Anatomy and Physiology - Endocrine System

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 2. Paracrine Chemical Messenger

- act locally on its nearby cells. These are
secreted by one cell type into the
The endocrine system is comprised of glands that
extracellular fluid and affect surrounding
produce and secrete hormones, which are chemical
cells of a different type.
substances created in the body to regulate the organ and
- Produced by a wide variety of tissues and
cell’s activities.
secreted into extracellular fluid; has a
PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL localized effect on other tissues
COMMUNICATION - e.g. Histamine, released during allergic
reactions.
3. Neurotransmitters
Chemical Messengers - Are chemical messengers that the neurons
 The principal means by which the coordination secreted. This activates an adjacent cell may
occurs. it be a neuron, a glandular cell, or a muscle
 can be produced by nervous and endocrine cell.
system. - They are secreted into the bloodstream.
 It allows the cells to communicate with each - Secreted into a synaptic cleft by presynaptic
other to regulate body activities. - Most are nerve terminals
produced by specific collection of cells or by - Travels short distances
gland. - Influences postsynaptic cells
- e.g. Epinephrine
Gland 4. Endocrine Chemical Messengers
- chemical messengers that the endocrine
 Is an organ consisting of epithelial cells that
glands and cells secretes in our
specializes in secretion.
bloodstreams.
Secretion - These chemical messengers affect cells that
are distant from the source.
 controlled release of chemical from a cell.
- Travels some distance to target tissues
4 Classes of Chemical Messengers - Results in coordinated regulation of cell
function.
- They are secreted into the bloodstream
There are four chemical messengers based on the source - e.g. Insulin
of the chemical messenger and its mode of transport in
the body. FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. Autocrine Chemical Messenger

- this is a form of chemical messenger that The main regulatory functions of the endocrine system
stimulates the cell that secreted it originally. are as follows:
- Secreted by cells in a local area; influences
Metabolism - endocrine system regulates the rate of
the activity of the same cell or cell type from
metabolism, which is the sum of the chemical changers
which it was secreted
that occurs in our body
- e.g. Chemical messengers secreted by the
white blood cells during an infection Control of food intake and digestion - endocrine
system regulates the level of satiety (fullness) and the
breakdown of food into individual nutrients.

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Tissue development - endocrine system influences the Endocrine Glands and Cells
development of tissues.
- They secrete minus amounts of chemical
Ion Regulation - endocrine system regulate the food’s messengers called hormones into the
solute concentration. bloodstream, rather than into the duct.
- Hormones then travel through the general
Water Balance - The system regulates water balance
blood circulation to the specific sites called
by controlling solutes in the blood.
target tissues or effectors, where they
Heart rate and blood pressure regulation - helps produce a coordinated response of the
regulate the heart rate and blood pressure and helps target tissues.
prepare the body for physical activities.
Endocrine - derived from the Greek words endo, which
Control of blood glucose and other nutrients - It means within, and krino which means to secrete.
regulates the levels of blood glucose and other nutrients
Exocrine Glands - carry their secretion outside
in the blood
Endocrinology – the study of the endocrine system
Control of reproductive functions - The system
controls the development and functions of the Hormones
reproductive system in males and females
- derived from the Greek word hormon that
Uterine contractions and milk release - It regulates means to set into motion
the uterine contractions during delivery and stimulates - Regulates almost every physiological process
milk release from the breast in lactating females. in our body. from the Greek word hormon
that means to set into motion.
Immune system regulation - helps control the
production and functions of the immune cells. CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM Hormones can fit into two chemical categories: Lipid-
soluble hormones and water-soluble hormones.

Endocrine System - composed of endocrine glands and Lipid Soluble Hormones

specialized endocrine cells that are found and located in
- these are nonpolar and includes steroid
our body
hormones, thyroid hormones, and nitric
oxide
1. Steroid Hormones - are derived from
cholesterol. Each steroid hormone is unique due
to the presence of different chemical groups
attached at various sites on the four rings at the
core of its structure. These small differences
allow for a large diversity of functions.
2. Thyroid Hormones - (T3 and T4) are
synthesized by attaching iodine to the amino acid
tyrosine. The presence of two benzene rings
within a T3 or T4 molecule makes these
molecules very lipid soluble.

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3. The Gas Nitric Oxides - is both a hormone Lipid Soluble Hormones

and a neurotransmitter. Its synthesis is catalyzed
- Their lifespan ranges from a few days to as
by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase.
long as several weeks.
Water Soluble Hormones - Without the binding proteins, the lipid-
soluble hormones would quickly diffuse out
- are polar molecules, and includes peptide
of capillaries and be degraded by enzymes of
hormones, eicosanoid hormones, and most
the liver and lungs or be removed from the
amino acid derivative hormones.
body by the kidneys.
1. Amine Hormones - are synthesized by
decarboxylating (removing a molecule of CO2) TRANSPORT OF WATER SOLUBLE
& otherwise modifying certain amino acids. They HORMONES
are called amines because they retain an amino
group.
Water-soluble hormones can dissolve in blood, many
2. Peptide and Protein Hormones - are amino
circulate as free hormones, meaning that most of them
acidpolymers. The smaller peptide hormones
dissolve directly into the blood and are delivered to their
consist of chains of 3 to 49 amino acids; the
target tissue without attaching to a binding protein.
larger protein hormones include 50 to 200 amino
acids. Examples of peptide hormones are Water-soluble hormones are quite large, they do not
antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin; protein readily diffuse through the walls of capillaries; therefore,
hormones include human growth hormone and they tend to diffuse from the blood into tissue spaces
insulin. Several of the protein hormones, such as more slowly
thyroid-stimulating hormone, have attached
carbohydrate groups and thus are glycoprotein Other water-soluble hormones are quite small and
hormones. require attachment to a larger protein to avoid being
3. Eicosanoid Hormones - are derived from filtered out of the blood.
arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid. The two Unlike lipid-soluble hormones, water- soluble hormones
major types of eicosanoids are prostaglandins have relatively short half-lives because they are rapidly
and leukotrienes. The eicosanoids are important degraded by the enzymes, called proteases, within the
local hormones, and they may act as circulating bloodstream
hormones as well.
In some cases, some water-soluble hormones also attach
Note: For the summary of hormones by chemical class table, to binding proteins and therefor circulate in the plasma
kindly open the endocrine group’s handout on page 5 of the longer than free water soluble hormones do.
pdf.
Table 16.1 Comparison between Lipid- and Water-
TRANSPORT OF LIPID SOLUBLE soluble Hormones
HORMONE

Lipid-soluble hormones are small in size and has low

solubility in fluids so they travel in the bloodstream
attached to binding proteins.
Binding Proteins - proteins that transport the
hormones.

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- e.g. the "tropic hormones" originate from

the anterior pituitary gland, which causes
another hormone's stimulation.

CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

B. Inhibition of Hormone Release

A. Stimulation of Hormone Release
It has the same process with the stimulation of hormone
1. Humoral Stimulation
release, consisting of: humoral, neural, and hormonal.
- Humoral stimuli are the chemicals that
stimulate the secretion of hormones. 1. Humoral Stimuli
- These are blood-borne chemicals that - a hormone, may be sensitive to a humoral
circulates in the blood, as "humoral" also stimulus. With that, a companion hormone's
denotes body fluids, which an example is our release is further inhibited by the exact same
blood humoral stimuli.
- Blood levels is considered a factor affecting - effects of the companion hormone, contrasts
these hormones. e.g. glucose, calcium, or the secreted hormone. Additionally, it
sodium. combats the action of the secreted
2. Neural Stimuli hormone.
- Stimulation of hormones are immediate & - e.g. having low blood pressure, in order to
direct as a neuron sends an information to raise the blood pressure, aldosterone is
another neuron, causing an electrical impulse secreted. If the blood pressure increases, the
or an action potential. Atrial Natriuretic Protein hormone from the
- neurons then release neurotransmitters into atria, lowers the BP. Both the ANP and
the cell's synapse that is responsible for aldosterone work in unison in sustaining
producing the specific hormone needed. one's blood pressure.
Potential 2. Neural Stimuli
- Releasing Hormones: are the hormones - As frequently as neurons stimulate their
from our hypothalamus that has control over targets, they inhibit their targets as
the release of other hormones. frequently
3. Hormonal Stimulation - The target endocrine gland will not secrete
- Stimulation of secretion of a hormone, is its hormone, if the neurotransmitter is
then caused by the release of another inhibitory.
hormone.

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3. Hormonal Stimuli binding of the ligand and receptor, allows the receptor to
- As some releasing of hormones cause the change shape as it transmits signals into the cell.
stimulation of secretion of other hormones,
CLASS OF RECEPTORS
for inhibition, certain hormones prevent
secretion of hormones. A. Lipid-Soluble Hormones
- Hormones from the hypothalamus which
inhibit the release of other hormones are - These specific type of hormones are lipid
called inhibiting hormones. Such as the soluble and nonpolar which makes them easily
thyroid hormone which controls their own to diffuse through the cell membrane
blood levels in such a way that they inhibit - As they bind with nuclear receptors in the
the anterior pituitary's tropic hormone nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex
associates with the DNA in managing gene
REGULATION OF HORMONE LEVELS transcription of the target tissue, initiating
protein synthesis.
It is essential that the hormones in our blood are within B. Water-Soluble Hormones
the equilibrium for these hormones help in regulating our
bodily processes - These hormones are polar molecules, which
does not allow them to pass through the cell
There are 2 major mechanisms that help in maintaining membrane. With that, they bind with the
the balance of hormone levels in our blood. external part of membrane-bound receptors or
proteins that extend/pass through the cell
1. Negative Feedback
membrane. These result in the initiation of a
- tells the receptors that the current condition
response in the cell
has been restored back to its normal state, it
then stops the release of hormones. It ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS
reverses the stimulus or opposes the change
- e.g. blood sugar regulation. When blood 1st step: The lipid-soluble hormones diffuse through the
glucose levels are high, insulin is secreted, cell membrane and binds with the nuclear receptor.
thus it lowers it. Glucagon on the other Receptors which bind with DNA have fingerlike
hand, elevates blood glucose levels when low projections that allows them to identify hormone-
2. Positive Feedback response elements/ the nucleotide sequences in the
- In positive feedback mechanism, the release DNA.
of hormones amplifies the change. 2nd step: As the hormone-receptor complex binds with
- e.g. during child birth, oxytocin is released the hormone-response element, it then modulates the
from the posterior pituitary gland as the mRNA molecule's transcription.
hormone oxytocin, helps in stimulating
contractions of the muscle that helps in 3rd step: These new mRNA travel to the cytoplasm,
aiding the movement of the baby out the then are further translated into proteins at the
birth canal. ribosomes.

HORMONE RECEPTORS AND 4th step: Proteins formed generate the effect of the
MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS hormone at the target cell.

RECEPTORS are the ones that detect stimulus. These

are special types of proteins which bind with a ligand. The

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MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS The cell's response is produces by the chemical reactions
catalyzed by these activated enzymes.
These receptors initiate responses in 2 ways:
4th: the cAMP is deactivated by Phosphodiesterase
A. MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS THAT
enzymes as cAMP transforms into AMP.
ACTIVATE G PROTEINS
1st: Before the water-soluble hormone attaches to the
receptor, there is a G protein with 3 subunits (alpha,
beta, gamma) a GDP is attached to the α subunit, that
freely floats in the membrane.
2nd: Once the hormone binds with the receptor, the
receptor then alters its shape. The G protein then binds
to it and the GDP on the α subunit is replaced by GTP.
3rd: The G protein detaches from the receptor. GTP-
linked α subunit then initiates cellular responses.
4th: As the hormone detaches from the receptor, G
proteins become inactive. The α subunit deactivates as 1
phosphate (Pi) is removed from the GTP, leaving it to a
GDP

SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION

1st: Binding of a hormone to the membranebound

hormone, initiates number of G proteins.
2nd: These G proteins activate numbers of inactive
adenylate cyclase enzymes, that results in the synthesis of
large amounts of cAMP.
3rd: Inactive protein kinase enzymes are activated by the
B. G PROTEINS THAT INTERACT WITH
large amounts of cAMP, producing a more rapid and an
ADENYLATE CYCLASE
amplified response
1st: Following the binding of water-soluble hormone
with the receptor, the G protein is then activated. ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
HORMONES
2nd: As the α subunit is activated, the GTP that's bound
to it, attaches to adenylate cyclase enzyme and activates
A. Pituitary Gland & Hypothalamus
it. Thus, converting ATP to cAMP or Cyclic Adenosine
MonoPhosphate. - A. Pituitary Gland & hypothalamus the Pituitary
gland is also known as the "Master Gland", this is
3rd: cAMP has the ability in activating protein kinase
for the reason that it regulates all of the other
enzymes, phosphorylate specific enzymes activates them.

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endocrine glands such as the testes, ovaries, 2) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): attaches to
thyroid gland, and adrenal cortex. the membrane-bound receptors on the cells of the
- it releases growth hormones, hormones that thyroid gland, then further initiates the secretion of the
influence birth, milk production, as well as kidney thyroid hormone.
function.
[Excess secretion can lead to the enlargement of the gland,
- Pituitary gland is as small as a pea, located at a
and when too little TSH is secreted, thyroid gland decreases
depression of the sphenoid bone, inferiorly to
in size.]
the hypothalamus.
3) Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): this
attaches to the membrane-bound receptors found on the
cells of the adrenal cortex
- To avoid the adrenal cortex from degenerating,
ACTH is needed, for it increases the secretion
of a hormone called cortisol.
- secretion of ACTH is also controlled by a hormone
produced by the hypothalamus called,
corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH)
- Excessive secretion of ACTH may cause Cushing
disease or excess secretion of cortisol. This may
- The hypothalamus is known as the endocrine's be caused by either a tumor in the pituitary gland
control center of our brain, which resides
inferiorly from the thalamus 4) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): binds
with the membrane-bound receptors of melanocytes.
The Pituitary Gland has 2 parts:
- Excessive secretion of MSH causes the skin to
1) ANTERIOR PITUITARY, which comprises of appear darker, while less secretion makes the
epithelial cells which are from the embryonic oral cavity skin appear lighter.
2) POSTERIOR PITUITARY, consists of nerve cells 5) Luteinizing hormone (LH)/Interstitial cell-
and is an extension of the brain. stimulating hormone (ICTH): luteinizing hormone
stimulates the ovulation in the female's ovary, as well as
Before, the pituitary gland was known as the "Master
the production of the female sex hormone, the
gland". However, through time, we were able to
progesterone.
acknowledge that the hypothalamus has control over the
pituitary gland, whether hormonal control or direct - For males, it is responsible for the stimulation of
innervation. secretion of testosterone, to maintain sperm cell
production.
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland
- Low levels of LH may also cause infertility as
1) Growth hormone (GH): responsible for there will be limited production of sperm cells
stimulating cell metabolism, causing it to divide and affect the ovulation process.
and increase in size
6) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): stimulates
- It also stimulates the muscles and bones' growth
follicle development in ovaries, and sperm cells in the
[excess GH can lead to gigantism, and too little GH causes testes.
dwarfism]
- Without both the LH and FSH, there would be a
decrease in size in the ovaries and sperm cells in

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the testes that leads to zero production of Hormones:

oocytes & sperm cells.
1) Hormone Calcitonin
7) Prolactin: this hormone binds with the membrane- - Secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid
bound receptors in the cells of the mammary, which gland
helps in aiding breast and milk production during - secreted if the blood concentration of Ca2+
pregnancy. becomes too high, and it causes Ca2+ levels to
decrease to their normal range
- High prolactin levels may cause a noncancerous
- helps prevent elevated blood Ca2+ levels
tumor called prolactinoma. This causes the
decreased levels of estrogen in women and Diseases:
testosterone in men.
- Hypothyroidism - result of low level of iodine in the
- It may cause irregular menstrual periods and
body that may result to goiter enlargement of thyroid
milky breast discharges for women. While,
glands; cretinism in children and myxedema in adult
erectile dysfunction and enlarged breasts in men
- Hyperthyroidism – result of an elevated level of
Hormones of The Posterior Pituitary Gland
iodine in the body that results into Grave's disease -
8) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): helps in maintaining type of hyperthyroidism that results when the immune
the body's water balance by promoting the reabsorption system produces abnormal proteins that are similar in
of water in the tubules of the nephrons in the kidney, structure and function to TSH – and exopthalmia –
which then results in less water production in the urine bulging of eyes due to grave's disease
- Excessive ADH means that more water will be C. Parathyroid Gland
retained causing an increase in the blood volume,
- Embedded in the posterior wall of thyroid glands.
that causes an increase in blood pressure. While
inadequate amounts of ADH causes the kidneys - Essential for regulation of blood calcium levels.
to excrete huge amount of water, leading to low
blood pressure & dehydration. - Secrete the hormone Parathyroid gland hormone
(PTH)
9) Oxytocin: the hormone which stimulates the
contraction of smooth muscles in the uterine walls & FUNCTIONS:
vaginal tissues during late pregnancy. - Helps regulate calcium levels together with the
B. Thyroid Gland Calcitonin.
- Increases active vitamin D formation. acts on its
Gland that is made up of two lobes connected by a target tissues to raise blood Ca2+ levels to
narrow band called the isthmus located on each side of normal.
the trachea, just inferior to the larynx - Increase osteoclast activity and cause resorption
Secrete Thyroid Hormones and Calcitonin of bone tissue to release Ca2+ into the
circulatory system
FUNCTIONS:
Diseases:
- Regulate Metabolism
- Hyperparathyroidism - abnormally high rate of PTH
- Maintain normal heart rate, blood pressure,
secretion.
muscle tone, and reproductive functions.
- Hypoparathyroidism - abnormally low rate of PTH
secretion.

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D. Adrenal Gland 4. Increased blood pressure due to smooth muscle

contraction in the walls of blood vessels in the internal
- two small glands located superior to each kidney.
organs and the skin.
5. Increased metabolic rate of several tissues, especially
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and nervous tissue
2. Adrenal Cortex
- secretes three classes of steroid hormones:
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and
androgens.
 Mineralocorticoids - regulate ng
blood volume & blood levels of
potassium and Sodium. Aldosterone –
common example of mineralocorticoids
which is responsible for the absorption
of sodium of the kidneys and regulate the
- Meaning “above kidney”
balance of body's salt & water
- Contain an inner part called adrenal medulla and outer  Glucocorticoids - second class of
part called adrenal cortex. adrenal cortex that helps regulate blood
nutrient levels in the body. Major
1. Adrenal Medulla hormone of this class is the cortisol
- Produce hormone epinephrine and which is involved in the response to
norepinephrine in response to stimulation by the illness and helps regulate metabolism. It
sympathetic nervous system, which becomes also stimulates glucose production which
most active when a person is excited or help our body to free up necessary
physically active. ingredients from storage to make
- Epinephrine and norepinephrine are also known glucose. Also, the cortisol ha significant
as “fight-or-flight” because of their role in anti-inflammatory effects.
preparing the body for vigorous physical activity  Androgens - third class of hormones,
MAJOR EFFECTS OF HORMONES SECRETED BY secreted by the inner layer of the adrenal
ADRENAL MEDULLA: cortex which stimulate the development
of male sexual characteristic. Androgens
1. Increases in the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in in male is produce by the testes;
the liver, the release of the glucose into the blood, and androgens in female is produce by the
the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. The glucose ovary
and fatty acids serve as energy sources to maintain the
body’s increased rate of metabolism. E. Pancreas

2. Increased heart rate, which causes blood pressure to Consists of pancreatic islets which are dispersed
rise through-out the exocrine portion of the pancreas

3. Stimulation of smooth muscle in the walls of arteries

supplying the internal organs and the skin, but not those
supplying skeletal muscle. Blood flow to internal organs
and the skin decreases, as do the functions of the internal
organs. Blood flow through skeletal muscles increases.

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- Pancreatic islets – produce three hormones function of female reproductive structures and
which are secrets by Alpha cells – glucagon; Beta other female sexual characteristics.
cells – insulin; and Delta cells – somatostatin.
- Insulin - released from the beta cells primarily
in response to the elevated blood glucose levels
and increased parasympathetic stimulation
associated with digestion of a meal.
- Glucagon - released from the alpha cells when
blood glucose levels are low. Glucagon binds to
membrane-bound receptors primarily in the
liver, causing the glycogen stored in the liver to
be converted to glucose.
- Somatostatin - released by the delta cells in G. Pineal Gland
response to food intake. Somatostatin inhibits
the secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits Hormones from your endocrine organs control
gastric tract activity. everything from how you grow to how well you sleep

Diseases: It gets its name from the Latin word 'pinea,' which
means 'pine cone’ because when we look at the
Diabetes - In type 1 diabetes mellitus occurs when too gland, we see that it is shaped like a cone.
little insulin is secreted from the pancreas, and type 2
diabetes mellitus is caused by insufficient numbers of
insulin receptors on target cells or by defective receptors
that do not respond normally to insulin.
Hyperglycemia - high level of glucose in the body
F. Gonads
1. Testes – Secretes male's primary hormone known
as testosterone.
- Testosterone - responsible for the growth and - It is the tiniest endocrine gland, known as the pineal
development of the male reproductive gland.
structures, muscle enlargement, the growth of - It is located deep in the brain in an area called the
body hair, voice changes, and the male sexual epithalamus, where the two halves of the brain join.
drive. - It produces and regulates some hormones,
including melatonin.

H. Thymus Gland

We could not exist without the immune system. It is

our line of defense against any material that can cause
sickness or disease. The immune system is composed
2. Ovaries - Secrete female primary hormones known of specialized cells, glands, and organs.
as estrogen and progesterone.
- Estrogen and Progesterone - together, these - One important part of the immune system is the
hormones contribute to the development and thymus, which is a pyramid-shaped organ of the

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immune system that is involved in producing T cells,

or lymphocytes.

- It is located behind the breastbone, in front of the heart,

and between the lungs or the mediastinum. physically this
organ is found in the neck or upper chest
- It secretes several hormones related to immunity.
Thymosin, thymic humoral factor (THF), thymic factor
(TF), and thymopoietin promote the maturation of T
EICOSANOIDS, work like hormones, but they do not
cells.
like to travel. Eicosanoids go by the nickname 'local
OTHER ENDOCRINE TISSUES & ORGANS, hormones' because they act on cells close to their site of
EICOSANOIDS, & GROWTH production. Eicosanoids also rapidly break down, so they
are not able to travel very far. There are different types
of eicosanoids, but the three most researched types are
- The endocrine system involves many organ systems and prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. We will
hormones, many of which are still being investigated and explore the functions of each of these in a moment, but
understood. first, let's learn a few general facts about eicosanoids and
-Hormones help to control many body functions, such as the effects they have on your body.
growth, repair and reproduction GROWTH FACTORS, play important roles in tissue
- Endocrine glands secrete hormones straight into the development, growth, and repair. these are mitogenic
bloodstream. the hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, substance that cause growth by stimulating cell division.
ovaries, and testes. Below are the summary of hormones Here are the summary of the different and selected
that produced by the other organs and tissues that growth hormones
contains endocrine cells

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AGING IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system consists of a group of glands and

organs that regulate and control various body functions
by producing and secreting hormones. it serves as
messengers, controlling and coordinating activities
throughout the body
Levels of most hormones decrease with aging, but some
hormones remain at levels typical of those in younger
adults, and some even increase. but it declines with age
because hormone receptors become less sensitive.
- With aging, the blood levels of TSH, LH, FSH, and PTH
rise. The pancreas releases insulin more slowly with age,
and receptor sensitivity to glucose declines.
- After puberty, thymus size begins to decrease, and
thymic tissue is replaced by adipose and areolar
connective tissue
END OF TRANS – Good luck mga mahal!

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