XII, CH#&=7, MODERN PHYSICS 1

CHAPTER 7 MODRN PHYSICS

PAIR PRODUCTION: When a photon strikes a heavy nucleus, it disintegrates and produces a
pair of an electron and a positron. Electron and positron always move in opposite directions so
that the momentum is conserved. This phenomenon is called pair production or
materialization of energy.

POSITRON: A positron is an antiparticle of an electron. It is also called a positive electron.

ROLE OF NUCLEUS: The role of the nucleus is just to share some energy and momentum to
conserve the two quantities.

COLLISION GEOMETRY:

ENERGY EXPRESSION FOR PAIR PRODUCTION: Let us suppose that the energy of
incident photon is E = hϑ (where ϑ = frequency of photon)
Now we suppose that the rest mass energies of electron and positron are respectively,

Ee- = moc2
Ee+ = moc2

Where mo= rest mass of electron/positron

        c = velocity of light
            e- = symbol for electron
            e+ =symbol for positron

The energy of photon also provides additional energy to the pair of electron and positron so that
they can move in their paths in opposite direction.
Their respective kinetic energies are:

hϑ = 2(0.51 Mev) + (K)e- + (K)e+

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(K.E)e- = (K)e-
(K.E)e+ = (K)e+
Since the process of pair production obeys the rules of elastic collision, therefore, in this process
energy is also conserved, thus, total energy of striking photon is given by,

E = Ee- + Ee+ + (K.E)e- + (K.E)e+

hϑ = moc2 + moc2 + (K)e- + (K)e+

hϑ = 2moc2 + (K)e- + (K)e+

But the value of moc2 is equal to 0.51 Mev

hϑ = 2(0.51 Mev) + (K)e- + (K)e+

hϑ = 1.02 Mev + (K)e- + (K)e+

This expression clearly indicates that no pair production will takes place if energy of incident
photon is less than 1.02 Mev. It means that to observe pair product, a photon must have 1.02
Mev of energy.

Q#: Define and explain PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT by experimental arrangement to

observe it.
Ans: When ultraviolet light falls on certain metals, electrons are emitted. This phenomenon in
which certain metals emit electrons when exposed to light of suitable frequency, is called
PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT.
In short, ejection of electrons by means of light is called 'photo electric effect'.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT TO OBSERVE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

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If suitable light is allowed to fall on plate 'P', it will give out photo electrons as shown in the
figure. The photo electrons are attracted by the collector 'C' connected to the +ve terminal of a
battery. The glass tube is evacuated. When the collector 'C' is kept at +ve potential, the photo
electrons are attracted by it and a current flow in the circuit which is indicated by the
galvanometer.
THRESHOLD FREQUENCY: Threshold frequency is defined as the minimum frequency of
incident light which can cause photo electric emission i.e., this frequency is just able to eject
electrons without giving them additional energy.
It is denoted by υ o.
WORK FUNCTION: Minimum amount of energy which is necessary to start photo electric
emission is called Work Function. If the amount of energy of incident radiation is less than the
work function of metal, no photo electrons are emitted.

It is denoted by . Work function of a material is given by .

It is a property of material. Different materials have different values of work function. Generally,
elements with low I.P values have low work function such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs.

STOPPING POTENTIAL: The negative potential of the plate 'C' at which the photo electric
current becomes zero is called stopping potential or cut-off potential. Stopping potential is that
value of retarding potential difference between two plates which is just sufficient to halt the most
energetic photo electrons emitted.
It is denoted by "Vo".
DEPENDENCE OF PHOTO ELECTRONS: The number of photo electrons depends upon:
The nature of material
The frequency of incident radiation
The intensity of incident radiation
Potential difference b/w the electrons

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY: The graph shows that a threshold frequency ' ' is a minimum
frequency below which no electrons escape from the metal surface. The photo electric effect
occurs above the frequency while ceases below this frequency.

Q#: Define photocell. Write down its construction, working and uses of it.
Ans: INTRIDUCTION: A photocell is a practical application of the phenomenon of
photoelectric cell.
CONSTRUCTION: A photocell consists of an
evacuated
sealed glass tube containing a wire anode and

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a concave cathode of suitable emitting material

such as Cesium (Cs).
The material of cathode responds to a
given frequency range.

WORKING: When light of frequency greater than the threshold frequency of the cathode
material falls on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These electrons are collected by the
anode and an electric current start flowing in the external circuit. The current increases with the
increase in the intensity of light. The current would stop if the light does not fall on the cathode.
USES OF PHOTOCELL: A photocell can be used in any situation where beam of light falling on
it is interrupted or broken by any mean.
To count vehicles passing a road.
To count items running on a conveyer belt.
To open doors automatically in a building such as banks or other commercial
buildings or offices.
To operate burglar alarms.
To produce sound in movies.

EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF LIGHT: If we draw the photo electric curve by plotting the
photo electric current 'I' verses the accelerating voltage 'V', the graph so obtained is shown
below. Graph shows that there is a saturation current for different intensities and even when
V=0, there is some photo electric current io. The curve shows that the stopping potential is
independent of the intensity of radiation.
If these curves are plotted for different frequencies V1 and V2 but with same intensity (graph on
right), the curve shows the behavior as shown:
* The saturation current depends upon intensity and not on frequency.
However, the stopping potential becomes more negative from (Vo)1 to (Vo)2 with the increase
in frequency.

SOME FUNDAMENTAL FACTS REGARDING PHOTO ELECTRON EMISSION:

The no. of electrons emitted per second i.e. photo current is proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
If frequency of incident radiation is below threshold frequency, no photo electric
emission will take place.
The max. velocity or max. K.E of photoelectrons depends on the frequency of
radiation not on intensity. K.E. Increases with the increase in frequency.
The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a photo cathode is independent of
its temperature.
This shows that photo electric effect is entirely different from thermionic emission.

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For a given metal surface, stopping potential (Vo) is directly proportional to

frequency but independent of intensity.
Q#: EXPLAIN EINSTEIN’s PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT.
ANS: According to Plank's quantum theory, light is emitted from a source in the forms of
bundles of energy called photons. Energy of each photon is .
Einstein made use of this theory to explain how photo electric emission takes place.

According to Einstein, when photons of energy fall on a metal surface, they transfer
their energy to the electrons of metal. When the energy of photon is larger than the minimum
energy required by the electrons to leave the metal surface, the emission of electrons take place
instantaneously.
He proposed that an electron absorbs one whole photon or none. The chance that an electron may
absorb more than one electron is negligible because the number of photons is much lower than
the electron. After absorbing the photon, an electron either leaves the surface or dissipates its
energy within the metal in such a short interval that it has almost no chance to absorb second
photon. An increase in intensity of light source simply increases the number of photon and the
number of photo electrons but no increase in the energy of photo electron. However, increase in
frequency increases the energy of photons and photo electrons.

According to Einstein's explanation of photoelectric emission, a photon of energy 'E' performs

two operations:
1. Removes the electron from the surface of metal.
2. Supplies some part of energy to move photo electron towards anode Since minimum
amount of energy to remove electron from a surface is equal to work function, we can
write Einstein equation as:

Energy Supplied = Energy Consumed in ejecting an electron + maximum Kinetic energy of

electron.

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Equations from (1) to (6) are identical and are known as Einstein's photoelectric equations

Q#: What do you know about Frame of reference?

Ans: Motion of a body is always described
with reference to some well-defined coordinate system.
This coordinate system is referred to as 'frame of reference'.
In three-dimensional space a frame of reference consists
of three mutually perpendicular lines called “axes of frame
of reference” meeting at a single point or origin.
The coordinates of the origin are O (0,0,0) and that of any
other point 'P' in space is P (x, y, z).
The line joining the points O and P is called the
position vector of the point P with respect to O.

Q#: What do you know about Inertial Frame of reference?

Ans: A frame of reference that remains at rest or moves with constant velocity with respect to
other frames of reference is called 'INERTIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE'. An inertial frame of

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reference is an unaccelerated frame of reference. Newton's laws of motion are valid in all inertial
frames of reference. In this frame of reference, a body does not act upon by external forces. All
inertial frames of reference are equivalent for the measurement of physical phenomena.
EXAMPLE:
Our earth.
A space shuttle moving with constant velocity relative to the earth.
A rocket moving with constant velocity relative to the earth.

Q#: What do you know about Non-Inertial Frame of reference?

Ans: A frame of reference is said to be a non-inertial frame of reference when a body, not acted
upon by an external force is accelerated. In non-inertial frame of reference, Newton's laws of
motion are not valid.
EXAMPLE:

Q#: What is special theory of relativity? Write down its postulates.

Ans: The part of relativistic mechanics which is related to uniform motion is called 'Special
Theory of Relativity'.
POSTULATES: Einstein proposed his famous theory of special relativity in the year 1905.
Einstein's special theory of relativity is based on the following fundamental postulates:

There is no preferred or absolute inertial frame of reference i.e., all inertial frames are
equivalent for the description of all physical laws such as Newton's laws as well as
Maxwell's electromagnetic equations.
The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers in uniform translational
relative motion and is independent of the motion of the observer and the source.
Q#: What are consequences of special theory of relativity? Explain each.
Ans: We observe that in the development of special theory of relativity, frames of reference in
relative motion with a constant speed V have been used. If the speed V becomes large enough to
approach the velocity of light C, then the Galilean's transformations are found to be noticeably
wrong. To correct the state of affairs it will be necessary to introduce a factor called 'Lorentz
Factor' or 'Relativistic factor'.

Lorentz Factor is equal to: .

This factor is in fact a measure of departure of Galilean's transformation. If is much smaller

than as it is in our common situations, then is so small that the relativistic factor is
essentially equal to unity. Under these conditions the classical and the relativistic physics predict
nearly identical results. However, when V approaches c (e.g.: V = C/5), Then the Galilean
transformation will be incorrect.
Based on these considerations, if we interpret the result of special theory of relativity we end up
in some very interesting consequences. Without going to make actual mathematical calculation,
we may summarize the important consequences of the theory of special relativity which are as
under:

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MASS VARIATION:
According to the special theory of relativity, the mass of an object in a frame of reference at rest
is called its rest mass mo. if this mass is measured by an observation moving with a constant
speed V relative to the object, then it will not remain constant if the speed V is comparable to C.
The mass m in the moving frame will very according to the mass variation given by”

This mass variation formula shows that mass changes with the velocity and not in general a
constant nor the same for all observes but it is quantity that:
(a) depend upon the reference frame from which the body is being observed
(b) is greater than or equal to the rest mass mo when the body is at rest in the frame of reference
from which the body is being observed.

LENGTH CONTRACTION:
In the theory of special relativity, it has been found that the measurement of length of a rod in a
stationary frame of reference is not the same when the rod is measured by the observer in the
moving frame of reference with the velocity relative to the rod, provided the measurement is
made along the direction of motion.
Hence, if Lo is the length of rod in the frame at rest, and L is the length of same rod in the
moving frame, then:

Since v/c is less then unity, the length L is less then Lo i.e., there is a contraction in length along
the direction of motion. This is called the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction.

above equation tells us that an observer past whom a system is moving with a speed v measures
object in the moving system to be shortened in length along the direction of motion by a factor:

It is important to note that only the dimension along the line of motion is changed and there is no
change in the other two perpendicular directions.
With the development of special theory of relativity it became apparent that there is no physical
contraction of the moving objects. There is, however, an apparent contraction of body for an
observer where there is a relative motion of the object and the observer. In the natural sense the

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observer in moving frame cannot detect the contraction because in this frame it does not exist;
where is in the rest frame, it does exist, but the measuring rod in the moving system has shrunk
too further we must note that for moderate velocities (v/c<<1) of the objects the contraction in
length is negligible as observed in our everyday observation.

TIME DIALATION:
Time is regarded as an absolute quantity in classical mechanics whereas in the special theory of
relativity it is considered to be a relative entity based on the measurement of time in frame of
references in relative motion.
The time interval between two events taking place at the same point in space as timed with a
clock at rest with respect to that point is called the proper time interval and is denoted ∆ to=To.
Time measured with a clock in motion with respect to the events is known as relativistic time it
is represented by ∆ t=T. Both of the time intervals To & T refer to the time elapsed between the
same pair of events occurring in the two frames moving with a relative speed v. then, according
to special relativity the two times are related by the formula:

Above equation represents, what we call as the time dilation phenomena. According to the time
dilation formula we mean that from the point of view of an observer at rest, the time of the
observer in motion is dilated i.e. the clocks in moving frame run slowly and the Lorentz factor

gives us the ratio of the rates of clocks for normal speeds, this factor is so close
to unity (1.00) that we are quite unable to detect time dilation effect, but for speed comparable to
the speed of light c the time dilation effect is quite significant.
We can now conclude that for every observer his own clock in his frame of reference run faster
than do any other clocks which are moving relative to him. We may also note that every observer
may consider himself to be at rest and consider all that moves as moving relative to him. This is
actually an outcome of the principle of special relativity stated earlier: Every observer is
equivalent to every other observer.

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  TIME DILATION  
Time is regarded as an absolute quantity in classical mechanics whereas in the special
theory of relativity it is considered to be a relative entity based on the measurement of
time in frame of references in relative motion.
The time interval between two events taking place at the same point in space as timed
with a clock at rest with respect to that point is called the proper time interval and is
  denoted to=To.Time measured with a clock in motion with respect to the events is
known as relativistic time it is represented by t=T. Both of the time intervals To & T
refer to the time elapsed between the same pair of events occurring in the two frames
moving with a relative speed v. then, according to special relativity the two times are
related by the formula:

Above equation represents, what we call as the time dilation phenomena. According to
the time dilation formula we mean that from the point of view of an observer at rest, the
time of the observer in motion is dilated i.e. the clocks in moving frame run slowly and

the Lorentz factor Gives us the ratio of the rates of clocks for normal
  speeds, this factor is so close to unity (1.00) that we are quite unable to detect time
dilation effect, but for speed comparable to the speed of light c the time dilation effect is
quite significant.
We can now conclude that for every observer his own clock in his frame of reference run
faster than do any other clocks which are moving relative to him. We may also note that
every observer may consider himself to be at rest and consider all that moves as moving
relative to him. This is actually an outcome of the principle of special relativity stated
earlier: Every observer is equivalent to every other observer.
  MASS ENERGY RELATION  
In the begining of this section we have stated the postulates of relativity that the speed
of light is a universal constant. We can not reach speeds greater than the speed of light
by the relativistic addition of velocities. The equation is how to reconcile with this result
of special relativity with Newton's second law, F=ma? It would be seen that any constant
force, no matter how small, applied for a considerably very long time, should
continuously accelerate any mass 'm' at a rate a=f/m until the speed was arbitrarily very
  large. Einstein, concluded that energy has inertia i.e. the more energy a body possess,
the more inertia that body will display. Since, inertia is a property of matter, which is
associated with mass. Thus from Einstein's argument mass is simply a property
attributed to the total energy of the body and only the total energy is required, to know
the total mass of the body.Thus, in special theory of relativity total energy and mass are
related by the famous Einstein's equation.
  E=mc2
From this relation between mass and energy it has been predicted that any process that
  changed the mass by a detectable amount would involve huge amounts of energy. For
example, a mass change of 1.00 gram is equal to an energy change of 9 x 1013 joules.

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UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
INTRODUCTION  
In classical physics it is generally assumed that position and momentum of a moving
object can be simultaneously measured exactly i.e. no uncertainties are involved in its
description. But in microscopic world it is not possible. It is found that however refined
our instruments there is a fundamental limitation to the accuracy with which the position
and velocity of microscopic particle can be known simultaneously. This limitation was
expressed by a German physicist Werner Heisenberg in 1927 and known as 'Heisenberg's
  uncertainty principle'.
In microscopic particles we can observe two type of uncertainties viz.
Uncertainty in position and momentum
Uncertainty in energy and time
STATEMENT  
Uncertainty in position and momentum
According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle:
It is impossible to determine both position and momentum of an electron simultaneously.

If one quantity is known then the determination of the other quantity will become
impossible.
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION
 
Let
  x = uncertainty in position
P = uncertainty in momentum
According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle:
The product of the uncertainty in position and the uncertainty in momentum is in
  the order of an amount involving h, which is Planck’s constant.
  P  x  x  h/2i
  EXPLANATION  
It is not difficult to understand the phenomenon of uncertainty. Consider an example in
which we are going to see the position of an electron. We measure the position an
electron is measured with light and observing the light that it reflects. The light disturbs
  its momentum.
Heisenberg considered an electron that has a definite, known momentum and that
passes under a powerful microscope. He realized that measuring the position of an
elementary particle alters its momentum in a random manner.
This technique allows the position to be specified with an accuracy comparable to the
wavelength of light used in the experiment. However, when the photons are scattered
  from the electron, they alter its momentum, because the photons have a momentum of
their own. The observer cannot calculate the extent of this disturbance, which is random.
Increasing the wavelength decreases the disturbance, because photons of longer
wavelength have less momentum and energy. However, increasing the wavelength
  reduces the precision of the measurement of position. Decreasing the wavelength allows
better position measurement, but increases the disturbance to the momentum.
UNCERTAINTY IN
  TIME AND ENERGY
 

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Similar to uncertainty in position there is another principle of uncertainty which limits the
accuracy in the measurement of time i.e. if E is the energy uncertainty in time t then
  we have an expression similar to equation (i)
i.e.
  E  x  t  h/2ii
RESULTS OF
  UNCERTAINTY  
PRINCIPLE
It is impossible to chase an electron around the nucleus.
The principle describes the incompleteness of Bohr's atomic theory.
  According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle there is no circular orbit around the
nucleus.
Exact position of an electron can not be determined precisely.
LIMITATIONS OF
  PRINCIPLE
 
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is not applicable in our daily life. It is only applicable
  on micro objects i.e. subatomic particles.
The reason why the uncertainty principle is of no importance in our daily life is that
Planck's constant 'h' is so small (6.625 x 10-34 joule-seconds) that the uncertainties in
position and momentum of even quiet small (not microscopic objects) objects are far too
  small to be experimentally observed. For microscopic phenomena such as atomic
processes, the displacements and momentum are such that the uncertainty relation is
critically applicable.
   

Davisson and Germer's Experiment

  INTRODUCTION .
In the year 1927, Davisson and Germer conducted their famous experiment which was
the experimental verification of De-Broglie's hypothesis i.e.  = h/p.
THE EXPERIMENT  
Their experimental setup was enclosed in a vacuum chamber as shown below:

A beam of electrons accelerated through the potential V were allowed to strike a nickel
crystal. Measurements were made to count the number of electrons scattered by the

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crystal.
OBSERVATIONS .
Davisson and Germer reported unexpected results that the electrons reflected very
strongly at certain angles only and not at other directions.
Davisson and Germer further investigated properly oriented crystals to observe if could
be possible to interpret that electron behave as waves of all wave lengths ( ) as given by
De-Broglie's hypothesis. They calculated the wave length of electron from the known
accelerating potential V by applying the relation:

The wave length associated with the above equation agreed with the De-Broglie's
prediction. Thus it is confirmed that electron has a wave like nature because only a wave
has wave length.
.

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COMPTON`S EFFECT  
 
  DEFINITION .
“When a photon strikes a stationary electron, wavelength of photon is
increased
after collision. This phenomenon is referred to as Compton’s effect."
  OR
“It is the phenomenon in which a photon of frequency “” is scattered by
an electron and the scattered photon has a frequency less than
that of the incident photon is called Compton’s effect."
MATHEMATICAL
  REPRESENTATION
 
Consider a photon of frequency 1 and wavelength1 strikes a stationary electron of
rest mass mo. After collision the photon is scattered at an angle of  with its original
line of action. While electron moves forward at an angle of  with its original direction.

COLLISION
  GEOMETRY
.

ENERGY
  CONSERVATION
 
  Energy of photon before collision   = E1 = h1
Energy of electron before collision = E2 = moc2
Energy of photon after collision     = E1`= h2

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Energy of electron after collision   = E2` = mc2

Since the collision between photon and electron is elastic. Therefore energy and
  momentum will be conserved.
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
 E1 + E2 = E1` + E2`
  h1 + moc2 = h2 + mc2
h1 - h2 = mc2 – moc2
                 h(1 - 2) = c2(m – mo)……………….(1)
MOMENTUM
  CONSERVATION
.
Momentum of photon before collision   = h /1
Momentum of electron before collision = 0
  Momentum of photon after collision      = h / 2
Momentum of  electron after collision   = mv
MOMENTUM
  EQUATION ALONG  
X-AXIS
  h/1 + 0 = h/2Cos + mvCos
 
          h/1 = h/2Cos + mvCos………….(2)
MOMENTUM
EQUATION ALONG
Y-AXIS
0 + 0 = h/2Sin + (-mvSin)
       h/2Sin -mvSin = 0……………….(3)
Solving (1) , (2) and (3), we get the following result:
                1/2– 1/1 = h/moc2 (1- Cos) ………….(4)
        c(1/2 – 1/1) = hc/moc2 (1- Cos)
  c/2 – c/1 = h/moc (1- Cos)
    
But c/ = therefore,
2 - 1 = h/moc (1- Cos)  
where2 - 1 = Compton’s shift in wavelength
h/moc is called Compton’s wavelength and its value is 2.426X10-12 m.
CONCLUSION  
Thus the frequency 2 of scattered photon after the collision will be less than the
original frequency 1.
 

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