those few who escaped the
flames into the woods, tracing them by their tracks till they should all be
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 157
killed. And even that duke found himself so bound by custom that to the
end he was frustrated in his attempt to take the title of king.
In Islamdom, in contrast, the military were city men and little bound
by parochial prescriptions. Nowhere was mobility more drastic than
among the soldiery, whose members could rise to the highest social
peaks, and could campaign for distances incredible in the Occident.
Local captains seem to have been kept under some control on this basis,
so that private quarrels among the military did not immediately issue in
warfare; there was extensive peace on a local basis, times when the
greatest alarms were raised only by bandits. (But in remoter areas, pasto-
ral tribal chiefs could play the role of robber barons.) But aggressive
concentrations of power like that of the duke of Burgundy were almost
commonplace, and looting and massacring of cities took place more
readily - and from the Mongol times on, in the Later Middle Period,
became relatively frequent.
In religious and intellectual life, the differences between the two soci-
eties were complementary to the differences in the role of political au-
thority. In the Occident, the noble was at once the political ruler and the
focus of all social life; and the cleric was his brother or his cousin.
Scholarly life was largely channelled through the church, which was
highly organized along lines parallel to and interweaving with the secu-
lar establishment. In this hierarchical context, every intellectual question
was likely to turn into a question of formal heresy, i.e., of institutional
loyalty; heresy could be a life-or-death question in a way that was un-
likely in Islamdom even if the question was formally raised here. How-
ever, at the same time, the Philosophical tradition played a more integral
role in so hierarchical a structure, its more abstractly normative tradi-
tions forming the core of formal education for the clerics. This is partly
because the Latin lands continued to look to the Hellenic tradition in
general for their high-cultural inspiration, but surely the educational
pattern was perpetuated, in part, also because it was suited to the rela-
tively closed, fixed structure of the church, which could justify a hierar-
chical social structure with a hierarchical vision of the cosmos much in
the manner of the Ismailis. Esoteric studies did exist, but they played a
relatively marginal role. When the mystic, Eckhart, was condemned for
talking too freely of subtle matters to the common people, his guilt was
violation of common prudence, not of an established doctrine of conceal-
ment. Subjects like alchemy, of course, did receive a directly esoteric
treatment.
In Islamdom, the ulama and the amirs stood aloof from each other.
And even where learning was institutionalized in madrasahs, the ulama
158 II Islam in a global context
5 I refer to the well-known Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, tr. by E. S. Forster
(Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927).
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 159
have learned to see it, our world is in fact in such continuous transforma-
tion that just as genuinely free action cannot take place without the
highest contemplation, so genuinely true contemplation cannot take
place without the most incisive action. If this is so, the distinction be-
tween the two forms of excellence can become artificial. Yet modern
Westerners have seen, at least retrospectively, the genius of their Occi-
dental heritage to have lain in giving maximum scope to human initia-
tive and action, while they have often been willing to grant the palm for
contemplative excellence to others. At the same time, the Islamic can
seem the most activist of the great pre-Modern heritages. Even those
superficial observers who have claimed that Islam led necessarily to
fatalistic acceptance of whatever might happen as God's will, have also
stressed the pride and fanaticism of Muslims, especially as expressed in
implacable prosecution of the holy war. Both societies, then, have some
repute for a bent to action. But what were the channels through which
free human action could be undertaken in each society?
In some ways, freedom was greater in Islamdom than in the Occident.
Islam was relatively tolerant - not so much in willingness to accept other
religious bodies (in this, Islam did much better than Christianity but
even so was intolerant by non-monotheistic standards) - but rather toler-
ant on the personal level. Diogenes and his tub would have been more
readily tolerated in the Islamicate society than in the Occidental. In the
latter, he would have had to show some proper status, not simply as an
individual, but as member of some order or corporate body; if he had
claimed a moral mission, he would have been under the jurisdiction of
the ecclesiastical hierarchy; if he went naked in public, he would be duly
disciplined by the church authorities. In the Islamicate society (unless he
was a dhimmi unwilling to convert) he would have had but one legal
status, that of a Muslim; he would, indeed, be subject to the discipline of
the market overseer, the muhtasib; but if he claimed a moral mission, he
would have had a good chance of passing freely as a mad dervish, to be
troubled by no authority but that of his chosen pir. (As a dhimmi, of
course, he might run into greater difficulties with his communal authori-
ties.) The Occidental pattern as a whole made for great social continuity,
but militated against mobility - against geographical mobility, because
the all-important offices were tied to particular localities; against per-
sonal initiative, which the guilds systematically discouraged. As in Is-
lamdom, development did take place, but as much despite the system as
through it.
The immediacy of the individual human being vis-a-vis society as a
whole thus made for important freedoms. But it exposed persons to
i6o II Islam in a global context
ized in the human ideal images that tend to prevail in key high-cultural
circles; for each such image is necessarily one human whole. But this
image and the equilibrium it may answer to need not be taken as a
"casual" drive "underlying" the particular cultural and historical facts
subsumed under it, though it may, in turn, help mold them.
Such pattern abstractions have their use, but they can lead to seeing
historical developments as the logical outcome of a closed circle of con-
cepts seemingly presupposed in the high-cultural thinking of a society.
The civilization as a whole (on the high-cultural level) is thus made
analogous to a particular ethnic group (with its folk culture) in having
collective patterns of expectation which mold its social and historical
possibilities; though the attempt to trace such patterns even on a simple
ethnic level is generally premature. Such conceptualistic interpretations
of civilized history have been congenial to certain philosophers and to
many philologians, for it seems to allow them to see the whole process of
history simply through deepening their perception of the texts at hand.
But they fail to grasp the play of interests at all levels that undergirds the
formulations as well as the historical process generally; and especially to
allow for the difference between high-cultural formulations and the unar-
ticulated springs of human action at all class levels. Hence they scarcely
allow for the rapid cultural changes that so often ensue when new oppor-
tunities are opened up. In particular, they tempt people to read back
artificially into the Occidental past various lauded traits of Modernity in
the form of supposed seminal conceptual traits in law, science, esthetic
form, etc.; in this way, some writers have produced an exaggerated
notion of the Occidental genius, and falsified the relation of both the
Occidental and the other heritages to the advent of Modernity.6
6
The most brilliant interpretation of Islamicate culture as resulting from a closed circle of
concepts is that of Gustave von Grunebaum, expounded in his many books and articles,
all of which are worth reading. It is no accident that he exemplifies at its best what I call
(Introduction, Venture of Islam, vol. I) the Westernistic commitment or outlook, which
commonly envisages Western culture in just this way. In his "Parallelism, Convergence,
and Influence in the relations of Arab and Byzantine Philosophy, Literature, and Piety,"
Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 18 (1964), 89-111, at the end especially, it becomes clear that in his
analysis, the formative assumptions of Islamdom (and Byzantium) are derived at least in
part negatively, by way of contrast (what Islam lacks), from certain contrary formative
assumptions he ascribes (in the Westernistic manner) at once to the West and to Moder-
nity. This method almost assures in advance that "Eastern" cultures, as lacking what he
finds unique to the West, will turn out to be essentially alike, but will be separated from
each other just by what they have in common - that is, in his view, by a dogmatic claim
to completeness, which also has suppressed their occasional glimpses of a Western-type
or (preferably) Western-inspired rationally open humanism. The formative assumptions
he sees in the West, on the contrary, turn out to be central to what is most distinctly
human. For instance, he refers to these assumptions as "the attitude toward the world
164 II Islam in a global context
Islamdom by the beginning of the period, were the occasion for the
appearance of windmills in the Occident by the end of the period. But
since the arms of the mill were spread horizontally among the Muslims
and vertically in the Occident, clearly what passed was the basic idea
and not the complex practice of building windmills in its particulars.
Much of the Islamicate influence on the Occident was in some degree of
this indirect sort.
Indeed, the diffusion of cultural details was subject to diverse limita-
tions. Items which could find no ready niche in the new society, how-
ever efficient and useful in the old, were not adopted. Camel transport,
though very effective, was not adopted in the Occident partly because of
climate, but also partly because even in the most southerly parts the ox
sufficiently filled the relevant niche and a change would not have
brought enough advantage to pay. What was adopted was likely to be
transformed, even when contact was direct and the practice immediately
imitated. Even technical details, when taken over, often had to be
rethought and adjusted so as to fit into the technical context of the new
society. If, as it appears, the Gothic arch was suggested by correspond-
ing arches in Islamicate buildings, in any case the way it was used and
hence also the details of its construction were very different in a cathe-
dral from what they were in a mosque; the total effect and meaning of
the arch were entirely new.
This high selection and rethinking was even more important when it
came to the properly esthetic and intellectual levels. Here, for the most
part, Occidental imitation and adaptation of Islamicate material was re-
stricted to what was rooted in traditions already largely shared by the
Occident, at least on a rudimentary level. Thus the romantic poetic tradi-
tion of the troubadours seems to have depended directly on the some-
what prior corresponding tradition of Islamicate Spain; but this went
back ultimately to old Hellenistic traditions, long since partly echoed in
Latin, and seems to have received its immediate forms from local Ro-
mance tendencies common to Spain and Gaul. Though some elements of
the tradition are probably traceable to old Arabian motifs or at least to
the local work of Arab Muslims, clearly a large part of it was congenial to
moods and forms already found in the Occident.7 It is this tendency for
the culture to adopt from abroad only what was already half-known that
has sometimes made it difficult to sort out Islamicate "influences" in the
7 S. M. Stern, History and Culture in the Medieval Muslim World (London: Variorum Reports,
1984), has shown that a specifically Arabic intervention in the process of developing
Romance verse in both Spain and Gaul (whether among Muslims or Christians) is possi-
ble, perhaps even likely, but not yet demonstrated.
i66 II Islam in a global context
Occident from indigenous growths. (It has also contributed to the notion
in the modern West that the Islamicate intellectual culture offered noth-
ing but originally Greek ideas, perhaps slightly further developed.8)
Perhaps as important as the actual number of technical methods,
pieces of information, and books that the Occidentals learned from the
Muslims (or from Jews of Islamicate culture), was the confrontation
with Islamdom as a historical fact. Many of the books that the Occiden-
tals got from Islamdom they could have gotten from the Greeks them-
selves - and later did; whereas the sort of insight that could not have
been gotten from the Greek tradition was largely overlooked by the
Occidentals anyway. What perhaps mattered most was the stirring of
the imagination and the challenge to the ingenuity of Occidentals who,
in the full flush of their increasing economic prosperity and the rising
cultural level associated with it, found themselves looked down on and
hemmed in by a society which shared none of their overt assumptions
and yet was obviously, at least at first, culturally and politically supe-
rior. The Muslims posed a challenge to the Occident such as the Greeks
of Byzantium, long respected but latterly overcome and almost de-
spised, could not.
The distant contact in Syria as a result of the Crusades does not seem
to have had much effect on the Occident in terms of direct borrowings;
but the very fact of the Crusades' being undertaken shows the tremen-
dous stimulus that the Muslim presence formed, and the very process of
Crusading - their one great joint effort - taught the Occidentals more
sophistication, perhaps, than they could ever have borrowed from their
unwilling Syrian hosts. The political greatness of the papacy owed much
to its leadership in those wars. In Sicily, where Occidentals ruled over
subject Muslims and Greeks of high culture, much was learned on the
factual level; but possibly the greatest impact on Occidental cultural and
political life was made by the Latin rulers of the island, notably by
Frederick II. The Latin rule there was unique in the Occident for its
bureaucratic solidity - required because of the high-cultural level of the
local population and their intimate relations with Muslims as well as
Greeks; and this in turn made possible the unique role of Frederick II as
disturber and ultimately inspirer of other Latin princes. The third locus
of Muslim-Occidental relations was the Spanish peninsula, where imita-
8
H. A. R. Gibb, in 'The Influence of Islamic Culture on Medieval Europe," Bulletin of the
John Rylands Library, 38 (1955), 82-98, offers a suggestive study of how a high-cultural
tradition tended, in pre-Modern times, to maintain its own genius despite great influence
from the outside. He is speaking only of diffusion and not considering the more contex-
tual effects of the sheer presence of the alien culture and its challenge.
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 167
tion and adaptation of Islamicate ways was at its height, and whence
they were most regularly spread over Europe. Here perhaps more than
anywhere else it was the tremendous prestige of Muslim learning that
persuaded Occidentals to study works in Arabic that they did not trou-
ble to study in the original Greek, though by 1204 Latins were thor-
oughly at home in the Greek-speaking countries where the Greek books
were to be found.
Though the most important influence of the Muslims on the Occi-
dent may have been the stretching of the imagination which they en-
couraged, yet the particular points of cultural adoption were crucial in
Occidental growth as it in fact did take place. Even the Greeks were
translating works from Arabic and Persian, for they were the most vital
languages of the age this side of Chinese. Perhaps most important were
technological borrowings. Crafts and manufacturing methods, commer-
cial methods of organization and even political methods (in Sicily), and
agricultural skills could be taken over fairly directly. By and large Islam-
dom, especially at the start of the Earlier Middle Period, was more ad-
vanced technically than most of the Occident; however, by the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries the two societies were growing on roughly the
same level and it is then sometimes hard to know in which society a
new development came first. In some fields, such as the steady im-
provement in the uses of gunpowder, it may well be that correspond-
ing inventions were made roughly simultaneously but independently,
as the technical level came to be ready for it in both areas at once. As
yet the history of the Occident is better documented in these matters
and often new inventions can be attested slightly earlier there; this may
be the case for certain complex kinds of stills and for the use of the
compass. But in many other cases, such as the manufacture and applica-
tion of the many items which, like alcohol, still bear among us names
derived from Arabic, the priority is sufficiently clear. The wide range of
Occidental dependence can be suggested by a random and very partial
list of English words derived from Arabic (though many of these words
came to Arabic in turn from Persian or Greek): orange, lemon, alfalfa,
saffron, sugar, syrup, mask, muslin, alcove, guitar, lute, amalgam,
alembic, alchemy, alkali, soda, algebra, almanac, zenith, nadir, tariff,
admiral, check-mate.
In natural science, especially in mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
and chemistry, but to a degree in all the fields then cultivated, the Occi-
dentals frankly acknowledged their debt to Arabic books, which they
eagerly translated throughout much of the High Medieval period. In the
process, classical Greek texts took on an Arabic dress (the "Almagest 7 ' of
i68 II Islam in a global context
Ptolemy retains in Latin the Arabic article al-) and numerous Muslim
writers, not only Ibn-Sina ("Avicenna") and al-Razi ("Rhazes") but many
lesser men, became commonplace Latin authorities. Astronomical tables
compiled at Muslim observatories were authoritative. (We still use the
Arabic names of many stars.) Only those works that had been produced
by the early twelfth century were translated, for by the time the transla-
tions into Latin ceased, the most recent writings were not yet well
enough known to have come to the translators' attention. Discoveries
made in Islamdom after about the date had to be remade independently
in the Occident later.
This was not, of course, a matter of "bringing back to the West" its
own heritage, meanwhile "preserved" by the Arabs: the Latin Occident
had played almost no role in building up the Hellenic scientific corpus
even at the height of Roman power, and the Occidentals can less prop-
erly be called its heirs than can the Muslims, in whose lands much of the
scientific corpus originated. And when the scientific heritage was finally
carried to the new territory in the northwest, it did not die out (as some
Westerners have supposed) in its homelands in the eastern Mediterra-
nean and between Nile and Oxus; at least at first, the scientific productiv-
ity of the Occident did not markedly improve on that of Islamdom, and
after High Medieval times it may have declined again for a time to a level
below that of Islamdom. Nevertheless, the Occidentals did prove apt
scholars, able by the end of High Medieval times to continue the tradi-
tion on their own without further reference to the work being done in
Arabic and Persian; and though for a time there was a partial lull in Latin
scientific work, the tradition persisted and later led to the great scientific
transformations of the seventeenth century.
The problems of Philosophical metaphysics received in the Occident,
as in Islamdom, a more sustained and socially organized attention. Here
too the most important texts came at first by way of Arabic; translations
initiated a great Aristotelian revival. But both the Aristotelian and the
Platonic traditions had been rooted with sufficient solidity in Latin in
imperial days, though chiefly by way of secondary writings, so that the
impetus that came from Arabic brought nothing radically new. The new
writings were made to serve a dialogue that was arising before they were
introduced. Thus the position of Ibn-Rushd (Averroes) in Islamdom had
justified an accommodation of the private wisdom of the Faylasufs to the
social supremacy of the sharia, at the expense of any properly theologi-
cal speculation; in Christendom, his attitude, under the name of "Averro-
ism," served rather to justify an accommodation between a radically
rationalistic Philosophy and Christian theology itself. The most impor-
8 Cultural patterning in Islamdom and the Occident 169
popular tales and pious legend, which formed the substratum of much
of the best prose, were nourished in part from Islamicate sources. Some
of Dante's materials have been shown to bear striking analogies with
certain Islamicate materials - notably some points in a description of
Muhammad's ascent to Paradise - which were available in Italy at the
time on the basis of translations from Spain. But here again, the heart
neither of Dante's poem nor of the Occidental esthetic culture generally
was seriously touched by the alien details. Probably in this realm also the
most important consequence of the Islamicate presence was its challenge
to the imagination.
By the end of the Earlier Middle Period, the Occident had become a
significant force in the life of Islamdom. The Occidental efforts at con-
quest in the east Mediterranean has been mostly turned back, and they
had been limited in the west Mediterranean to a line somewhat north of
the Straits of Gibraltar, efforts to cross the seas having failed. For two
centuries the Occident was not to advance again. But Occidental culture
had become independent of Islamicate resources and had pulled abreast
of the Islamicate in sophistication. The Occidentals of Italy and Spain
retained the dominance over the Mediterranean seaways and their com-
merce which they had gained in the Earlier Middle Period. Thus they
blocked in the west Mediterranean that expansion which characterized
Islamdom everywhere else, and which elsewhere expressed and proba-
bly reinforced the genius of its social order. 9
9 The most accessible study of Islamicate influence on the Occident is The Legacy of Islam,
ed. Thomas Arnold and Arthur Guillaume (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931). The
"legacy'' in question is not that to modern Muslims but that to the Occident, rather
prematurely conceived as the heir to a moribund Islamdom. Not all the chapters are
relevant to this theme, but many are. The best is by H. A. R. Gibb, "Literature," pp. 180-
209, who brilliantly traces what influence can be found in Occidental literature. The
chapter on the visual arts, Thomas Arnold, "Islamic Art and Its Influence on Painting in
Europe," pp. 151-54, is also useful, but less discriminating as to what "influence" really
means. H. G. Farmer has a useful chapter, "Music," pp. 356-75. The studies on the
natural sciences, e.g., Max Meyerhof, "Science and Medicine," pp. 311-55, all suffer
from the misapprehension that what can be traced into the Latin was substantially the
whole of Islamicate science; this means that they leave untouched some serious ques-
tions about Occidental selectivity, but they are good as far as they go.
9
The unity of later Islamic history
One of the very few serious analyses of the development of later Islamic civilization as a
whole is that of H. A. R. Gibb, in the latter ages of the opening chapter of his Moham-
medanism: A Historical Survey; (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1962) cf. also his "An
Interpretation of Islamic History/' Cahiers d'histoire mondiale, Vol. I, 30-62 (July, 1953), to
which the present article is in effect a highly inadequate annex. I must explain that the
approach here suggested has not been fully embodied, as of this writing (1957), in the
paragraphs prepared for Volume Four, since they had to conform to a general outline
which had unavoidably been drawn up from the perspective of local Western history. R.
Brunschvig, pp. 56-59, in Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, ed. G. E. von
Grunebaum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), gives a recent statement of
some of the problems involved here. I believe that if one thinks in terms of a historical
complex rather than in terms of some single categorizing principle, as he seems to try to
do, the problem of delimiting Islamic civilization becomes less serious. At this point it
should also be pointed out that, as English usage of the terms "Islamic" and "Muslim" is
increasingly recognizing by assigning different meanings to the two terms, "Islamic"
civilization has included both followers of the "Muslim" religion and followers of other
faiths.
171
172 II Islam in a global context
Islamic societies, such as those in the Near East or in India, lay in the
part they played in determining the course of Islam as a whole. Islamic
civilization in its later periods is enormously complex and diverse. But
our problem is not just to find the common characteristics underlying
the diversity, though this is important. It is to trace the ways in which
elements either of unity or of diversity have been relevant to the for-
tunes of the civilization in its role in world history.
In the early centuries of Islam it is not hard to study the civilization as
a whole, but this becomes increasingly difficult in the later periods. Even
in the more strictly "religious" sphere, that of fiqh and tasawwuf, the
difference in detail is obvious, for instance, between the Indian and the
Arab or Turkish centers of Muslim learning. In the sphere of general
culture, of institutions and of arts and letters, the diversity is very
marked. Yet a common cultural heritage and a common cultivation of the
Arabic and (in most areas) Persian languages, as well as a common
attitude to the relation between society and religion, assured at least a
minimum of interaction and continuity among the various Islamic re-
gions; in all of which, accordingly, developments can be seen which are
sometimes alike, sometimes related by their very contrasts. Identifica-
tion with Islam as a creed, in an ever larger part of the globe, continued
to carry with it the more or less full adoption of a vast body of cultural
practices, itself varying not only from area to area but from century to
century, yet constituting in all its diversity a civilization with in some
degree its own single story.
I believe that one of the obstacles to the envisagement of this civiliza-
tion as a whole has been what can be called in Arabistic bias. This is the
most unfortunate of a series of biases which hamper Islamic studies.
Islamists have naturally always approached their studies in terms of one
or another special perspective, and Islamic history has been conceived in
radically different ways according to the vantage point chosen. Each
vantage point has had its own limiting effect. Those who have ap-
proached it from the point of view of its relations with Western Europe
have recalled the two waves of conquest launched in their own direc-
tion, and have tended to divide Islamic history into an Arab and a
Turkish phase; or rather, as a closer acquaintance with Ottoman culture
laid bare something of the internal development, into a sequence of
Arab, Persian, and Ottoman phases. Such an approach informs the selec-
tion of data in Brockelmann's Geschichte der islamischen Volker. A Russian
point of view is illustrated in Barthold's little volume on Islamic culture,
which traces a sequence from Arabic and Persian to the Turkish not so
9 The unity of later Islamic history 173
2
V. Barthold, Musulman Culture (Tr. S. Suhrawardy, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1934),
especially pp. 117 ff.
3 A. B. M. Habibullah, Foundation of Muslim Rule in India (Lahore: Muhammad Ashraf,
1945), p. 155.
4 E.g., Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, p. 153-154, "then [after the Mongol catastro-
phe] all orthodoxy flowed back into Egypt/' the political structure of which is then
described as representing the Muslim east, in contrast to "the Muslim west" after the
Almohads. When study is restricted to these two exceptional cases, centralized Egypt
and backward North Africa, it is not surprising that Islamic society after the Mongol
invasion receives disappointingly little analysis. Cf. C. Brockelmann, History of the Islamic
Peoples, tr. Carmichael and Perlmann (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1949), p. 234,
where some Arab countries are also ignored.
5 The writer just cited in Unity and Variety allows himself to say - at least with a certain
consistency - that the Saljuqs joined together "all of Muslim Asia with the exception of
the corners of Arabia" - overlooking Ghazna and Sind and Multan (p. 152). Another
writer in the same representative volume, typically considering the Arab west on a more
detailed scale than the rest of Islam, says curiously that "neither Greek nor Pahlevi, nor
Aramaic nor Coptic held out against [Arabic]. Only Berber and Latin [and in one sense
Persian] persisted" - making one think immediately of Kurdish, Armenian, and other
174 II Islam in a global context
popular or learned tongues from Georgia to Sind, which deserve to rank at least with
Berber! (p. 208).
6
Cf. E.I. on maristan, mawlid, madrasa, masdjid, etc. To be sure, in many cases the writer gladly
included any information from outside of Egypt or North Africa which came to his atten-
tion. Occasionally one finds evidence of an interesting attitude that might be called neo-
Umayyad, implying that the name "Muslim" is merely a latter-day honorific of the Arabs,
and that non-Arab Muslims are joining as clients and at the last minute a tradition which
reaches unbrokenly back to the Sabaean kings - hence only Arabs are truly "Muslims,"
the others are "islamises"; in the E.L article on Malays, Arab influence is reckoned as
Islamic despite the fact that it came in a Persian form! It is not surprising that some laymen
will take from the shelf a "History of the Arabs" when they want to learn about Islamic
history, perhaps in order to understand Pakistan! To be sure, in the reaction against Sufism
and the Persian cultural tradition, many modern Muslims abet this attitude.
7 A certain defense of ignoring Islam east of the Iranian highlands - though the majority of
all Muslims now live in those eastern areas - is offered by Sauvaget, in his Introduction a
Vhistoire de {'orient musulman (Paris: Maisonneuve 1946), pp. 13-14; that the culture of the
"outlying" territories (in which he includes India) has not been formed so exclusively by
Islam; or that at least they have been merely passive, not actively creative. Such a
position raises problems in the definition of a civilization as a proper object of historical
study, and it might be suggested that not only few Islamic lands, but few ages (perhaps
not even the earliest age of Islam) offer the cultural homogeneity combined with fresh
creativity which Sauvaget demands. But in any case, his stated distinction does not make
sense. Though the Malaysian countries, or even Bengal, might be excluded by his crite-
ria, it is surely arbitrary to omit the Punjab or even the Gangetic plain, where so much
distinctively Islamic thought and action has originated. Sauvaget reveals his actual rea-
son for omitting most of the truly eastern territories of Islam when he makes an east-west
division of Islam in which Egypt and Turkey appear as "eastern." Egypt can indeed be
ranked among the eastern Arabs, though it lies west of Mecca. But only if Islam and the
Arabs are identified can Egypt be ranked as "eastern" in Islam.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 175
8
As can be seen from a map, alongside the main bloc of lands from Transoxania through
Syria and Egypt can be set, as areas of roughly the same order in size, that to the
northwest in Anatolia and Europe, and again that to the east and south in Turkestan and
India; Spain and the Maghrib find their equivalent in eastern Africa and again in Malay-
sia; Arabia - in the Sahara and the Sudan. (The notion of dar al-Islam has been liberally
interpreted, as by Muslims themselves, to include areas lately under Muslim rule and
176 II Islam in a global context
still carrying an Islamic coloring.) The map, designed to bring out the crucial world
position of Islam, is of course on an equal-area projection; the sense of proportion is quite
lost if the Mercator's projection is used - a projection practically tailor-made to reinforce
Western prejudices and which unhappily still appears not only in many scholars' books
but also, all too obviously, in their thinking.
9 It has come near obliterating Hinduism outside India; cf. on the fate of the ancient Hindu
Cham people of Indochina, P. Rondot, "Notes sur les Chams Bani du Binh Thuan," Revue
des Etudes Islamiques, 1949, p. 18.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 177
Cf. R. Blachere, "Regards sur l'acculturation des Arabo-Musulmans jusque vers 40/661,"
Arabica, III (1956), 247-265. Cf. Nabia Abbott, Studies in Arabic Literary Papyri, I, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1957, p. 20 ff.
i8o II Islam in a global context
which fall into the scope of Volume Four.1* In both of these later periods,
as in the case of the High Middle Ages, the Islamic developments presup-
pose an established cultural foundation upon which many centers are
building in various ways, but interrelatedly and hence without a full
break in the unity of the Islamic society. The later Islamic periods cannot
be studied as one does the fresh emergence of a civilization, nor can they
be reduced to a neat unilinear story. Yet, like other fields of large-scale
history, they have aspects that can and must be appropriately studied in
broad terms. (That is, of course, merely to say that Islamic history, in the
greater part of its course, is typical of civilized history. Some should like
to study only "integrated" societies. But the creation of a new civilization
is a rare thing, and even more rare is the establishment of a relatively
self-sufficient, self-perpetuating cultural pattern, such as that of ancient
Egypt or that of post-classical China, as a fairly stable institution whole
over a long period. The Islamic cultures were not isolated enough to
achieve this, being in the midst of world history, as it were, which would
not let them alone.)
The Late Middle Ages opened with vital parts of the Dar al-Islam
under pagan rule. This fact symbolized the character the Dal al-Islam
was to bear throughout the period. With the end even of the claim of the
Baghdad Caliphate to general sovereignty, Islam was now frankly decen-
tralized even in theory as it had long been in practice: what is more, the
decentralized society could not depend on even local governments for its
survival, but must make its own way.
In the High Middle Ages political powers - the reforming Almoravids
and Almohads in the far west, the Sunna-supporting Saljuqs and
Ayyubids, the early Delhi Sultanate whose Turkish and Islamic dignity is
portrayed by Barani/s even the quixotic Muhammad Khwarazm-shah -
commonly expressed some sort of Islamic political idea. The split be-
tween civil and military life had begun, indeed, but politics was not
dead. Particularly in the older Islamic lands, this seems to be rarely the
case in the Late Middle Ages except in some frontier states. Although
the Mongols were soon converted, the prestige of their states contin-
ued to rest on a pagan past. Other dynasties could boast even less a
political idea. The Marinids and Hafsids with whom Ibn-Khaldun had
to do are politically soulless. The Mamluks of Egypt maintained a cen-
tralized state solely, it would appear, because the form of Egypt almost
forced them to. The Turkomans of the Black Sheep and the Turkomans
of the White Sheep offer the classic cases of nomads turned military
rulers, and are served by no Nizam-al-Mulk.16 Timur is the classical
case of an irresponsible Muslim conqueror. Even India, after Tughluq
and Bahmani times, is a congeries of independent provincial powers,
few of which distinguish themselves. To be sure, the structure of many
of these states (for instance, the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria) is of
considerable interest. But as regards positive historical policy, the popu-
lar state of the Sarbadars of Sabzawar in Iran appears to be almost a
unique exception. Characteristically, it was dominated by Shi'ite Sufi
shaykhs. Almost everywhere political boundaries, never fundamental
within the Dar al-Islam, were of even less importance in this period
than ever before or after. Unless future research discloses unsuspected
highlights, we must feel that precisely in the Late Middle Ages politics
became as irrelevant as they ever have been in any civilized society.
Such a state of affairs is reflected by the political thought of the period,
J
5 Diya-al-Din Barani, Tarikh-e Firuz shahi (Lahore: Sind Sagor Academy, 1974), pp. 36-38,
43-45-
16
Contrast the unpolitical role of Dawwani, author of the Akhlaq-e Jalali, in Walter Hinz,
Irans Aufstieg zum Nationalstaat (Berlin, 1936), p. 115.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 183
It is precisely in this period that the most despairing doctrines of the imamate were
formed. That these are to be thought of as a particular phase, rather than as an end-
product even in the Arabic zone, is pointed out by H. A. R. Gibb and H. Bowen, Islamic
Society and the West (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950), Vol. I, Part 1, p. 34.
184 II Islam in a global context
mad Habib, 18 that at least in India this reflected the relative social mobil-
ity encouraged by Muslim principles. Certainly it reflects considerable
social and cultural flexibility, appropriate to Medieval mercantile and
political conditions. Almost without exception, the Islamization of new
areas begins with the cities, among the more cosmopolitanly minded.
Only gradually does it spread into the countryside. 1 ?
provisions of which every Muslim had his assured status, and knew
what to expect of others, both in point of law in the narrower sense, and
in that wider range of social relations which includes etiquette. This
system of law and ethics had been established in detail by the close of
the classical Abbasid period and was regarded as universally binding on
Muslims. It was self-perpetuating, its experts (the ulama) requiring no
official appointment. The variations in its application by persistence of
extm-sharia law and custom almost everywhere limited its effectiveness,
yet it secured sufficient uniformity to allow a large degree of mobility
and intercourse throughout the Dar al-Islam.
But bereft of the context of the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, the
sharia does not seem to have provided an adequate spiritual vision in
itself for most men. It was Sufi as it was embodied in the tariqas that
provided a common framework of personal piety. The mystically in-
clined, of course, found strength and guidance in the common discipline
of the khanaqah, where followers of a given tariqa gathered under the
leadership of a shaykh for spiritual exercises, or even lived as full-time
devotees. Ascetics could find support in some tariqas, and those inclined
to cosmological speculation found the name of a tariqa to be an almost
sure defense against bigoted hostility. Those who sought God through
powerful personalities revered a pious living shaykh, or adored the tomb
of a famous dead one; for the khanaqahs were commonly associated with
such tombs. Finally, the simple villager with only an occasional interest
in religion found the way open to transfer his ancestral superstitious or
devotional usages to a Muslim shaykh alive or dead.
The tariqas were adapted to every situation. In the cities they informed
the social life of the artisans, and eventually guilds came to be associated
with tariqas as naturally as with patron saints. For townsmen and peas-
ants alike their tombs, as shrines, became centers for pilgrimage and
marketing. Above all, it seems to have been the Sufis who were the most
effective missionaries in areas newly opened up to Muslim influence. 21
In the late Middle Ages the tariqa form of Sufism offered a richly varied
and broadly tolerant spiritual atmosphere which was as flexible in its
organization as was the sharia itself, and an effective complement to it in
holding together the far-flung Islamic society.
Accordingly, the great issues of the time are far removed from those of
the classical Abbasid period. General acceptance of the end of ijtihad -
Largely devoted to this thesis is the book that has done most to analyze the expansion of
Islam, but in a piecemeal fashion, Thomas Arnold, The Preaching of Islam (London:
Constable, 1913).
i86 II Islam in a global context
which implied that further schools of sharia law were not to be devel-
oped, and that the recognized schools were no longer subject to basic
changes - hallowed the amicable truce that was by and large maintained
among the different schools of the ulama. It became common to teach the
several schools of law under a single roof, a practice only partially estab-
lished in the High Middle Ages. This was the great age of the madrasas,
whose standardized character reflects the relatively uncontroversial char-
acter of their teaching.
The distinction between Shi'ites and Sunnites was more important.
The Shi'ites formed a minority almost everywhere, a majority only in a
few limited localities. Yet Shi'ite ideas had entered widely into Sufi lore;
several tariqas, for instance, significantly traced their origin to Ali. More-
over, explicitly Shi'ite groups found it expedient to appear in the form of
tariqas, even though at least the Twelve Shi'ite ulama did not generally
accept the validity of Sufism as did most Sunnite ulama. The Bektashi
order, prominent in the Ottoman domains, is one case. The remains of
the Ismaili Shi'ite movement, after the downfall of the Ismaili state as a
result of the Mongol conquest, took the outward form of a Sufi tariqa to
avoid persecution, with the imam in the guise of a shaykh; this was not
merely an outward adaptation, but corresponded to an inner sympathy
with late medieval Sufism.
The issues, then, became largely controversies within and among the
tariqas. The tariqas were numerous and varied. The most important had
already been established by the end of the thirteenth century; during all
late medieval times the number of orders steadily increased, most often
by the setting off of new branches rather than by the establishment of
new independent tariqas. The orders differed greatly among themselves,
often standing for quite diverse approaches to the problems of the time.
There were not only differences between the "urban" and "rustic" or-
ders, the former being more sophisticated and conforming more to the
sharia, but among the "urban" orders themselves. Thus of the two great
tariqas of India during this period, the Suhrawardiyya tended to stand
for greater orthodoxy in handling the sharia, and for readier acceptance
of government office than did the more ascetic Chishtiyya.22 Some or-
ders, notably the Bektashiyya, seem to have catered in their cult to the
non-Islamic customs of peoples newly won to Islam; some catered to the
popular desire for wonders, such as the Sadiyya in Egypt. They differed
also in their hospitality to mystical speculation; and in their attitude to
22
Yusuf Husain, L'Inde mystique au moyen age (Paris, 1929), p. 147 it, tries to show that the
Chishtis worked especially for Hindu-Muslim rapprochement.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 187
2
3 L. Massignon, article tariqa in E.I.
i88 II Islam in a global context
who come and go are but the servants of such a saint, as many beloved
anecdotes make clear; no Caliph had such power over his governors as
the Sufi shaykhs, and especially the supreme shaykh, the Qutb of any
given time, had over the earth's rulers. (That no-one really knew who
was the Qutb in his own days only served to make his power the more
awesome.)
The notion of the Qutb who, with all the shaykhs his assistants, continu-
ously kept order in the world, is more than a piece of popular supersti-
tion; it is also more than a deduction from a subtle cosmology. It has
serious social implications. The stories told of Abd-al-Qadir - whose
foot was on the neck of every other saint - are no doubt in part the result
of the ardent loyalty to their tariqa of the Qadiriyya shaykhs. That the
leader of the Suhrawardiyya in India should be called Makhdum-e
Jahaniyan - "he whom all worldlings serve" - no doubt in part reflects
the imperious personality of the man. When the mild and saintly Nizam-
al-Din Awliya told the story of the saint who, flying over a greater saint's
khanaqah, failed to show respect and so was thrown to the ground by that
saint's power, he wanted in part to teach his listeners humility.^ But the
notion which all these stories embody, of the invisible hierarchy of the
shaykhs of the tariqas and their invisible government of the world, is an
inescapably political one. It is as if the Sufi tariqas, in an age when it was
no longer feasible for a single conventional government to give unity to
the whole of Islam, were able to offer not only aflexibleelement of social
order, but also a correspondingly elastic sense of all-Islamic political
unity.
26
A Study of History, Vol. I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), p. 70.
190 II Islam in a global context
2
7 The contrast between Ibn-Khaldun7 s approach and that of some of his predecessors is
analyzed in Muhsin Mahdi's Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History (London: G. Allen and
Unwin, 1957).
9 The unity of later Islamic history 191
for the visual arts required not only time for their practice, but costly
materials. In any case, their development in the Late Middle Ages pre-
sages for us, in a way, the following period of the three empires. Though
the art is still stamped with common Islamic veneer, and though there is
still a wide circulation of artists through the Islamic lands, there is a
wider variety of local styles than before.
The Arabic zone held its own architecture. There this period was the
great age for building madrasas, theological schools, common in a cruci-
form pattern and associated with the mausoleum of the founder; a pattern
broken up toward the end of the period as social needs changed.28 This is
the time of the delicately silhouetted Mamluk minarets of Cairo. Further
west building in some degree was simpler, and the tradition of the solidly
square minaret was maintained; but it is the time of the rich strength of the
fourteenth-century palace, the Alhambra. But architecture was at least as
effectively cultivated in the Persian zone, and with more variations. In
Iran and Turkestan the Mongol rulers took readily to building in the old
Islamic manner, with even increased magnificence; especially the tombs
of rulers were built with a massive majesty, culminating usually in a high
dome, as in the early fourteenth century tomb of Uljaytu at Sultaniyya, or
the blue and gold mausoleum of Timur at Samarqand a century later. The
domed tombs were popular in India also, but there the architecture both
of Delhi and the provinces witnesses to a number of experiments in the
adaptation of Hindu elements and technique which lend a special charm,
for instance, to the ruins around the Qutb Minar. In Azerbaijan and in
Ottoman Turkey a form of mosque was introduced, perhaps from Byzan-
tine models, in which the main prayer room is under the dome, as in the
Blue Mosque of Tabriz, instead of forming, as usually, and open court. (I
mention, of course, only a few of the many sorts of great architectural
achievements of the time.)
But in some ways the most interesting development was in the decora-
tive arts and here the initiative and the highest development was limited
to the Persian zone, though motifs spread into the Arabic zone. With the
Mongols there came to Iran a strong Chinese influence, which was felt
above all in the various decorative arts; and which led to its greatest
results in mural and miniature painting. Painting had been in the High
Middle Ages cultivated in both Arabic and Persian-speaking areas, but
its late medieval transformation was largely a Persian achievement. In
28
G. Marcais, L'Art de I'lslam (Paris: Larousse, 1946), p. 126; a work which is extremely
useful yet, I maintain, misnamed; it concerns chiefly Arab art, illustrating perfectly the
Arabistic bias.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 193
2
9 Such facts were pointed out already by E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia, Vol. IV
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929) p. 360; one must stress the revolution-
ary implications for social life of the religious change in Iran, which would themselves,
perhaps, be almost enough to account for the want of a great poetry in Safavid times
which puzzled Browne, as Browne's correspondent points out (p. 24 ff.). Cf. also V.
Minorsky, in G. von Grunebaum ed., Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization, p. 196.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 195
3° Though Babur's adventures are closely linked to those of Ismail the Safavid, the Mogul
empire proper was not permanently launched till half a century later; but the Afghan
interlude which followed the exile of Humayun was developing the same administrative
tendencies and for our purposes can be reckoned a part of the same development.
31 Cf. K. M. Panikkar, Survey of Indian History (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1954), in
the chapters on medieval and Mogul times.
3 2 This is clearly the sense of the so-called "Infallibility Decree/' which is the most signifi-
cant of his religious acts for the Islam of his empire.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 197
but they could never reverse the cardinal fact that the long-haul oceanic
trade had passed into Western control. In Arabia, in East Africa, in
Malaysia, the Muslims were placed essentially on the defensive, even
though in the Indonesian areas, apart from Portuguese seaports, they
were increasing their power. At the same time, they had occasion to
become spiritually more independent of the more central areas. Among
both the eastern Arabs and the Persians, as well as in south India and
Malaysia, the Shafi'ite school of sharia law had tended to be predomi-
nant. With the incorporation of the sharia tradition into the state organiza-
tion in the Ottoman empire, the Hanafite school was given the suprem-
acy throughout the empire over the historically preeminent Shafi'ites;
while at the same time the Shafi'ites were suppressed in Shi'ite Iran.
Though Cairo remained an important center, the center of gravity of the
Shafi'ite tradition tended to shift to the Indian Ocean coasts.
The Muslims of the north suffered at the same time serious setbacks,
and also became relatively isolated. Those of the Volga came under Rus-
sian rule (and eventually those of the Crimea also, though allied with
Turkey); while Turkestan was divided between the long-pagan Kazaks
and the culturally not much more stimulating Uzbek rulers, bitterly at war
with Shi'ite Iran. The Muslims of the Central Eurasian highlands were
eventually conquered by the Manchu empire and, like the Muslims of
China itself, had little opportunity for contact with vital Muslim centers.
In the west the Ottoman power reached as far as Algeria; but Mo-
rocco, under a Sharifian dynasty claiming descent from Mohammed,
which now replaced the insignificant Berber dynasties of the Late Mid-
dle Ages, maintained not only its political but its religious indepen-
dence. The Sharif was honored as a holy personage, and adherence to
him was almost the touchstone of the faith; by the end of the sixteenth
century much of Muslim western Africa had accepted this allegiance,
and parts of it have tended to look to Morocco as a religious model ever
since, though in the western and central Sudan sultanates eventually
rose which tried to emulate the Moroccan religious position of leader-
ship. The earlier inclination to regard the rest of Islam as fallen away was
only confirmed; the far west was almost self-sufficient. Culturally, Mo-
rocco stagnated. And though adherents for Islam continued to be won in
the Sudan, the level which Timbuctu had already achieved before the
Moroccan conquest seems to have been exceeded there.
In this dislocated society the tariqas continued to be found almost
everywhere (though in the Safavid domain only in impoverished circum-
stances), and they played even an increasing part in local life; but they
could not play the same international role. In Ottoman territories the
9 The unity of later Islamic history 199
Turkey. Rather the arts served to set off and glorify the several great
regional societies.
In the Safavid empire architecture was represented most perfectly in
the magnificence of the imperial city of Isfahan with its garden boule-
vards and open, landscaped palaces and impressive use of columns. The
floral type of decoration was enriched with every sort of form, including
motifs borrowed ad hoc from Europe and China. A high level of ele-
gance was maintained till the end of the seventeenth century, after
which political catastrophes put an end to the great age of building,
which was linked to the fate of the dynasty and the capital. In the
Ottoman empire Iranian elements, such as the use of blue tiles, contin-
ued important; but in the sixteenth century in the cardinal field of
mosque architecture the Turks perfected a fully new type. Already the
domed prayer hall had been developed in west-Turkish lands; it was
now perfected practically under the shadow of the Hagia Sophia (but
with a totally different effect from the Byzantine - the sense of space is
one of ordered extension rather than of monumental bulk). This develop-
ment was led by the military engineer Sinan, who turned his hand to
baths, palaces, fountains, tombs, and every sort of building as well as
mosques, each time creating a masterpiece. The new type of mosque
was built throughout the empire, in the Arab as well as in the Turkish-
European areas, and the peculiar pointed minarets that usually went
with it are like an emblem of the empire. Finally, in the Mogul empire of
northern India the Indo-Muslim style of architecture was brought to
fulfillment in the mighty works of Fatehpur-Sikri and the gleaming Taj
Mahal, together with a host of other gems large and small.
Architecture has for Islam always been the supreme form of visual art,
and it continued so everywhere in this period also. But painting, both
mural and miniature, was cultivated in all three empires and very highly
developed in the Safavi and Mogul empires. The important school of
Tabriz, the first Safavi capital, followed the lead of Bihzad. Early in the
seventeenth century the school of Isfahan, the later capital, found its
most outstanding master in Riza Abbasi, who excelled in portraits and in
genre scenes, in which he shows a subtle sense of humor. He was not
without Western influence. In the Ottoman empire the miniaturists,
though they attempted with much success to follow the Persian exam-
ple, did not achieve quite such high distinction, perhaps because paint-
ing was frowned on by the ulama who played so important a role in the
structure of the empire. In the Mogul empire, on the contrary, the art, at
first imported from Iran, took on a vigorous independent form. Portrai-
ture was very highly developed as well as the depiction of every sort of
9 The unity of later Islamic history 201
legendary and Indian theme. The art was cultivated not only by the
Muslims but among the Hindus, particularly among the Rajputs.
It must be added that almost every fine art and craft was practiced with
great skill in all the empires. Calligraphy was regarded - as before - as
one of the highest arts, and its masters much esteemed. In northern India
the Islamic tradition of vocal and instrumental music (and, of course, of
dancing) was crossed with Hindu taste to give birth to the subtle northern
school of all-Indian music, prized by Muslims and Hindus alike.
As Arnold has pointed out, the visual arts, and especially painting,
were not only extremely sophisticated at this time, but had gradually
come to be accorded unprecedented respect by such representatives of
the public as historians and biographers.36 The artist, or among the
Ottomans, at least, the architect^ sometimes had, if not the standing of
one of the ulama, at least something like that accorded to the poet and
the singer. But these arts were courtly, or at least associated with great
established houses. Outside the three empires, whether in the Arabic or
in the Persian sphere of influence, they were far less cultivated.
Poetry also came to be an expression of the regional cultures at least as
much as of an international Sufism. In Iran itself, though poets stately
and sweet continued to produce profusely, nothing could match the
giants of the past; some of the greatest of Persian poets were more
appreciated in India and Turkey than at home (and indeed many of them
went to live at the Mogul court). In northern India the main vehicle of
Islamic verse long continued to be Persian; but in the Deccan there
flourished, by the sixteenth century, a Sufi poetry in Urdu, the common
language of Muslims in northern and central India; this poetry devel-
oped not only traditional Persian themes but also themes taken from the
Hindu background. By the eighteenth century Urdu had come to be
used in the north as well, and produced classical masters who were
greatly appreciated by certain groups of Hindus as well as by Muslims.
In the Ottoman empire it was Turkish that was most cultivated. For
Arabic, though dialects of it were spoken in much of the empire, played
a distinctly secondary role in cultivated life, being treated almost as a
dead classical tongue. With the advent of the Uzbeks in Turkestan, the
Chaghatai Turkish that had led the field in the time of Nevai tended to
languish, though it was still used throughout the north. But Fuzuli of
Baghdad in the sixteenth century, who also composed in Persian and
3 6 Thomas Arnold, Painting in Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1928), 32-37, speaks
especially of the recognition given from the times of Magrizi and Khwandamir on.
37 Leo A. Mayer, Islamic Architects and Their Works (Geneva: A. Kundig, 1956), p. 28, notes
the high status of at least some architects in the Ottoman empire after 1500.
202 II Islam in a global context
Arabic, did his best work in the Turkish of Azerbaijan, and has been
called the greatest Turkish poet of all times.38 Finally, modeling itself on
the master poet Baqi of the sixteenth century, the western or Ottoman
literature became the most important of the three forms of Turkish. Each
tariqa had its own poetic tradition, and the Turkish work is generally
regarded as more valuable than the contemporary Persian poetry.
Outside the great empires new Islamic literary languages also sprang
up. On the east African coast Swahili, which had been developed as the
language of the Muslim Bantu, came to possess a sophisticated poetic
tradition which could rival Arabic within the region. At the other end of
the Indian Ocean a Malay literature grew up under the influence of
Persian, and consisting in large part of renderings from Persian and from
Urdu. It also took over much from the earlier Malaysian heritage, particu-
larly in poetic forms, only partly Persianized. All of these regional
literatures - Arabic, Persian, Turkish (in three forms), Urdu, Swahili,
Malay - as well as some lesser Muslim languages which began to be
cultivated in this period, used the Arabic alphabet, were infiltrated with
Arabic and (in most cases) Persian words, and treated traditional Arabic
and Persian themes in their poetry. But of the literature then being pro-
duced, it was Persian alone that had an audience among most of the
other peoples; and even it was little read in the Arabic zone except so far
as Turkish rule imported it.
The intellectual life of the three empires likewise built on a common
heritage, but served to meet the special problems which arose in each
empire. Throughout the Dar al-Islam history was written, usually of the
local or regional Muslim community, its learned men and its rulers. The
Turkish historians of Ottoman times are especially noteworthy, the most
celebrated being Ali Chelebi of the late sixteenth century who, like many
other scholars, could write prose without overaffectation despite the
heritage of floridity from the Late Middle Ages. Travel literature and
other sorts of descriptive prose were of course also at a high level.
Iran was an influential center of philosophical thought, which, how-
ever, developed themes broached before, particularly in Sufi circles. In
the seventeenth century arose a school of mystical theologians, teachers
and students of Mulla Sabra, in whose system monism was pushed to a
subtle extreme in exploring the relation of personal consciousness to
cosmic structure. The philosophical thought was often tied up with spe-
cial Shi'ite problems - notably at last in the case of the Shaykhi - as was
suitable in Shi'ite Iran. In fact, with the Shi'a a majority, the whole basis
39 Since Urdu is, properly speaking, a mother-tongue chiefly in just those areas which
remained in India, its use in Pakistan might seem to be an anomaly forced by the U.P.-
wallas contrary to the trends of the time. Particularly in Bengal it is quite alien. But it was
Urdu which was the final vehicle of that all-India Islamic culture to which the founders
of Pakistan were looking back, more than to simply a vague all-Islamic sentiment. The
chief flourishing centers of that all-India culture (except Lahore) were in Urdu-speaking
territory in the north or the south of what is now India. To accept the vernaculars of the
actual territory of Pakistan would be tantamount to admission that Pakistan as consti-
tuted cannot, after all, revive the old and glorious all-India Islamic society
204 II Islam in a global context
4° Cf. Gibb and Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Vol. I, Part 1, pp. 296, 307 ff. To a certain
degree the unhealthy influence of the new West probably went back to the sixteenth
century. Cf. also W. H. Moreland, India at the Death of Akbar, an Economic Study (London:
Macmillan, 1920), who suggests that already under the cosmopolitan Mogul court at that
time, with its delight in Japanese, Chinese, Persians, Arabs, and Europeans, and in their
goods, native industry was suffering.
9 The unity of later Islamic history 205
and homes. Despite some fine poetry, it was perhaps the least creative
century in the history of Islam. It was then that the tendency to purist
religious reform that had been apparent throughout the period took radi-
cal form among the Wahhabis in the center of Arabia.
where the Ottomans continued on the offensive till the end of the seven-
teenth century. They played a minor and rather indirect role in the
changes which make us contrast the world position of Islam in the Late
Middle Ages on the one hand and on the other its dominant trends in
the period of the three empires. These Islamic developments, on the
contrary, did not play a major role in preparing the way for the Western
expansion. The wide activity of Muslim merchants had played a major
part, for instance, in opening up the trade-routes which the Europeans
then took over ready made, and in weakening the traditional Hindu and
Buddhist powers in such places as Sumatra and Java. Above all, it was
the internal weakness of Islam which left a cultural and economic vac-
uum into which the West could pour.
For behind the seemingly unimportant activities of the Westerners lay
all-important transformations going on within Europe itself, which im-
mensely speeded up the pace of historic events there, and were prepar-
ing a momentous superiority in social and economic organization on the
part of the West, which must reveal itself explosively sooner or later. In
the generation about 1800 occurred the French Revolution and critical
phases of the Industrial Revolution in England. In the same one genera-
tion the British seized hegemony in India (where late in the eighteenth
century they still controlled only a province or so); the French landed in
Egypt and awoke the Arabs; the British and Dutch reorganized Indone-
sia; the Turks learned to put through Westernizing reforms; and almost
all Muslim peoples found they must adjust themselves to an economic,
if not a political domination by a West which was no longer merely an
unusually strong trading people, but was a carrier of unexplored but
dynamic new ways of living.
In an essay ranging over the history of half humanity in periods at
least as complex historically as most periods in history, I have been
forced to leave out whole aspects of culture and do ridiculously scant
justice to others. My excuse has been my attempt to place the later Islam
in a world-historical setting. I have tried to suggest some lines along
which to analyze the unfolding of Islamic civilization in its later periods
as a dynamic cultural heritage, notably inquiring in what consists the
unity of its history. At the same time I have tried to underline the impor-
tant place the course of that civilization must hold in any history of
mankind as a whole.
10
Modernity and the Islamic heritage
What can historical processes mean for the moral individual?1 In particu-
lar, what are the moral implications of the acceleration of the pace of
historical change in modern times? Here I shall tackle only a few aspects
of such questions; I shall deal with the acceleration of history as it con-
fronts concerned Muslims in particular. But I refer to Muslims and not
just as believers in a given creed, but rather as participants in a great
cultural heritage prevalent in a wide part of the modern world. What I
have to say about the case of the Muslims, will, I think, have some
relevance for all moral individuals in our times.
I am discussing the concerned individual - the person who con-
sciously attempts to bring to bear high cultural ideas, not only in the
private life but in the society he is a part of. History sometimes seems to
proceed almost independently of the hopes and the anguish of such
people. 'Yet they are, after all, the only ones worth discussing history
seriously with; for they at least are paying attention to it in a morally
responsible way. For that reason alone, their plight would be important
to the historian. But in fact such people supply much of the flexibility of
imagination and the richness of spirit which make possible such positive
development as does come at points of challenge or of crisis, where
otherwise there is too often mere blind floundering. Accordingly, their
place in the historical process can be, on occasion, determinative. Their
spiritual and cultural problems, their concern with the need for roots in a
coherent heritage, their attempts to give ideal form to the diverse de-
mands of their age, have palpable, sometimes tragic and sometimes
magnificent effects on the actual course of events.
This paper was delivered on 20th April, 1960, to a seminar of the Committee on Social
Thought at The University of Chicago in a series devoted to "the meaning of the historical
process for the moral individual." It has been somewhat revised for publication.
207
2o8 II Islam in a global context
tal point of view, the relative rapidity of historical change in our times is
traced back, almost without intermission, to early Medieval times within
Western Europe. It is noticed that almost from the time of Charlemagne
on - from the very origins of a distinctively West-European society - the
pace of cultural change, of innovation, and particularly of increase in
technical and cognitive power, gradually became more and more rapid,
till in recent centuries it has become ever more exhilarating - or frighten-
ing. In the nineteenth century, Europe saw more change than in a great
many earlier centuries together, and in the twentieth century a single
decade seems to see almost as much increase in the sheer bulk of techni-
cal knowledge as the whole of the nineteenth century. All this is seen as
essentially characteristic of the West-European civilization down to the
present. That is, it is thought of as a key feature which specially distin-
guishes the society which produced Charlemagne, Richard Lion-Heart,
Charles V, Napoleon, and Churchill from all other societies, which are
thought of as essentially unchanging. A British poet speaks of preferring
"fifty years of Europe" to "a cycle of Cathay."
Accordingly, the problems the process poses - economic, social, and
above all moral - are thought of as the problems of "Western Civiliza-
tion," and the future many are troubled about is the future of "Western
Civilization." The problems of other societies are thought of as essen-
tially different, to be interpreted primarily in terms of their own past
traditions, which would be more static or more spiritual, depending on
the point of view. Or else, to the extent that they are adopting modern
practices (called "Western" ways), the other societies are thought of as
being at least superficially "Westernized," absorbed into the long heri-
tage of the Occident; in this case, they are thought of as sharing in the
problems posed by the acceleration of history essentially on the same
terms as the Occident itself - with a time lag and perhaps minor local
variations, and only to the extent that they do become effectively an
extension of the Occident. Accepting such an analysis, but interpreting
the special Western traits negatively rather than positively, some Mus-
lims persuade themselves that if they can avoid both Westernization and
Western control, they can escape the modern "Western" problems.
But this point of view generally rests on the conceptions of world
history found in those Western high school texts which trace the whole
human story primarily from Babylonia and Egypt, through classical
Greece and then Rome, to Medieval Western Europe and thence to the
Modern Occident, bringing in other areas only parenthetically and by
way of contrast except as they touch Western Europe. It presupposes the
traditional Western ethnocentric division of the civilized world into the
210 II Islam in a global context
"West" (itself) and the "East" (all the other societies), in which the West
may be smaller, but is considered at least the equivalent of all the rest
together in importance. (It is an indication of how blindly some Muslims
have accepted the Western conceptual framework, that they have ac-
cepted this dichotomy also.)
Seen in a wider setting, the historical career of the West-Europeans
was eccentric but not remarkably outstanding until quite modern times.
Above all, it was integral with the whole wider Afro-Eurasian historical
life. There was a continual accumulation of technique and of knowledge,
a continual expansion of the geographical limits of urban, literate society
in most parts of the zone of Afro-Eurasian civilizations for some several
millenniums.5 This was not peculiar to Western Europe - in fact, until
recently the main centers of this growth were elsewhere: in China, in
India, in the Middle East, in Eastern Europe. Moreover, this cumulative
growth was everywhere, on the whole, accelerating: in the later millenni-
ums the rate of historical changes for the Afro-Eurasian civilized zone as
a whole, in particular the rate of accumulation of technique and knowl-
edge, was distinctly more rapid than in the earlier millenniums. It must
be added that, partly as a result of continuous interchange and interac-
tion, the level of growth remained approximately constant throughout
the civilized zone. Give or take five hundred years, the various civiliza-
tions kept roughly abreast: the Medieval Chinese and the Medieval By-
zantines were about equidistant from the ancient Sumerians. In these
respects, Western Europe simply formed part of a wider historical com-
plex and shared its most generalized characteristics.
There were two ways in which Western Europe, before about 1600,
appears as atypical. Cultural and territorial growth was more rapid than
in the more central areas; and notably in the Italian Renaissance, there
were outbursts of high cultural creativity of an excellence unusual in Afro-
Eurasian history. But on investigation it can be shown that these two traits
do not, of themselves separate Western Europe from the main lines of
historical development of the rest of the Afro-Eurasian historical complex.
On the one hand, the relatively rapid growth was in large part that of a
frontier - for Western Europe formed, in effect, one of the zones of fron-
tier growth of the Afro-Eurasian complex. It can be compared in certain
key points to the rapid growth of civilized culture in the Sudanic lands or
in Malaysia in the same period; or, in even more interesting ways, to that
in Korea and Japan. In each case there was a relatively late and relatively
5 For a closer analysis of the wider setting of hemispheric history see my "Interrelations of
Societies in History/' to appear in Comparative Studies in Society and History.
io Modernity and the Islamic heritage 211
6
Joseph Needham's Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1954) is the most striking work, but not necessarily the most cautious.
212 II Islam in a global context
Europeans and all others, who were in effect at the mercy of any con-
certed effort the Europeans might make. (This gulf corresponded in
some ways, in fact, to that between even the earliest urban societies and
primitive tribes - in the introduction of civilization, likewise, there was
an accompanying acceleration of the pace of history.)
Secondly, this gulf became the most important single fact of life for the
non-European societies because of a natural trait of the great technical
transformations: the exploitation of ever-new technical possibilities al-
most by definition drew no boundary lines - in the search for goods,
resources and markets, the Europeans rapidly became intimately depen-
dent upon conditions at the farthest corners of the globe. In conse-
quence, the Europeans came to have a vital interest in affairs everywhere
and, having both interest and power, moved, during the generation
around 1800 (and almost unwillingly) into effective domination of the
greater part of the civilized world - India and Malaysia being conquered
outright (before then, Europeans had controlled chiefly port towns at
most), and the rulers of the Middle East being forced to hinge all their
policies on the presence and character of the new West. Soon, closing
the gulf between the West and others became the preoccupying goal
everywhere.
Finally, the new European societies were changing, and increasing
this crucial social power, at an enormously faster rate than that at which
the other societies of the Afro-Eurasian zone had been accustomed to
change and were still changing. The gulf kept widening. This had the
effect, for the world at large, of laying down sharp conditions under
which alone the political gulf might possibly be closed. Development
must no longer proceed at the old pace; that is, any independent local
transformation of the kind, which might have been in the offing given
another five hundred years, could not be awaited. The Transformation
must be taken up in the form in which it had appeared in Europe, and it
must, moreover, be taken up with far greater rapidity, and, therefore, in
some drastically different manner, if the ever-increasing gulf in social
power were to be closed. This was the initial meaning of the Modern
acceleration of history for most of the world: a terrible pressure of time in
the face of the transformed West.
While the interpretation of the Great Western Transformation, and
with it of the Modern acceleration of history, as a natural stage for all
peoples is in some ways an improvement over a purely Occidentalist
interpretation, it is still radically deficient. One can think of the Transfor-
mation as a natural destiny, awaiting its proper time as the various
peoples evolve into readiness for it, only if one limits it to its "evolu-
2i6 II Islam in a global context
tional" aspects. But in the historical reality - and not only for the non-
Western parts of the world, but even for the West itself - it is possible to
segregate out the "evolutional" and "interactive" aspects only very artifi-
cially in the actual historical impact, they are most inextricably inter-
woven. The "interactive" relationship of Bengal and Lancashire, for in-
stance, was crucial for both from the start of the Industrial Revolution.
The invention of a steam engine was an event not merely in certain
industrial towns, but in London far to the south - and in the Scots
highlands (which lost population) and in Denmark (whose agriculture
was finally transformed) - and (at the same time) in Bengal or Egypt.
The same continued to be the case with every major subsequent inven-
tion; in whatever town it was located, it was an event everywhere. The
Great Transformation was not simply a stage but precisely an event (if
one may use that term of something which took two centuries to hap-
pen), happening once for all, of which all the world felt the impact even
if in some cases with some delay. And its effects were very different
according to the historical relationship of a given society to the event.
Though the Transformation, particularly in the generation of 1800,
wrought tremendous destruction in the West, this was eased at the time,
and soon largely compensated for, by constructive results which were
largely missing elsewhere at first. Whereas among the Occidental people
the net effects of the Transformation were at least technically advanta-
geous, the reverse was often its effect elsewhere. Whereas in the Occi-
dent there commonly resulted an increased degree of political freedom,
the same events tended to produce an unprecedented despotism else-
where, even when there was no direct military occupation from the
West. Whereas in Europe the whole process often stimulated a fertile
cultural creativity, elsewhere it was long, for the most part, simply cultur-
ally destructive, again whether there was Western conquest or not.
The world-wide character of the advent of Modernity (and of the shift
of pace that came with it) about 1800 is illustrated in the fact that the
Modern world "population explosion" reaches, in a great many non-
Western areas, back approximately to that date. This is no doubt because
in all other areas open to interregional trade - that is, all "civilized"
areas - the control of warfare, pestilence, and later famine by Western
direct or indirect intervention was beginning then. The population in-
crease, moreover, began having serious effects very early; it seems to
have helped rigidify the Hindu castes, for instance, and elsewhere to
have made for intensification and diminishing flexibility in agriculture.
And typically, where in the Occident the effects of population growth,
io Modernity and the Islamic heritage 217
it for a more advantageous. This was a much harder task. It might even
involve a change in the nature of Modernity itself within Europe, to the
extent that European Modernity presupposed the division of the world
between metropolitan and more or less (economically) colonial areas. At
the least, it involved reversing one of the chief historical decisions of
Modern times; worse, it involved changing a self-perpetuating relation-
ship of power. Thus when the Egyptians, after two generations of experi-
ence, tried to control the extravagant tyranny of Mehmet Ali's dynasty
through constitutional forms, the British landed gunboats and settled the
problem in their own way - imposing foreign tutelage instead of a consti-
tution, and curing extravagance by cutting down on education so as to
maintain payments on foreign debts. But the case of other lands makes it
dubious whether the British occupation was really needed to ensure such
an outcome. Economic and intellectual force alone could have comparable
results in, say, the Turkey of Abd al-Hamid.
The story of Egypt was repeated - usually rather less neatly, and in a
wide variety of circumstances - among most of the lands of urban and
literate civilization of the Eastern Hemisphere. "Colonial" rule was al-
most incidental to what was a historical development largely outside the
control of any given Europeans themselves. Eastern Europe - that is,
Russia, the Balkans, and Turkey - had in varying degrees been associ-
ated relatively closely with West-European culture, both in original insti-
tutions and in continuing intercourse; the process of adopting Modern
ways began earlier there and often proceeded with less drastic disconti-
nuity than in the rest of the world, where the cultural background was
more decisively different. Japan, almost uniquely, deliberately insulated
itself at the very beginning of the Western Transformation, (long before
there was serious danger of direct conquest or interference); meanwhile
it built within its own islands institutions - and intellectual awareness -
which enabled it to escape some of the more destructive aspects of the
impact when it had finally to give up its insulation. Elsewhere, the
nineteenth century saw the humiliation and degradation of most of
those societies which did not happen to share in the original cultural
changes that launched Modern times after 1600.
A large proportion of those societies was more or less Islamic during
the two crucial centuries of the Great Transformation. This fact contrib-
uted to magnify the humiliation still further. The original territory of
Islam, as established in the Arab conquests of the seventh century, had
been restricted to the Semitic-Iranian Middle East and some outlying
lands, notably in the Western Mediterranean. But after about 1000, the
Islamic society began a vast and enduring expansion which gradually
224 II Islam in a global context
ence between an inhabitant of New York and an old Mayan villager, and
some of the difference derives from a different relation to history. How-
ever small the difference in his actual ways of thinking and acting, in any
case, for the concerned individual, the potential difference must be mor-
ally crucial.
Ultimately the meaning of any historical acceleration for the moral
individual presumably lies in the changed relation of the individual's
life-span to the pace of historical events. We may posit that human
history is a matter of that action which alters the presuppositions of
everyday life - whether in the political or any other sphere. At the begin-
ning of urban civilization, history in this sense became effectively con-
scious. The then rapid increase in the pace of history lifted some indi-
viduals from an almost unhistorical existence into palpable historical life.
The effect of an individual's actions in modifying the basic context of
Primitive tribal decisions had been normally imperceptible - tribal his-
tory was scarcely distinguishable from family biography. In civilization,
the basic social and cultural context changed more and more perceptibly
each generation. In ancient and medieval times the social and cultural
presuppositions of a later generation were fatefully altered by the actions
of a philosopher, a conqueror, a prophet, even an inventor, so that the
very type of decisions possible to human beings was changed. But only a
few were in such a position, and the results of their acts were generally
slow in being worked out. With the Great Modern Transformation,
many more individuals, in an increasingly wide range of activities, have
been in a position to make moves which will result in altering the context
of normal decisions, that is, will "make history." And, on account of the
continuing acceleration of history it has been not merely the presupposi-
tions of a later generation that may be affected but those of one's own
time. Increasingly, every twenty years, every decade, almost every year
requires each concerned individual to re-evaluate his conceptions of the
total situation within which serious decisions must be made, even as it
increases the frequency with which he must make such fateful decisions.
The "evolutional" developments of the Great Transformation served
to underline the role of the individual which the very pace of history
gave such a potential importance to. It is not simply that the variety and
even the richness of the careers and ways of life open to individual
choice has greatly increased, though this fact is fundamental. The pri-
macy of technical innovation in economic production made immediately
for a wonderful diversity in specialities and in inventive imagination.
But it could proceed very far only in terms of mass production for mass
consumption. Accordingly, one feature of the transformation was mass
226 II Islam in a global context
vary relatively little in principle as between the United States and the
Soviet Union.) The whole of this, to be sure, is as yet far away; but
enough of it has become a reality since the days of Rousseau and
Pestalozzi to have altered the whole tone of moral discourse in the West.
The mass dimensions of life, with their inevitable stresses, and the
demands for the democratic virtues, replacing the older codes, might be
enough already. They have been aggravated by the sheer rapidity of
change in the nature of the everyday questions of choice facing a man;
the result is an acknowledged moral unsettlement of the individual. He
can no longer have a self-image in terms of a fixed norm of social tradi-
tion in a given community. But for the concerned thinking man, this
moral uncertainty is multiplied by the increased historical responsibility
of the individual. An individual who chooses to act in any one of the
many channels open to him has a historical leverage unheard of in
earlier times. Where circumstances are changing faster year by year, the
one thing sure is that old ways will not long persist - or not long by
older standards; every new suggestion has a chance of being taken up.
What is more, in the rush of innovation, viable new ways will beget a
progeny of further changes in a short time merely by their presence.
Before a scholar has put out the second edition of a pregnant work, his
findings have become the basis for a spate of useful new articles by
others. It was a handful of obscure young pacifists in Chicago a few
years ago who launched the resistance techniques now being used by a
whole generation of Southern Negroes in the United States.
This situation carries with it a number of implications for the nature of
the responsible individual. With the number of intelligent and literate
persons rapidly increasing, and with the number of historically signifi-
cant acts of each one of them increasing if possible yet more rapidly, the
notion of human greatness, for instance, is put in question. If greatness
can be defined in terms of historically effective creativity, it may yet
become, if not a commonplace then at least something divorced from
our traditional associations with the notion. (Biologically, there seems no
reason to rule out the possibility of every town of 50,000 being a fifth-
century Athens; till now, it has been only historical reasons which have
made this notion absurd.) Already every artist seems to think he must
personally create a new departure in style if he is to rank as an artist at
all. But more immediate to our present purpose is an implication with
regard to the nature of morality. In certain extreme instances, indeed, a
pressing sense of the actuality of history has led devoted men to conduct
their whole lives on principles which were formerly associated only with
the raisons d'etat of princes and their ministers. But even persons who do
228 II Islam in a global context
cal content, at any rate romantic; and then develops above all novels of
social criticism and satire. Only later and with less force have come more
intimate portrayals of personality.12
In short, the uprooting of the individual, putting into question his
moral responsibility, came early with full force and in increasingly broad
circles, while the correspondingly wide individual openings and moral
sophistication were delayed and distorted. In the first phase, before the
"evolutional" aspects of Modernity were far developed, effective histori-
cal responsibility was limited to much narrower circles than those which
felt the impact of the new pace of change - to the few who found their
way to top political power, for the most part. Their range of opportuni-
ties was still more limited, lying as it did largely in mere responses to the
situations with which the West confronted them. Even in later phases,
when a major emphasis came to be placed on developing locally "evolu-
tional" aspects of the Transformation, the same frustration tended to rise
out of the same juxtaposition of rapid historical change with limited
historical opportunity. What was to be done was rarely a matter of creat-
ing something fresh and new in the world; too often all that could be
hoped for was to maintain a still precarious military independence and a
brave up-to-date front office. Instead of real creation there must be adap-
tation, even imitation. There was scarcely time for much personal nov-
elty; unless in finding new ways to imitate more successfully; a chemist,
for instance, typically was busy trying to introduce into his own culture,
perhaps to translate, the continuing flood of information already known
and to persuade bureaucrats of its relevance; he had no time for discover-
ing new chemical principles.
The sense of personal responsibility that was developed was formed
in this atmosphere to a large extent. To Westerners this sense of responsi-
bility often appears on the one hand heroic and even grandiose; on the
other hand impractical above all lacking in concreteness - the individual
is dedicated to freedom and progress more often than to various special
causes to which he could devote his particular talents.^ It is under the
aegis of this frustrated nationalism of the "intelligentsia" - overtrained
and underemployed - that the long-delayed active involvement of the
masses has finally come. The Modern sense of historical morality grows
12
This comes out clearly in Hamilton A. R. Gibb, "Studies in Contemporary Arabic Litera-
ture/' in Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Vol. IV (1926-28), pp. 745-60; Vol. V
(1928-30), pp. 311-22, 445-66; Vol. VII (1933-35), PP- 1-22.
X
3 Gustave E. von Grunebaum analyzes numerous important sources of it in "(Das geistige
Problem der Verwestlichung in der Selbstsicht der arabischen Welt)/' Saeculum Vol. X,
pp. 289-327.
230 II Islam in a global context
Modernity. But each such attempt has proved, in facing the acceleration
of history, to have its own difficulties, which so far have left the outcome
unclear.
A sober and obvious solution was that represented by Muhammad
Abduh of Egypt. He tried to introduce within the framework of Islamic
orthodoxy an acceptance of modern science and all modern methods on
the level of natural knowledge, as supportive of the faith - on the assump-
tion that an enlightened and reorganized Islam could continue to be funda-
mentally the same Islam, but purer and stronger. He introduced impor-
tant reforms, in this spirit, into the Azhar theological university against
much resistance; his work has had great and permanent influence. But the
rapidity of historical change did not merely require a constant effort of
further adjustment. It upset the very balance of forces involved. Areas of
life which had been important became secondary. With no new basic
principle to introduce other than that of Modernity itself, Islam remained
in effect a body of achieved points of view and practices. Increasingly it
has seemed that with each change, many more were implied; till the host
of the new far outweighed, in scope and perhaps in the fundamentality of
their further implications, the old which was properly Islamic. It became
harder and harder to see whether what had resulted from his work was
not really just the rationalization, in terms of older formulas, of a new way
of life. It seemed as if it were not the continuing, but reformed, Islam
which served as framework for the new science, but the ways associated
with the new science which allowed an increasingly limited place to a
continuing, but reformed, Islam.*4
Eventually, as the bulk of important questions shifted into the new,
secular sphere, Muhammad Abduh's work, despite his intentions,
might logically issue in a relegation of Islam to an essentially private
nicety. It would be denatured as a form of social organization, and attenu-
ated even in personal life to a general moral sanction supporting the
virtues fostered by Modernity. This seems to be nearly the official form
of Islam in Turkey, where it is said Christian missionaries can be con-
sulted in reviewing the adequacy of ethical teachings in Muslim text-
books. Such an Islam is widely prevalent elsewhere, too. In Pakistan
schools, I understand, Islam has been reduced, on occasion, to "brother-
hood, tolerance, and justice." The phrase is an excellent one, but if
misunderstood it could sanction utter vagueness. Not only does it not
*4 Something of the outcome is suggested in the very sober work of Muhammad Abduh7 s
admirer, Taha Husayn, Mustaqbal al-thaqafah fi Misr, translated into English by Sidney
Glazer as The Future of Culture in Egypt (Washington: American Council of Learned
Societies, 1954).
236 II Islam in a global context
set Islam off clearly from other faiths, it does not set it off from many
purely secular philosophical aspirations.
Many persons may not care about the difference. For the culturally
concerned, it can mean jettisoning any effective continuity with the
heritage. It threatens to reduce him to a hand-to-mouth existence in the
moral sphere which may effectively sterilize his efforts at understanding
events in a long-range perspective. This is not to deprecate moral inter-
pretations of a faith, or common understanding across religious lines. I
intend only to point up a cultural dilemma.
Perhaps more profound, and certainly more radical in conception,
than Muhammad Abduh's efforts were those of Muhammad Iqbal of
Pakistan. Taking advantage of the researches of modern Islamists, he
developed a theory of world history in which historical Islam had a
pivotal role precisely from the point of view of the possible outcome of
the Modern Transformation. He hoped that therefore the positive heri-
tage of Islam could be worked into a dynamic Modern form which
would discipline Modernity from within Modernity itself. ^
He divided civilized history into two periods. One was that of the
religious revelations, starting with very primitive mankind and becom-
ing ever more sophisticated to the time of Jesus and Paul. Human
thought in this period was gradually developed out of the realm of
magic and symbol into the rationalism of Plato and Aristotle; but even in
such rationalism, thought was not yet scientific in the modern sense; in
its abstractness it was unable to control the concreteness of evolutionary
and historical reality. Revelation was still needed to supplement rational-
ist thought and provide ultimate symbolic norms, adequate authority for
actual social and practical life as it unfolded from stage to stage. To fill
this need came the numerous irrationalist religions, each better than its
predecessors, but still imperfect. After the peak of non-concrete, symboli-
cal rationalism had been reached in Plato and Aristotle, however, the
human mind was finally ready to make the great leap to a fully adequate,
scientific way of thinking. But this it could not do in terms of its old
rationalism as such; there had to come a new historical impetus - which
must, in that time, still be a revelation. It came as the final revelation,
that of Muhammad.
For in Muhammad's revelation, Iqbal thought, was introduced the
very principle which dispensed with the limitations imposed by the old
sort of rationalism; that is, the attitude of positive and open-ended yet
For Iqbal, then, Islam was not simply a code of ever-dwindling range
of relevance, but the enduring resource of an evolving historical commu-
nity, constantly to be worked out anew in detail, yet retaining its integ-
rity in richly historical terms. This community must in the end, after the
moral bankruptcy of the West, inherit the whole world, including the
Modernity which it had initiated.
This was a beautiful and even persuasive theory, and no more false to
history than the major theories which have inspired the broader-visioned
historical actions of modern Western peoples. Yet it is after all false to
history, as are so many Western theories. It is not merely that Iqbal,
being western-trained, sees history (as do the Western theorists) chiefly
in terms of the Mediterranean regions (though emphasizing the Middle
East rather than Western Europe) and ignores the other major cultural
centers and the broader historical processes that embrace them all. Deci-
sive is the fact that his evaluation of the historical role of Islam (and
therefore of its potentialities vis-a-vis the "rootlessness" of the West will
not stand up under detailed factual criticism. He does not in fact show
that Islam carries a more durable historical moral tradition than does the
West.
In the Middle Ages, this need not have mattered overmuch. But a
creative cultural revival cannot now be founded on intellectual specious-
ness. The very speed of historical change must make out of date the
unexpressed conventions and barely balanced compromises on which
any such scheme is based. Accordingly, Iqbal's attempted formulation of
the solution falls before the too rapid surge of history by the same test as
in the case of Muhammad Abduh. Despite themselves, his followers
must end up, most of them, carving a niche for Islam within a world
formed by Modernity, rather than integrating Modernity into a more
fundamental Islam. In time, as more and more details associated with
the Islamic tradition must give way, this threatens to again reduce Islam
to a vague emblem of goodness.
Some groups have taken the approach outlined by Iqbal more seri-
ously than is common, notably the followers of Mawdudi in India and
Pakistan. They have tried to work out a system of modern industrial life
as perhaps it might have been if informed by a Medieval Muslim moral-
ity rather than grounded in Medieval Occidental institutions. They wish
to achieve capital investment without exploitative interest by taking as
their point of departure the Medieval waqf, the pious foundation, or the
Medieval partnership rules; they wish to take advantage of the intrica-
cies of a modern legal structure without the biased pleading of hired
io Modernity and the Islamic heritage 239
lieve, to show how they may be developed in practice out of the world-
wide network of Modern institutions. More precisely, one cannot picture
an attempt to impose them seriously without inducing so drastic a revo-
lution as to shatter (as would Communism) any historical continuity
with older Islam, shattering it even more completely than continuity
with what the modern West created. For the Medieval Islamic morality is
not, in such matters, so fundamentally different from the Medieval Chris-
tian morality which was in fact explicitly rejected in the evolution of
Modern institutions; how should it prove more viable than did the Chris-
tian morality? As yet, the most evident practical consequence of Maw-
dudi's efforts had appeared in riots against alleged heretics. This is
surely not so much Mawdudi's fault as the fault of the same historical
tensions which made possible his high aims.
of the "Western world"; and, for want of more positive orientation, it has
taken a negative form. But, as we have seen, there are no such closed
worlds, at least within the Oikoumene; an attempt to construct a series
of separate historical fields in such terms leaves too many and too crucial
loose ends. The answer is not to erect a series of "world histories" on the
model of our earlier Western one, but to reject that model, and its very
methods, altogether, to construct a new sort of world history on new
lines. If Oikoumenic history begins to be rightly understood, and also
the place of the Oikoumene in world history at large, it is evidently
possible to develop world history which shall be genuinely worldwide,
but yet free of the a priori system-formation associated with the improper
sort of "philosophy of history."
A second line of attack on Universalgeschichte has arisen from the de-
mand for historians to develop general rules about the dynamics of histori-
cal processes. What causes - not this or that revolution, but - revolutions
in general? What causes the rise and fall of dynasties, states, cultures,
religions, not just in given cases, but as such? What causes the expansion
of a people, the contraction of an economy, the florescence of an art or a
literature? It has been felt that for history to be scientific, it must not
merely (as has been the orthodox position since the nineteenth century)
use exactingly objective methods in determining particular facts; it must
produce generalities as universal and undated as those of physics. It must
be a "social science" - like sociology and anthropology, but with a differ-
ent starting point, if an almost equally universal final domain. For those
who have been consistent in this concern, "philosophy of history" in the
Hegelian sense has been as much anathema as for the more orthodox
detail-historians; though perhaps for a different reason. Though a man
like Toynbee seems to combine the two approaches, scientism and a priori
universal pattern building, this is chiefly because of his utter lack of meth-
odological clarity. Actually, the traditional "philosophy of history" has
always been sufficiently historically-minded to look for the uniqueness in
historical developments, and for a unique way in which they combine into
a whole - it has not produced general laws, in fact, but the analysis of a
single unrepeatable sequence. (Even the more consistent cyclists, from
Vico on, for all their admission of a sort of repetition of type, offer little to
those who want a host of general rules; for they, far from abstracting
various types of historical dynamics from the particular context of a given
total historical development, anchor their whole analysis more undetacha-
bly than ever to such overall developments.)
This interest in historical dynamics as such is a worthy concern. It is
obvious that, moreover, without a proper interregional historical back-
250 III The discipline of world history
from the methods of others, in fact), but by the sort of questions asked.
(Human) history and the several (human) social sciences study much the
same phenomena. Empirically, they are set apart indeed by different
methods and by different traditional viewpoints as well. Historians have
worked out from chronicles of official acts, and prize the documents of
public archives; sociologists began with theories about stages of modern
progress, and exalt statistics; anthropologists started wanting to know
what the original nature of men was and their hallmark remains studies
of kinship patterns. Yet all three groups, in their own ways, have come
to claim a universal domain over human society, and use whatever meth-
ods seem most appropriate to a given theme. What gives the historians,
at least, a distinct common interest is a special attitude which is unmis-
takable when recognized. A sociologist will study a revolution in Mexico
as a sample of a type - revolutions anywhere. A historian will study that
same revolution as a particular combination of human achievement and
failure at a given point in time and space. Even if both the sociologist
and the historian happen to be studying a given man's career as a sam-
ple of a type of career important in that revolution, to elucidate the latter,
the difference of aim persists. All historical statements, even about indi-
viduals, are in a sense generalizations from a range of particulars. But
the generalization the historian is looking for about the revolution, is
sought not for its generality as such but for its immediacy to the particu-
lar revolution. And the thorough historian will soon find himself inter-
ested in the individual for his own self, and distinguishing out so far as
possible the unique and irreplaceable, as well as the typical, in his contri-
bution to the revolution as a whole; something which, ex hypothesi, is not
supposed to interest the sociologist save as it may subserve other, com-
plementary generalizations about the course of revolutions generally.
The historian will study the American Revolution for its meaning in
defining the nature of the American soul, or at least its tradition; he will
study the Crucifixion for its unique place in Christian experience.
The questions historians study are certainly closely related to those
studied in the various social sciences; in a sense, the whole field of
human society is an indivisible field of inquiry, and any distinction
among the several disciplines within it is likely to form a barrier to full
understanding. A distinction between social "science" on the one hand
and history on the other, particularly, is likely to be untoward. Yet hu-
man history will continue to have its own autonomy, at any rate, because
the type of questions it pursues will continue to be interdependent in
their own terms. This is partly a matter of the ultimately moral character
of historical judgments; and this point we shall have occasion to pursue
254 III The discipline of world history
(for instance, Islamic culture From Java to the Niger), or a set of develop-
ments in a single tradition across many culture lines (for instance, The
Greek-Arabic-Sanskrit-Chinese-Latin mathematical tradition). It may be
a religious whole, a period with its own Zeitgeist, a trade network. The
term certainly is not inappropriate for less extensive complexes of
events: the discussion of slavery in the United States implies discussion
of the Frontier, of oceans, of industrialization, of Canadian freedom, of
Quakers, etc. - indicating that North American history forms one histori-
cal complex on one level; and this in turn is composed of lesser, and
enters into wider, such complexes. We need the term to be wide enough
to cover not only persisting cultural patterns, but persisting interrela-
tions among historical elements even when the cultural content of those
interrelations changes drastically - as is the case of the Oikoumene it-
self. This allows us to see the diversity of form which large-scale histori-
cal processes can take - and in terms of which we must be prepared to
integrate our studies.
Once we come to see the crucial character of large-scale conceptualiza-
tions in its own terms, it is evident how crucial these are to all historical
study. The study of any given historical complex is important in two
ways. On the one hand, it is important to understand the nature of the
given historical complex as a whole, on its own level - for only in terms
of it do the full consequences, conscious and unconscious, of human
acts come alive. On the other hand, study of the wider complex is
essential for proper placement and interpretation of more special devel-
opments within it - thus a full sense of the Oikoumenic configuration
allows us to see the later periods of Islamic history in their unity and
variety; and allows us to correct basic distortions which falsified Occiden-
tal history. But it must be kept in mind that any given event or set of
events is not either a matter of interregional, large-complex significance
or of local; it is more often a question of distinguishing in what respects a
given event is relevant to more or less broad-gauge historical complexes
of events. Thus such a locally technologically significant advance as the
development of mold-board plows in Northwest Europe does not have
its significance as a technological advance as such (as we have seen), but
rather only as it helps give, ultimately, the Europeans a different role in
the Oikoumene as a whole. It is essential to put all inquiries about
originality, all searches for filiations, in such perspectives; so that these
inquiries, with their overt or tacit presuppositions of certain attitudes to
race, to national culture, to Zeitgeist, can be sifted, and what is valid be
properly degage.
258 III The discipline of world history
obvious that the separate working out in many areas of a common histori-
cal impulse, and even the contrasting responses or lack of them to a
common historical situation, have serious historical meaningfulness; that
it is important to be aware of the ramifications and unconscious conver-
gences of particular developments outside a specified social framework.
The tracing of the Hellenistic (via Buddhist) impulse in Chinese are, for
instance, seems to have little organic relation any more to the Hellenistic
culture itself, and it may seem futile to treat all the ramifications of that art
as a single "interregional development." But to understand the meaning of
the great visions which are properly the heart of history - the point at
which the human spirit enters into its processes - in the unfolding histori-
cal dimensions of life, one must seek out the relevance and fate of these
visions in the concrete historical development in which they were in-
volved. One of the beauties of history, more than in biography proper, is
that it illuminates the condition humaine by bringing out the priorly un-
knowable implications of a purpose which result from its being worked
out on the same stage with contrasting purposes - to the effect that each
vision means something other in its full historical context at last from what
it could mean taken biographically. In history played on an interregional
stage, these long-range unknowns enter in to humble even the largest of
social visions - thus, what Islam has ultimately meant humanly, in its
vast career, is very different, above all in Oikoumenic perspective, from
what its most far-sighted creators expected. The importance of this sort of
significance to ordinary historians is evident in the little "onlies" and
"remarkables" with which historians sprinkle their judgments of the mat-
ters that come under their pen, and which so often look parochial from a
wider viewpoint. And surely a philosophic historian may be glad for
information which helps him to trace the unfolding of an idea, the essence
of a situation, beyond the limits imposed by the consciousness of contem-
porary actors.
The history of Western Europe ought especially to profit from an inter-
regional perspective, not only in the direct sense, in that the Oikoumeneic
interregional situation as a whole has constantly had its effect on what
was possible in Europe; not only in the sense that Western history as such
has been particularly distorted in its sequence and character through the
Westward distortion described in chapter one of this book, but more
generally, because the peculiarly eccentric character of the West - it was
so long a dependent frontier, so suddenly a center of world transforma-
tion, but almost never developed in and for itself alone - has meant that
the human significance of Western history is more than usually tied in
with a wider setting. Though for want of an adequate sense of the effec-
266 III The discipline of world history
tive disposition of that wider world the need has never been met in terms
much more concrete than Hegel's, one would suppose a primary interest
in a history of the West would be precisely to trace our weird role in the
world at large.
12
Conditions of historical comparison among
ages and regions
The limitations of their validity
Large-scale history must find a great deal of its moral significance, in con-
trast to a sociological study of historical dynamics, in disciplining moral
comparisons. As we have seen, it is in large measure the human need to
make comparisons that make historical study of the big questions -
which are directly or indirectly commonly matters of comparison -
inescapable. This is not necessarily a matter of invidious comparisons. All
moral evaluation, positive or negative, is a tissue of comparisons; we
build our very self-identity upon comparison with what is not ourselves.
To deal with the individual is to deal with the individual in a moral sense -
individuality has ultimately no inherent significance save on that level -
and this is to deal with the individual in terms of norms of some sort;
and comparison with norms is but one aspect of a wider process of
mutual comparison of diverse individuals. We know Leonardo is great
by comparing his work with that of other painters. It has not been a false
instinct, but the very mission of history, which has led historians to
regard moral judgment of their heroes as a primary duty; and though
the old-style explicit summing-up be no longer in vogue, the implicit
judgment in terms of which our modern narratives are constructed is -
as is the case with the novel, from which our new way was learned (not
from natural science!) - more, and not less, rich in its moral analysis, if
done well at all.
Accordingly, one of the major tasks of large-scale history is to develop
the grounds for criticizing historical comparisons. It must criticize above
all the units valid for various sorts of historical comparison, and the
contexts in terms of which comparison can be relevant. But - for com-
parison always implies some sort of common context - this in turn im-
plies discovering such valid elements of unity in history as may exist. In
what ways does the historical field form a legitimate common context for
the purposes of wide-ranging comparisons?
267
268 III The discipline of world history
we can know what are the significant questions - what is and what is
not a problem.
So soon as one or both of the members of a comparison are involved in
or influenced by such a historical configuration as the Oikoumenic, this
fact must be taken into account. In a comparison, for instance, between
Viking and Polynesian explorations, the much closer association of the
Vikings with the technology, trade, and even politics of the wider
Oikoumenic zone cannot be ignored in evaluating both the naval prob-
lems involved and the final results. Being part of the Oikoumenic zone
meant initially a constant contact with a wider society of relatively rap-
idly changing cultural level: during the centuries of exploration, home
conditions changed significantly. The rise of kingdoms in the Scandina-
vian states, and their Christianization, affected both the motives for
expansion, and the types of relationship retained with the original cen-
ters. Norse trade with the Middle East and with Europe provided a
changing basis for alternative estimation of the gains of exploration. And
finally, the Viking colonies were either absorbed into their corner of the
Oikoumene or lost; that there was no dispersal into persisting isolated
communities was partly the result of geography, but partly the result of
the high degree of far-flung interdependence that Viking life was in-
volved in.
The connection with the Oikoumeneic configuration can be of several
degrees. A comparison between West-Europeans and Mexicans at the
time of Columbus which left out of account the wide non-European
background of Europe would be obviously unfair if used, as it has been
used, to deprecate the native abilities of the Mexicans. In the case of
peoples only marginally associated with the Oikoumene, where one is
more closely involved than another, there may be equal unfairness in-
volved in a straight comparison, or unsoundness in evaluating influ-
ences, potentialities, or courses of development. In any such case, it may
be necessary to recognize the particular conditions of the Oikoumenic
configuration at the time of the comparison, and how they relate to the
member that is more closely linked to the Oikoumene: whether in-
terregional trade by literate peoples is a serious factor or not, whether an
atmosphere of receptivity for a universal religion is to be expected or not
etc. Thus a comparison of some remoter people with the pagan Arabians
in Hellenistic times - when under unusual circumstances they might
produce a Zenobia, and the civic magnificence of Petra or Palmyra -
cannot be the same as a comparison with the likewise pagan Arabians in
Christian times, when under unusual circumstances they might produce
Muhammad and the other prophets of his time; for quite apart from any
270 III The discipline of world history
internal differences in the Arabians' life at the two times, the all-
Oikoumeneic influences they were subjected to differed, and differed in
decisive ways.
To be sure, in such cases one can take into account the broader histori-
cal environment piecemeal, noting the European environment of the
Vikings, or the Middle Eastern environment of the Arabians. The Vi-
kings to be sure were in some touch directly with the Middle East, and
the Arabians with India. But such further contacts can be likewise taken
into account ad hoc, without any attention being paid to the Oikoumene
as a whole. The reasons for bearing in mind the Oikoumenic configura-
tion at large are in part to assure a full view of possibly relevant ele-
ments, and in part to assure a proper sense of proportion. These reasons
are especially weighty in the case of comparisons between situations
both fully within the Oikoumenic historical complex.
The unity of history is above all interdependence, in ages and regions,
in terms of the problems posed (ultimately, indeed, the problems posed to
the historian as inquirer - though this depends in part on problems posed
to the men in the past), rather than of the human action taken to solve
them - the materialist historian's unity from below rather than the ideal-
ist's unity from above (a higher unity); but ultimately the two unities are
two faces of one coin, since the problems are problems only by virtue of
their being the objects of action; while action from above has a moral
obligation to follow the unity of its problems even when this is not
fulfilled - even where it is not fulfilled in our own times. It is the aware-
ness of irreversible progression in nature and history that has made the
question of the unity of history a matter no longer of negative relevance -
the ruling out of something elsewhere of importance prior to that of what
one is here involved in - but a matter of inescapable positive implications
both moral and structural.
clear. Inevitably in such cases even regional histories delve into broader
fields. In connection with such motifs, however, it is useful to include
"accidental" material - that is, events outside the pattern of that motif
itself, though of course it may share common causes with it in common
circumstances. Such are the Turkish conquests in the Middle East previ-
ously to, and in India concurrently with, the Mongol Conquests, as are in
the same way the Crusades. Each movement has a bearing on all the
others, in this case in terms of strength of various states; moreover, in any
common results of the main event, they will have modifying and supple-
menting effects - Turks did for India what Tungus started in China and
Mongols finished; and both Turks and Tungus can then usefully be associ-
ated with the Mongol conquest, though in themselves not events com-
mon to many regions. This kind of accidental relation among otherwise
local motifs only serves to bring out that any one motif is an abstraction
from a far more complicated network; that some elements in the network
must be treated as relatively accidental is purely a matter of convenience.
It is to be noted further that many things can be treated from the point of
view of being a common event. The Near Eastern Imperial Tradition, for
instance, from Sargon to Alexander, both as a developer of administrative
methods, and as a recurrent center of cultural mixing, serves as an in-
terregional event, or a series of them, impinging on the whole Indo-
Mediterranean area. In a different way the development of the pseudo-
sciences, alchemy, geomancy, astrology, can, to the extent that they share
ideas interregionally, be considered under the form of a common event,
detrimental perhaps to the pure sciences, and in their progressive devel-
opment having a distinct impact on the cultures. In these latter cases,
however, it would be only as an incidental way of throwing light on them
that they might be considered as common interregional events; they will
be more easily handled as other types of motif.
Another evident type of interregional motif is that of paralled develop-
ments: the flowering of individual thought in the "Liberation Period," the
evolution of scriptural religions, the development of supra-governmental
law. Cases of simple comparison come in here, as that of India and China
in the "Liberation Period": we can compare Ch'in with the Punjab, Ch'u
with Magadha both in point of philosophy and political role, and then
compare the victory of Ch'in with the contrasting Magadhan leadership in
India, and the comparative vitality of the resultant empires. But such
amusing speculations are not the gist of interregional study under this
head. If we compare the intellectual traditions of Greek, Sanskrit, and
presumably Magian peoples in the "Consolidation Period," for instance,
there is probably a common Indo-European background, and almost cer-
272 III The discipline of world history
further west and north. In many instances, as in the case of the coloniza-
tion and of the intense Buddhist activity of north India, the effects were
ultimately felt much more in other areas, the Far East and the far South
East, than in India itself. In short, India in Gupta times acted as a focus-
ing and redistributing center for many trends and movements, almost
like a hub of the whole Oikoumenic Zone for a time. To deal with India
in that period as essentially a self-contained cultural region would be to
miss a wealth of significance in what was going on.
A different type of circumstance, though even more obvious, in which
a regional approach is insufficient, is that of the "marginal" regions
which, while having an inevitable continuity within themselves of time
and space, also exhibit a bewildering confusion of regional cultures
within themselves. The interaction of cultural elements from the Far
East, from India, from the Middle East, and from the modern West,
combined with distinctive developments of its own, have made the far
South East a remarkable region to challenge handling in terms of the
exclusive culture patterns. As in the case of its growth into an imperial
preserve of modern seapowers, so in most other ways the development
of Indochina and Malaysia can be viewed only in terms of the interac-
tions of many cultures, themselves not behaving in fully distinct ways.
The various religions that have passed over the area are recalled by
Hindu Bali, last remnant of the earliest doctrine; the Hinayana Buddhist
mainland; Mahayana Buddhist sculptures in the islands it once so pain-
fully won from Hinduism only to lose again; the Loyal Islam of the
archipelago; and the Christianity of the Philippines, which were imper-
fectly covered by the older faiths, and left for the late comer. In litera-
ture, art, and science Chinese and Sanskrit influence have combined to
make well deserved the name Indo-China; while under it all Toynbee at
least can see an independent Hinayana culture surviving through the
ages. It seems absurd to try to reduce the kaleidoscopic changes in the
most characteristic elements of culture to incidental relations of larger
regions; for it is evident that a continuity of cultural development is
forced on the area by time and space. Java and Sumatra, when fighting
for and against Buddhism, were not in completely different circles of
intelligibility; and when Java adopted the Sumatran faith, Javanese cul-
ture did not change its basic position in the world overnight. Malacca
and Singapore have long been crossroads of mankind, whatever their
faith or tongue, and can be understood only in terms of Oikoumenic and
now global development.
A composite region like that - another example is Central Asia, where
12 Conditions of historical comparison among ages and regions 277
Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam have all prevailed, and many regions
have been joined with politically and socially - will manifestly present a
minimum of advantage to a regional study, and a maximum of light will
be thrown on it in the course of studying interregional problems. An
ambiguous case like Russia requires interregional light in a different
manner. Russian history does not fit into the categories for the most part
of the Latin West, but in recent centuries has been so bound up with it as
to be inseparable, in certain respects, at least between the times of Peter
the Great and Lenin. On the other hand, Russia had not been intelligible
simply as an outpost of Byzantium. Yet it can never be divorced intelligi-
bly either, from South or from West. As in the case of the far South East,
the only solution is to develop a more general framework within which
Russia can find a place; but, whereas in Indonesia interregional trade
and other such interactions will be of major importance as factors in
terms of which the region develops its particular forms, in Russia, no
doubt, greater scope can be allowed for internal cultural development,
and interregional relations in the form of geographic balance or of com-
mon events and developments impinging on Russia will be instead a
fundamental frame of reference.
However, there is more to the problem of relative spheres of a regional
approach and of an interregional approach in understanding the rela-
tions of the various regions. It is sometimes suggested that whatever
may be said of the objective correlations and regularities, the "causal"
development of cultures, their human significance is to be sought, if
anywhere, only within a particular culture, whose forms are to be inter-
preted as a common whole; that any relations among these, while they
may have profound causal effect on the various cultures, have no signifi-
cance except in terms of the particular worlds of meaning identified
exclusively with each culture. This point must be accorded due respect,
as it is an important part of a general recognition among us that without
immediate value, the indirect knowledge of science is dead; that no
consensus gentium pragmaticorum, no evaluation by a congress of general
semantics is adequate in human affairs. Nevertheless, the ordinary for-
mulation of it in terms of exclusive cultures leaves much of human
history in the lurch - the Far South East, say, as well as those recognized
periods within a culture which are not highly "integrated" in Sorokin's
sense. It concentrates on finding meaning for men only in the general
cultural configurations, noting only in passing that of course life has
meaning for people in all sorts of connections, whether their individual
personalities or their cultural backgrounds are highly integrated or not.
278 III The discipline of world history
Regionality
Every cultural complex of wide enough scope to be reckoned a "civiliza-
tion" is prevalent over what may be called a "region." But there are
many other regions that cannot readily be defined in terms of a given
civilization. For instance, much can be said about the Middle East which
is true of both pre-Islamic and Islamic times; and if one can, indeed,
speak of "Middle Eastern civilization" (for instance, in the seventh cen-
tury when civilization in that area is being transformed into what will
then be called Islamic), it is because we are aware of the region first, as
an area of identifiable cultural traditions; and so can be led to refer to a
"civilization" characteristic of that region at any given time, though from
first to last such a civilization may vary enormously. Again, India is a
clear region which can be discussed in Indo-Muslim times despite that
fact that it is only a part of the "Hindu civilization" - indeed, the very
question, "is there a common and distinctive civilization in India then?"
presupposes that there is a common historical complex - a region of
historical interactions.
For a region in our particular discussion is merely an area of historical
interrelations and interactions, closely-knit enough so that many ques-
tions can be dealt with in its terms without spreading out to a still wider
region - that is, in practice, to the Oikoumene. Hence a hodge-podge
like the Far South East still forms a region, because Hindus, Buddhists,
Muslims, and Confucians, and finally even Christians, lived out their
history so much in each others' hair that however different their cultural
patterns they formed a common region. The proto-Thai of Yunnan,
though not Chinese, formed for a while a part of the region of China, not
because they participated in its culture, but because they were drawn
into its history.
The Oikoumene is the largest region. But smaller regions than it are
what one is referring to when one says "interregional" - and, so far as
this is contrasted to "local," the regions are the largest complexes usually
isolable before one comes to the level of the Oikoumene, or at least of,
say, the Indo-Mediterranean historical complex. Regions are more flexi-
ble to deal with than "cultures" because, while including them, they
allow for many other sorts of cases.
In designating usable regions for the purposes of interregional history,
there is not always the same traditional difficulty as in the case of the
West. However, there is a problem, indicated for one thing by a lack of
regional terminology. The only standard regional method we have in use
now goes by continents, the only concession to cultural regionalism
280 III The discipline of world history
being to divide off Europe from the rest of Eurasia. This results in a
concept, "Asia," the miscellaneous remainder, which has no geographi-
cal, ethnographical, or political function, except to exalt the status of
Europe as homologous to its vast self, and to confuse well-meaning
professors who talk hopefully about wedding the "ideals of Asia" to the
"skills of Europe." 1 But these "continents," not even useful for geologi-
cal purposes, are hopeless for studying man. At least four-fifths of hu-
mankind live on the one continent Eurasia; and to divide Eurasia into
two as we have does not solve the problem, for though "Europe" is
almost a reasonable region, the lumping all the rest together as "Asia"
merely encourages the Westward distortion. To meet the need we have
evolved terms like "Near East," "Middle East," "Far East," which are the
best available yet; but they are not clear even so, for all these terms have
different meanings attached to them by different people. While for some
the Near East is the area of the old Ottoman Empire, for others it is
restricted to the Balkan Peninsula, and for others it expands to include
Iran, since Iranian history is inevitably bound in with the general course
of the Ottoman area. It is probably in this latter sense that it refers to an
area most frequently useful for interregional purposes, though each of
its meanings of courses has its uses. In this same expanded sense "Mid-
dle East" is now used by the British military, a term usually restricted in
America to lands well east of the Mediterranean, and often extended
even to include India. The Far East as a term is equally difficult, some-
times referring to the old Chinese and Japanese empires, sometimes
extending southward as far as Malaysia, and sometimes expanding to
include, with India, half the human race, and so to become completely
unwieldy.
The term "West" is of course similarly ambiguous, being sometimes
used in the sense of the nations of old Latin heritage, being sometimes
expanded to include Russia and the Balkans, and sometimes contracted
to refer to Britain, France, and Germany as against the "Central" Ger-
man powers. But besides their ambiguity it is the common fault of these
terms to preserve, in their form, the old division into "West" and "East,"
for "Near East" and "Far East" inevitably suggest a correspondence to
similar divisions within the "West."
The inadequacy of terms, of course, merely cloaks an inadequate
regional equipment for use in interregional study. If interregional his-
1
Much the same ambiguities adhere to the term "Asia" as to the "Orient." An amusing
example of the use of the word is found in Michelet: "Long had those two sisters, those
two halves of humanity, Europe and Asia, the Christian religion and the Mussulman, lost
sight of each other. . . . " What would the Hindu Mahasabha say to that!
12 Conditions of historical comparison among ages and regions 281
tory is the study of those phenomena too wide to fit conveniently into
any particular region, it is necessary for economy's sake to know what
regions hang well enough together to be dealt with on the regional
level. Within the Oikoumenic Zone, moreover, distinguishing regions,
like the Far East and the Latin West, which form relatively constant
parts of the Oikoumenic Configuration, are of particular use in orient-
ing ourselves in the infinitely complex network of relations across the
Zone. Perhaps the most significant of such regions are the Confucian
Far East, the peninsula and island of the far South East, India and
nearby areas, and vast reaches of Central Asia, the Middle East from
the Nile and the Aegean through Iran, the Russian area, and the Occi-
dent. Certainly in addition to these are likely to be helpful at various
times overlapping regions, the Sudan, the Mediterranean Basin, the
Levant, for instance; and for relatively many purposes certain subdivi-
sions can be noted - within Western Europe, the south around the
Mediterranean, and the north on the Atlantic; within India, the Deccan
and the north; within China, again, the south and the north, the
Hoang-Ho Valley.
It is still necessary to an understanding of the role of Oikoumenic con-
ditions in interregional history, to examine the role of the Oikoumenic
regions in regard to each other. One can hardly, of course, think of the
various regions as fixed entities; nevertheless it is helpful to abstract fairly
constant regions within the Oikoumenic Zone, within which regions
there is a degree of cultural integration - a common religion, during
much of the time, a common literary heritage, and a common political
framework. To a large extent the Zone divides itself up very conveniently
into such regions, and there is a regular configuration which they form
over many centuries, which while constantly growing and changing re-
mains recognizable from the time of its formation in the first millennium
B.C. till the Western Metamorphosis upsets it. For instance, the Confucian
Far East forms from Chou times a distinct region in such a sense - as it
expands, new countries like Japan are not always incorporated directly
under the imperial rule, but, recognizing common political standards,
and often enough having a common reverence for Chinese imperial au-
thority, Japan and China, as well as the lesser nations in their vicinity,
form a common diplomatic region as well as a literary and religious one.
Moreover, in the Oikoumenic Configuration this Far Eastern region has
for millennia the same general relations with other regions: overland
immediately with Central Asia, and beyond the Middle East; by several
routes, but also by religious ties, with India; by sea with the far South East,
and thence with other seafaring regions.
282 III The discipline of world history
Some historians have been misled by their own feelings of the Latin West as essentially
the world into an emphasis too great on the "universalism" of Latin Medieval political
theory. Truly universalist was Chinese political theory of the time, even with so brilliant a
man as Wang Anshih, picturing China as the world; but the Latins were then a bit more
modest; the Emperor of the Respublica Christiana was admittedly emperor of only the
West, and functioned as general in chief solely (as in the Crusades) when the Respublica
was fighting foreigners, beyond its local jurisdiction.
12 Conditions of historical comparison among ages and regions 283
Periodization
The different sorts of historical complexes bear different relations to time
and periodization. "Regions" would have minimal time-delimitation
(though they are meaningless apart from human settlement patterns).
"Culture-areas" would be present-oriented. "Civilized traditions" would
be seen as persistent through the period of civilization, at least provision-
ally. "Civilizations" are the briefest and most fractionable sorts of world-
scale historical complexes; they, above all, can be regarded as having
limits in space as well as in time (points of relative discontinuity with
regard to central features in terms of which the cultural context must be
defined), e.g., Islamic civilization, despite its continuity with the Sassa-
nid, definitely is new in the 8th century; or, to take a smaller unit than is
perhaps relevant to world-history, one can fractionize down to a "civiliza-
tion of the Renaissance in Italy and environs."
Just as the Oikoumenic Configuration needs to be clarified spatially, in
the finding of suitable regions in terms of which to study it, it also must
be clarified in time, so that a usable periodization is available to deal with
its development as a whole. Of course, any overall periodization will
have to be arbitrary, particularly in earlier periods, while the Configura-
tion was only in process of formation. However, the only general period-
izations at present in use are the Ancient-Medieval-Modern ages, and
the centuries. The former slice off periods too big for use, even were they
possessed of any natural significance for interregional affairs. The latter
do not take advantage of what integration there is in the development of
the Configuration, and so fail to be either suggestive or useful in mark-
ing off units that can be satisfactorily dealt with. The value of periodiza-
tion consists in its abstracting lengths of time during which it is useful to
deal with comparable development or common events as groups. For
instance, the time of the flowering of individual thought, before referred
284 III The discipline of world history
the West) as having come to an end with the advent of the great "West-
ern" or "Modern" transformations. They have been superseded by a
new type of historical complex, world-wide, and not necessarily compa-
rable with any of the old civilizations - which must be compared as a
historical complex with any that are of use, according to the require-
ments of a particular question - with the Oikoumene, or with any of the
pre-modern civilizations.
Orators' preoccupations with "Western Man," etc., are accordingly for
the most part dangerously misformulated!
suppress in their turn the equally persistent forces of creation, while cultural
decadence is of two main types. The first is decadence which occurs by the
internal logic of a state structure or art form or whatever, by the law of
Exhaustion - the stalemate whereby one would have to descend to a
lower level (anarchy, of government or art) to break a deadlock created by
an overworked form (of taste, of authority, etc.). This is so alike in point of
(a) art forms like the baroque where art cannot persist in the classic form
because new generations' taste demands something fresh, but cannot be
crude as would be demanded by a truly fresh start on a line for which taste
is not yet developed; and in (b) point of politics, where a constitution has
become out-of-date but so entrenched that its modification without re-
course to crude political forms is impossible - e.g., the alienation of lands
for monks and lay lords in late Byzantium; or even (c) in science, where a
theoretical structure is more readily heavily and at last stranglingly
amended rather than dangerously overthrown - e.g., the Ptolemaic sys-
tem, for which neither heliocentrism nor spiral orbits nor others could
offer help. Exhaustion can mean mere conservatism, or can contribute to
actual regression, e.g., by barring the path of better minds and turning
them elsewhere.
The second type is decadence which occurs by a persistently effective
dominance of the forces either of disruption or, in certain cases at least,
of cultural suppression, e.g., puritanism. (Decadence and creativity in
science is a special case; for science is especially dangerous to the status
quo; hence most intellectual orientations, whether religious or [as in the
case of Confucianism] esthetic, are anti-scientific. Hence science can
flourish only when the power of the intellectual status quo is somehow in
abeyance. Art also is a special case from the point of view of flourishing
and decline, for [apart from iconoclasms which hit only certain media] it
is always in demand and hence has a way of chronically being at high
levels, subject only to internal developments of particular tastes coming
gradually to climax and then becoming overripe. Hence to judge general
decadence or flowering by either science or art is very dangerous.)
Where growth is not functioning at best is decadence; where growth
does not make up for loss is decline. What is called decadent includes:
(a) in art and religion, the corruption of taste by accustomment to special-
ized highly developed standards, features whereof will be falsely exag-
gerated to produce a seeming freshness; (b) in political institutions, cor-
ruption of judgment by dependence on established patterns of power
rather than the inherent sources of it; (c) in economic life, decline of
enterprise in favor of security, but on an enterprise level (as versus
primitive); (d) in intellectual life, dependence on past masters rather
12 Conditions of historical comparison among ages and regions 287
hide under the fact that the great modern Metamorphosis centered in
the West.
That Metamorphosis has had a profound effect; but it has of course
had as profound an effect on the West as on anywhere else. Therefore
insofar as earlier conditions in the West are still of importance, so will
earlier conditions of other lands also be of importance. Neo-Thomists in
our universities will be quick to point out that Medieval scholasticism
has not ceased to have importance in Western countries. But in the
centuries after 800 A.D. the same type of scholasticism was flowering
everywhere, and Sankara, al-Ghazali, and Chu Hsi are equally living
forces with St. Thomas. The scriptural religions had all about the same
time everywhere to come to terms with the earlier philosophies of indi-
vidual wisdom; it was - considering the similar imperial and philosophi-
cal backgrounds, as well as the direct interrelations which we know
were a factor influencing at least the Western scholasticism - a develop-
ment in itself of interregional significance, and continuing in its effects
into the present without regard to its effect on Europe alone.
We must force ourselves to realize what it means to say that the West
is not the modern world, gradually assimilating backward areas to itself;
but is rather a catalyst, creating new conditions for other forces to work
under (though in this case, to be sure, the West itself is also thoroughly
transformed).
will find it harder to get at the source material, even where the actual
material needing to be covered might be less than within a regional
history. Even where adequate editing has been done, this remains a
problem. It is possible that a significant development in interregional
history must wait upon the working out of more successful methods of
cooperative scholarship. Indeed, it might seem that interregional history
was in this respect in the same boat with all the other sciences, integra-
tion among which is so longingly called for by those who realize the
meaninglessness of extreme specialization. However, in this case the
least we can do is to cease calling our extended Western history, world
history; and to take care not to make broad interpretations of history on
its basis. Meanwhile, any monographic material that can be achieved
will be of potentially great significance; and indeed much has already
been done - particularly in relations between the West and other areas,
especially the Middle East; and to a degree in other relationships, as
between Iran and China.
Already, however, there seems to be enough material extant to sup-
port flourishing hypotheses more or less in the interregional field. There
are a number of types of approaches to interregional history or its periph-
ery already developed. In particular there are various one-factor analy-
ses; the group of analyses that have followed Spengler more or less
distantly; and the anthropologists.
The anthropological tradition cannot be expected to suffice for the
handling of interregional history in the Oikoumenic Configuration and
still less in the present. Intercultural diffusion among "primitives" has
only the broadest relation to interregional relations in the Oikoumenic
Zone. It can be suggestive and very helpful for archeological times, but
historians must develop civilized interregional history in terms of its
own problems. Using the aid of the three approaches being made to the
problem, we must consciously develop it for its own sake and in its own
terms.
It would seem that, in spite of the considerable theorizing already
done and the several monographs in various aspects of interregional
problems that are already available, the field still really awaits recogni-
tion and a clarification of its scope and problems.
The suggestions here made, of course, are not intended to present a
theory of history, except as some idea of what has happened is minimally
necessary to an effort to go about finding more. The "Oikoumenic Zone"
is not suggested as an entity to be characterized, but as a methodological
conception linking together a group of civilizations which, being in con-
tact with each other, involve special problems of study. Similarly, with the
292 III The discipline of world history
the interregional field may possess; but it seems likely that it will provide
a reorientation for many aspects of regional history, as well as provide in
itself a body of material of basic significance for understanding the total
development of mankind.
At a time when orientalism is under attack both from within and without
the profession, the publication of Marshall G. S. Hodgson's three-
volume work, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civili-
zation,1 is an event of major importance. So rich is its subject, so complex
and ambitious its analytic scheme and serious its moral purpose that it is
difficult in brief compass to give an idea of the book. In the following
pages, I discuss those aspects of the work that seem to me most impor-
tant for an understanding of its achievement and significance. In the
end, I shall argue, The Venture of Islam must be seen as the most ambi-
tious and successful effort to salvage the orientalist tradition to date.
Having said this, I should add that The Venture of Islam is also a contro-
versial work, one likely to generate continuing debate both on points of
detail and on its overall vision of the history of Islamic civilization.2
Already, it has been criticized as a highly personal and partisan account.
Such charges, it must be said, are true, but they are also beside the point.
Indeed, the very greatness of the book stems from Hodgson's own per-
sonality, his cranky obsession with terminology and presuppositions,
his insistence on seeing Islamic civilization in a world historical context,
and his stubborn Quaker moral conscience. The rest is scholarly mono-
graphs. There is much about Hodgson's spirit that recalls the youthful
impatience with mediocrity which so marked the writings of Marc Bloch
and Lucien Febvre, the founders of the Annales school.3 Perhaps it is not
1
Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization
(3 vols.; Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1974), Vol I., The Classical Age of Islam;
Vol. 2, The Expansion of Islam in the Middle Periods; and Vols. 3, The Gunpowder Empires and
Modern Times.
2
Hodgson's footnotes are one of the delights of the work and are not to be overlooked.
They collectively provide a systematic settling of accounts with the field, and a fertile list
of topics for future research.
3 I am thinking especially of Lucien Febvre's Combats pour I'histoire (Paris, 1953), portions of
which have been published in English as A New Kind of History (New York, 1973). Hodg-
301
302 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
son's effort differs from that of the Annales historians, of course, in that he focused upon
the study of civilizations (understood chiefly in terms of the high cultural artifacts of the
major literary traditions), while they emphasized social and economic history. It is in the
spirit of the two, and the concern with methodology, that they resemble one another.
4 Saul Bellow, To Jerusalem and Back: A Personal Account (New York: Macmillan, 1976), pp.
105-9.
5 See the Preface by Smith for an account of the state of the manuscript on Hodgson's
death, and the nature of his editorial assistance. In general, Smith was scrupulous to
avoid changes that went beyond the stylistic. The published version of the work is thus
substantially as Hodgson left it.
Conclusion: Islamic history as world history 303
6
The reader was a companion to a History of Islamic Civilization published in 1958 in an
offset edition. This gave way to a first edition of The Venture of Islam (in two volumes) in
1961, also in offset, intended for students at The University of Chicago.
7 William McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1964).
8
See his review of The Venture of Islam, in Journal of Near Eastern Studies 37,1 (1978), 53-62.
304 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
9 Louis Massignon, "Salman Pak et les premices spirituelles de l'lslam iranien," Societe des
Etudes Iraniens 7 (1934).
10
The Venture of Islam, I, 379, n. 6.
11
John Woolman, The Journal, and Other Writings (New York and London, 1952).
Conclusion: Islamic history as world history 305
think favors are peculiar to one nation and to exclude others, plainly
supposes a darkness in the understanding." The citation is clearly in-
tended as an implicit judgment upon the smug Eurocentrism that has
informed most of the writing on Islam by Western scholars. With this
device emblazoned on his escutcheon, Hodgson sets forth to combat the
many errors and presuppositions of previous studies. A central purpose
of The Venture of Islam is to demonstrate the possibilities of a new kind of
Islamic history, methodologically self-conscious and guided by a more
adequate framework of world history. Hodgson argues his case at length
in the text and in the numerous footnotes sprinkled throughout the
work. It is for this reason that the work begins with a lengthy method-
ological section entitled "Introduction to the Study of Islamic Civiliza-
tion." In this syllabus of errors, we see Hodgson at his most polemical,
as well as his most teacherly. The central concepts and epistemological
assumptions of orientalism and of civilizational studies are submitted to
scathing examination. Nothing is exempt, not even the venerable Mer-
cator projection map, which Hodgson argues is a "Jim-Crow projection"
that has seriously warped our image of the world.
In a more general sense, the citation of Woolman serves to focus
attention on Hodgson's Quaker beliefs. In ways both great and small,
The Venture of Islam is marked by the impress of Hodgson's Quaker
conscience. It is axiomatic for Hodgson that "the individual sensibility,
focused in a point of conscience, is one of the ultimate roots of history."
A major theme of the three volumes is the capacity of the Quranic
message repeatedly to inspire men of conscience to confront the dilem-
mas of their age in response to the challenge of its ideals. Thus the work
proceeds by a series of meditations on the styles of piety of selected
Muslim moral epigones: Hasan al-Basri, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Abu Hamid
al-Ghazali, Jalaluddin Rumi, and Mughal sultan Akbar, and the modern-
ists Muhammad Abduh and Muhammad Iqbal. What interests Hodgson
about these men is their effort to work out anew the implications of the
act of Islam in their own age. In such an approach to Islamic history, it is
almost as if Hodgson had somehow reinvented the Muslim biographical
dictionary, albeit one in Quaker disguise. This represents a sharp break
with the conventional political/dynastic way of presenting Islamic his-
tory in which the heroes are the great generals, statesmen, and builders
of empires. It also constitutes one of the most effective means of encour-
aging the reader to momentarily suspend disbelief and enter into the
mental universe of particular Muslims.
Hodgson's Quakerism manifests itself in still other ways. One is his
scandalized response to the fact that the initial spread of Islam owed much
306 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
who delighted in the search for patterns in world history. Long before
the current impasse of the orientalist tradition had become glaringly
evident, Hodgson was already convinced of the need for a radical reori-
entation of our historical and geographical attitudes toward the rest of
the world. In my opinion, the effort to write a history of Islamic civiliza-
tion informed by the multiple awarenesses that derive from such an
undertaking constitutes Hodgson's most important achievement. One
may dispute his views of particular features of the civilization which he
calls Islamic; nonetheless, he has accomplished a feat of enormous sig-
nificance in enabling us to see, for the first time, that civilization whole
and entire in its unfolding through time and in its relations with its
neighbors.
It is crucial to an understanding of The Venture of Islam to recognize that it
is based upon an explicit framework of world history, and that its author
was at once profoundly immersed in the classics of Islamic civilization and
a world historian. Hodgson left several hundred pages of an uncompleted
world history at his death. What that finished work would have looked
like, we cannot say, but its general outlines are clear from his previous
work. Among Hodgson's earliest publications is an article which ap-
peared in the Journal of World History in 1954 called "Hemispheric In-
terregional History as an Approach to World History."12 Here in brilliant
but highly schematic outline are to be found the central themes that
subsequent works would but fill out in greater detail.^ In this article
Hodgson argues that a necessary preliminary to a new framework of
world history is a systematic criticism of the basic presuppositions of
Western historiography. Only with a radical reorientation of our historical
and geographical attitudes about the world is it possible to undertake this
task. Accordingly an important segment of Hodgson's energies is focused
in this article upon the methodology of world history. Only with this
accomplished does he go on to present his own framework.
Hodgson's critique of the Western tradition of world history centers
on such issues as the problem of perspective (in world historical terms,
Europe is a fringe area of the Afro-Eurasian zone of agrarianate citied
life, and it does not emerge on the center of the world stage until 1800),
the problem of terminology (the use of such truncating terms as "the
Orient" and "Asia" as opposed to "the Occident" and "the West" to refer
12
Marshall Hodgson, "Hemispheric Inter-regional History as an Approach to World His-
tory/ 7 Journal of World History I, 3 (1954), 715-23.
*3 See also Hodgson's 'The Inter-relations of Societies in History," Comparative Studies in
Society and History 5 (1963), 227-50; and "The Great Western Transmutation," Chicago
Today, n.v. (1967), 40-50.
308 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
to the rest of human literate society), and the unconscious racism of the
Mercator projection map (with its Eurocentric distortion of the southern
hemisphere). The lines of argument developed by Hodgson in this arti-
cle provide the basis of his criticisms of the orientalist tradition in the
"Introduction to the Study of Islamic Civilization/' which opens the first
volume of The Venture of Islam. A brief digression to consider these criti-
cisms should make clear the radical nature of Hodgson's conception of
his task.
Hodgson's attack on the orientalist tradition of scholarship is notewor-
thy for several reasons. One is that it comes from someone whose train-
ing, and in many ways professional self-image, were those of an oriental-
ist. Among the most successful passages in The Venture of Islam are those
in which Hodgson works his way through a text, guiding the reader to a
richer and more complete understanding of the resonance it must have
had in its own time and place. Yet Hodgson was profoundly discon-
tented with the results of the philological approach to civilizations. He
was in search of a more complex vision, one less the prisoner of a narrow
textualism and more open to the interplay of cultures across linguistic
barriers. He was opposed to the epistemological assumptions that in-
form the orientalist tradition. Finally, he insisted that discussions of
Islamic culture be securely rooted in a historically specific context. Hodg-
son's critique of orientalism is therefore one that comes, in a sense, from
within the tradition. But it is also, revealingly, one that is based upon a
radically different conception of the nature of the historian's task.
Most recent attacks upon orientalism have emerged within the context
of the anticolonial struggle.^ Insofar as orientalism served as a cover and
justification for Western dominance, this was no doubt inevitable and
even (despite certain excesses) justifiable. While by no means indifferent
to the political uses to which orientalism has been put, Hodgson situates
the problem at a more general level of discourse.^ Thus he distinguishes
five frameworks within which students of Islamic studies have tended to
operate: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Marxism, and what he calls "West-
ernism," each with its own characteristic set of epistemological as-
sumptions and complementary patterns of distortion. Yet the absence of
16
Ibid., p. 27.
310 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
*7 Ibid., Ill, 176-200. Cf. also his 'The Great Western Transmutation/7
312 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
clotted prose style does not help matters. Yet in the concept of techni-
calism, Hodgson shows himself to have been an important, if unconven-
tional, social thinker. Concepts such as industrialization and capitalism
privilege certain aspects of the process by which the transformation took
place, but they leave unexplained its astonishing capacity to effect far-
reaching changes in even the noneconomic sectors. They are neither
sufficiently precise, nor sufficiently general. For Hodgson, the very es-
sence of the process was a cultural one: the transformation of one's way
of looking at the world according to calculative rational principles. Here
one senses the influence of the Weber of The Protestant Ethic. Indeed the
concept of technicalism may be seen as an extended gloss on Weber's
rationalization (though Hodgson argues that Weber's term drastically
overstates the extent to which rationality is uniquely characteristic of the
modern age). Technicalism finally is associated with certain moral quali-
ties, most notably vastly greater efficiency and technical precision, and a
certain kind of person, the autonomous individual of humane and co-
operative spirit. As an intellectual construct, technicalism goes far to-
ward illuminating the cultural aspects of the complex process by which
the modern age has come into being.2*
World history has a reputation of being the playground of dilettantes,
full of airy generalities and poor metaphysics. Hodgson's secure ground-
ing in the culture of a particular civilization, and his methodological self-
consciousness (which in another person might have induced a severe
case of intellectual paralysis), enabled him to bring an unaccustomed
rigor to the study of world history. The Venture of Islam, for all its faults
and quirky inconsistencies, reveals the many benefits that may derive
from the attempt to place the history of Islamic civilization in a world
historical context. Its lessons, therefore, go beyond the provincial con-
fines of Islamic studies.
26
The Venture of Islam, I, 91.
Conclusion: Islamic history as world history 317
2
7 See Hodgson's essay, 'The Unity of Later Islamic History/' Journal of World History, 5
(1960), 879-914, for a discussion of the problem of unity.
318 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
history does this produce? How does Hodgson's version of that history
jibe with the standard accounts? What, finally, are the chief advantages
of his effort to insert Islamic history into a world historical context? In
addressing these questions, I shall necessarily leave aside the numerous
points of detail where Hodgson has erred, or where recent develop-
ments in the field have passed him by, since in a work of this scope there
must inevitably be many. First, we look at Hodgson's interpretation of
Islamic history.
On the most general level of abstraction, it is Hodgson's thesis that
Islamic civilization served chiefly to institutionalize the more egalitarian
and cosmopolitan tendencies in Irano-Semitic culture, giving a key role
to the urban and communal expectations associated with the promi-
nence of mercantile interests in the Nile-to-Oxus region. In a posthu-
mous article, he argued that the development of these egalitarian and
cosmopolitan features within the region has been the chief role of Islam
in world history. 29
On another level of abstraction, the history of Islamic civilization can
be divided into three parts, the Formative Period, the Middle Periods,
and the period of the Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times. One
volume of The Venture of Islam is devoted to each. In the Formative Period
(c. 600-945 C.E.)/ the chief developments are the replacement of Syriac
and Pahlavi as the main vehicles of culture by Arabic, the emergence of a
single comprehensive Muslim community in place of the earlier commu-
nal divisions of the region, and the failure of efforts to reestablish an
absolutist agrarian empire, resulting in the development of a new, more
flexible kind of social order. The Middle Periods (945-1503 C.E.) are
marked by the emergence of an international society based upon the
separation between state and society, the diffusion of Sufism, the devel-
opment of Persian as a second major language of Islamic high culture,
and the coming to maturity of the dialogue between the intellectual
traditions. The Middle Periods were for Hodgson the high point of Is-
lamic civilization, in which a cosmopolitan high culture coexisted with a
society of great flexibility. The third phase of Islamic history, that of the
Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times, is characterized by the reasser-
tion of old communal and regional divisions within the ecumene. New
regional empires were formed: the Mughal, the Safavi, and the Otto-
man, but they only partly compensated for the political weakness of
post-Mongol regimes. Cultural conservatism now worked to close off
2
9 Marshall G. S. Hodgson, ' T h e Role of Islam in World History/' International Journal of
Middle East Studies, I, I (1970), 99-123.
Conclusion: Islamic history as world history 321
these traditions did not die out but were reformulated along Islamicate
lines. The first and most important was the development of the Islamic
religious sciences: Quranic exegesis, hadith criticism, and the study of
fiqh. Hodgson was concerned with showing how Islam refashioned and
continued preexisting themes in the Irano-Semitic tradition of prophetic
monotheism. The touchstone of his analysis is his emphasis upon the
formative effect of the assertion of shari concepts of legal and social
relations upon the social and political organization of the community of
believers. The second major intellectual tradition which gradually be-
came folded into the emerging Islamic cultural dialogue was the Persian
tradition of absolutist rule. Hodgson shows how the development of the
courtly culture of adab built upon, yet also transformed, this tradition as
it came into dialogue with the other emerging Islamic intellectual tradi-
tions. The tradition of Greek natural science and philosophy (essentially
the legacy of Hellenism) is the third major avenue along which Islamic
thought tended to develop. Like the adab tradition, initially at odds with
the concerns of the piety-minded, the tradition of falsafah gradually be-
came incorporated into the Islamic dialogue, as a result especially of the
work of al-Farabi and Ibn Sina. By the end of the High Caliphate, the
intellectual traditions had achieved fully Islamic form. From then on-
ward, their mutual interpenetration and interaction helped to shape the
fabric of Islamic culture. By the sixteenth century, while the capacity for
self-renewal of the civilizational dialogue had not totally disappeared,
increasingly the natural tendencies toward cultural conservatism of the
Agrarian age had reasserted themselves. Accordingly, the Safavi, no less
than the Ottoman and the Mughal, efforts at a cultural renewal were
unsuccessful. In modern times the Islamic heritage has had diminished
relevance to Muslims, as under the impact of technicalism, it no less
than the other principal religious heritages had had to contend with a
radically altered context for historic action. This, in highly schematic
form, is the structure of the history of Islamic culture as it is presented by
Hodgson.
Corresponding to each of Hodgson's six phases of Islamic history is a
political formation, presented in the guise of an ideal type: Arab rule,
caliphal absolutism, the ayanlamir system, the military patronage stage,
the gunpowder empires, modern nation-states. During the first phase of
Islamic history, society was organized around the principle of the pri-
macy of the Arabs. Political legitimacy was based upon the notion of
jama'a - the necessity of unity among the ruling caste of Arab Muslims.
During the phase of caliphal absolutism, which began in late Marwanid
times and continued till 945 C.E., the old tradition of Persian kingship
Conclusion: Islamic history as world history 323
3° For example, virtually all of the literature on the social and economic history of Turkey,
Iran, and the Arab East has appeared since Book Six was written. While the bibliography
includes such classics as Albert Hourani's Ababic Thought in the Liberal Age and Bernard
Lewis's The Emergence of Modern Turkey, it is unclear from reading the text that Hodgson
was able to make much use even of these works. Of theoretical literature, such works as
Barrington Moore, Jr/s Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy and Eric Wolf's Peasant
Wars of the Twentieth Century, not to speak of the entire critical literature on moderniza-
tion theories, have appeared since Book Six was written. There are worlds of thought
and experience which separate the early 1960s, when this section was being written,
from our own.
Conclusion: Islamic history as world history 325
tions within the ecumene. Whatever international elite culture may once
have existed was seriously undermined by 1800, such that (for example)
Moroccan Muslims could communicate only with difficulty with their
African or Indonesian coreligionists. In some ways it might have been a
neater conclusion to end the work with the dawning of the age of Techni-
calism. But one can see why Hodgson was tempted to carry it up to the
contemporary period. This makes it all the more regrettable that he did
not live to revise the final sections of his manuscript.
For Hodgson, the unity of Islamic history was a function of the ongo-
ing dialogue of successive generations of Muslims with the formative
ideals of the civilization. Concretely, this meant a preoccupation with the
elaboration of Islamic doctrine and piety by the ulama, the corps of
religious specialists charged with maintaining the integrity and vitality
of the faith. In this study the concept of the sharia looms as particularly
important, since it provides the foundation for Hodgson's interpreta-
tion. It shapes his treatment of the Formative Period, provides the basic
explanation of the operation of the ayanlamir system of the Middle Peri-
ods (where it reaches a kind of apotheosis), and constitutes (with the
concept of Sufism, on which more in a moment) the guiding concept in
explaining the unity of the later periods.
From the first pages of The Venture of Islam it is apparent that the term
sharia has a special importance for Hodgson: it serves to designate not
only Islamic law, but the core of the civilization. The origins of the reli-
gious impulses that gave rise to Islam, Hodgson traces to the ethical
concerns of Irano-Semitic prophetic monotheism. The working out of the
egalitarian and populistic implications of the original Quranic message
provides the motive force of Islamic history. By the end of the Formative
Period, a religious law binding on all Muslims had crystallized in response
to the egalitarian and populistic concerns of the piety-minded. The sharia
provided Muslims with a focus for self-realization: its social and legal
patterns gradually penetrated virtually all aspects of life, determining the
organization of the community and carving out an autonomous arena
where the ulama were supreme, over and against the courtly culture of
the Abbasids and their successors. The chapter in Book 2 on the Islamic
vision of the sharia is a brilliant presentation of the process by which
Islamic law came into being. There and in the following chapter on Mus-
lim personal piety, Hodgson emphasizes the potency of the Quran and of
the image of the early Islamic community in providing an authoritative
model of the just society and a focal point for worship.
However convincingly presented, this analysis contains the seeds of
those same essentialist difficulties that Hodgson has rightly deplored in
326 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
the work of others. By the time that we reach the chapter "Cultural
Patterning in Islamdom and the Occident," where he presents an ex-
tended contrast between the two civilizations in the thirteenth century,
Hodgson presents the sharia as nothing less than the organizing princi-
ple of Islamic society. In a comparison between Christianity and Islam as
frameworks of religious life, he underscores the contrast between a reli-
gion whose central theme is the demand for personal responsiveness to
redemptive love in a corrupted world with one whose theme is the
demand for personal responsibility for the moral ordering of the natural
world. He then traces the practical implications of each for the organiza-
tion of the social order and the elaboration of culture. Thus he empha-
sizes the contractualism of Muslim civilization (the primacy of the rights
of the individual over the collective) against what he calls the hierarchi-
cal corporativism of the medieval Occident: the ayan/amir system con-
trasted with medieval feudalism, the arabesque contrasted with the
Gothic cathedral. Hodgson's argument is a tour de force, but ultimately
the level of abstraction at which it is pitched renders it unconvincing.
Sufism is the other major concept in Hodgson's discussion of the unity
of the Islamic civilizational dialogue. Taken together, the sections of
Sufism are one of the best concise presentations of the development of
Islamic mysticism, a splendidly sensitive introduction to a complex and
sprawling phenomenon. But as contrasted with his careful distinctions
in presenting the concept of the sharia, Hodgson's discussion on Sufism
is informed by no such analytical power. He defines Sufism as mysti-
cism, but neither is ever adequately explained. Polymorphous and often
profane, the variety of Sufism and its resistance to intellectualizing elude
Hodgson's categories. Only on the level of high love mysticism (the
Sufism of Bistami, Rumi, and al-Ghazali) can Hodgson bring to bear his
elaborate conceptual schemes and his "science of compassion" in ways
that inform and enlighten. Brief sections on how to read Sufi texts, and a
sustained meditation on a passage from Rumi's Masnavi, demonstrate
the appeal and cogency of this method. Against the Sufism of the popu-
lar turuq, saint cults, and curing practices, Hodgson is powerless. At this
point, the limits of his cultural elitism come out most sharply. In his
scandalized attitude toward the corruption and degeneracy of the popu-
lar brotherhoods, Hodgson brings to mind the puritanical moralism of
the reforming ulama who are the chief heroes of The Ventures of Islam.
Those who seek a sociological, rather than a merely logical, presentation
of the role of Sufism in shaping the fabric of Islamic societies should look
elsewhere.
Conclusion: Islamic history as world history 327
Conclusion
As should be evident from the foregoing, I regard The Venture of Islam as a
remarkably impressive achievement. It has a richness and complexity
beside which all other accounts of Islamic civilization seem pale. In many
ways, its appearance represents a culmination of the Western tradition of
Islamic studies. Necessarily, such an undertaking must be a highly per-
sonal one, and this The Venture of Islam is to an unusual degree. Yet Hodg-
son was also unusually self-conscious of the epistemological assumptions
of the tradition in which he had been trained, and has consistently sought
to place Islamic civilization in a world historical context. It is this feature of
the work, in my opinion, which gives it lasting importance. Otherwise the
cranky personal obsessions that frequently threaten to distract the reader
could not be kept successfully at bay. Because The Venture of Islam is both so
personal and so relentlessly impersonal a work, it is a very great feat of the
historical imagination.
Hodgson's most important achievement, and the place where he had
the most to teach us all (non-Islamics scholars included), lies in his effort
to devise a new framework for the writing of world history. After read-
ing him, even those of us who never attempt a hemispheric interregional
approach to world history will become aware of the pitfalls of any less
inclusive approach; his Venture points to the necessity for a thorough-
going reappraisal of many of our central assumptions about the histori-
cal process. By continually seeking to insert the story of Islamic civiliza-
tion into the history of human literate society, Hodgson has broken
sharply with the old paradigms and taken a major step toward a new
kind of history. His use of ideal types and his careful definition of key
concepts provide a refreshing change from the smug assumptions that
have guided past efforts at a history of Islamic civilization. The attempt
to situate the rise of the West in a world historical context, in particular,
merits the serious attention of all those concerned to understand the
great transmutation which separates us from the world we have lost.
Hodgson's attempt to rehabilitate civilization as a useful concept in
historical studies (and hence in the orientalist tradition) is more problem-
atical. As I have endeavored to show, the attempt rests, in the final
analysis, on Hodgson's use of the concept of sharia. Despite a serious
effort to divest the study of civilizations from racialist assumptions, hy-
postatizing, and other errors, the idealist assumptions which lie behind
the concept of sharia push him irrevocably toward cultural essentialism
and thereby vitiate much of his achievement. While denying that he is
328 Conclusion: Islamic history as world history
engaged in a search for the "real Islam," Hodgson's venture is one that
ultimately seeks to identify Islam with its formative ideals, and thus
transposes the search from the level of sect (e.g., Sunni vs. Shi'a) to that
of the religion as a whole. To the extent that it is possible to write a
history of a civilization without falling victim to the old mistakes, one
can applaud Hodgson's effort. But to the extent that historians are in-
creasingly concerning themselves with the social and economic history
of Muslims, rather than with their "civilization," Hodgson's venture
appears a splendid anachronism.
The Venture of Islam is both an original synthetic account of the civiliza-
tion of Islam whole and entire and a textbook for university undergradu-
ates. It has the virtues of both sorts of works: it is very teacherly in places
(it offers advice on how to understand Persian miniatures, Sufi writings,
the forms of Muslim piety, and the work of specific writers like Tabari,
Rumi, and Ibn Khaldun among others), and very scholarly and stimulat-
ing in others. By seeking to cover the entire range of Islamic history, and to
do so within a single narrative framework, it has made a unique and
important contribution to historical scholarship. But there are some impor-
tant defects in trying to do both things at once. Thus, for example, The
Venture of Islam is written on so abstract a level that it is difficult to teach to
undergraduates. It also presumes far too much of students (or even col-
leagues) in the way of background. It utilizes a complex and eccentric
language which is often distracting, such that Hodgson's thought often
seems overly dense and impenetrable. If in the end the work is successful
both as text and as scholarly synthesis (on balance I believe that it is), this
is due to the high level of the author's personal engagement, which tends
to call forth a correspondingly high-level engagement on the part of the
reader.
The Venture of Islam challenges the reader on a variety of levels at once
in the manner of a Sufi tale. It is mentally and morally stretching both for
rank beginners (who miss the esoteric, abstract discussions) and more
experienced readers (who will find it full of stimulating insights, often
wrongheaded obiter dicta, and methodological encomia). I have found it
endlessly fascinating and provocative; despite its many difficulties, The
Venture of Islam deserves the widest possible audience.