Notes - Gravitational Fields & Satellite Motion

I. Gravity At or Near the Surface of the Earth

Gravity is the force by which a planet or other body pulls an object toward its center. Earth's gravity
is what keeps you on the ground and what makes things fall towards the center of the Earth.
Anything that has mass also has gravity. If an object has more mass, then it has more gravity. The
gravitational force between two objects is also dependent upon the distance between them. The
closer two objects are to each other, the greater their gravitational force will be.

An object’s gravitational force at or near the surface of Earth can be calculated using Newton’s
second law.
F=m⋅ a

F is the force measured in newtons (N).

m is the mass measured in kilograms (kg).
a is the acceleration measured in meters per second squared (m/s2).

We call the acceleration of an object near the surface of Earth the acceleration due to gravity and
give it the symbol g. Therefore we can rewrite Newton’s law as

F g=m⋅ g

Fg is the force of gravity measured in newtons (N). This is also the object’s weight.
m is the mass measured in kilograms (kg).
g is the acceleration due to gravity measured in meters per second squared (m/s 2).

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter an object is made of. An object’s mass does not change
and is independent of its location. An object’s force of gravity or its weight is dependent upon its
position relative to other objects.

On and near Earth's surface, the value for the acceleration of gravity is approximately 9.81 m/s 2.
This value depends on the location relative to the surface of the Earth. As you move away from
Earth the value of g decreases.

The Moon has less mass than Earth; therefore it has less gravity. The acceleration due to gravity at
the surface of the Moon is only 1.62 m/s2. If your weight on Earth is 1000 N you would only weigh
167 N on the Moon.

Example:
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. Each satellite will have a mass of 4 000 kg and will operate at a height of 830
km above Earth’s surface. What is the weight of an MetOp-SG satellite at the surface of the Earth?

F g=m⋅ g F g=4000 kg ⋅9.81 m/s 2 F g=39240 N

© Brian Swarthout 2021

II. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Newton’s law of universal gravitation allows us to determine the force of attraction beyond the
surface of the Earth. The force of gravitational attraction is directly proportional to the masses of
the two objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The
equation used to calculate the force of attraction between two objects is:

M 1 ⋅ m2
F G=G ⋅ 2
r

FG is the force of gravity measured in newtons (N).

G is the universal gravitation constant: 6.67 • 10-11 N m2/kg2.
M1 is the mass of object one measured in kilograms (kg).
m2 is the mass of object two measured in kilograms (kg).
r is the distance between the objects measured in meters (m).

F12 F21
m1 m2

The Direction of the Force:

The gravitational force is always attractive.

The Magnitude of the Force:

(1) Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the magnitude of the force between two
objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses. Therefore, if the two masses on
the left are attracted to each other with a force of F, then the force of attraction between the
m M the mass of one of2m
two objects on the right is 2F because m doubled.
the objects has been
d
d

(2) Newton’s law of universal gravitation also states that the magnitude of the force between
two objects is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Therefore, if
the two masses on the left are attracted to each other with a force of F, then the force of
m the two objectsM
attraction between on the rightmis ¼F because the distance between M them has
doubled and two squaredd is four. 2d

© Brian Swarthout 2021

© Brian Swarthout 2021
Example:
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. Each satellite will have a mass of 4 000 kg and will operate at a height of 830
km above Earth’s surface. When it has reached its orbital height, what will be the gravitational
force of attraction between the MetOp-SG satellite and the Earth?

r =RE + h r =6378 km+ 830 km r =7208 km

M 1 ⋅ m2
F G=G ⋅ 2
r

24
−11 2 2 (5.97 ⋅10 kg)(4000 kg)
F G=6.67 ⋅ 10 N m /k g ⋅
¿¿
F G=30657 N

© Brian Swarthout 2021

III. The Value of g
The acceleration due to gravity g is the acceleration of an object that is moving only due to the force
of gravity. To show that the value of g depends on the object’s location we can use the two
equations above to derive the equation for g. Because both equations can be used to determine the
force of gravity, we can set them equal to each other.

F g=F G

M 1 ⋅ m2
m⋅ g=G ⋅ 2
r

G M1
g=
r2

Example:
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. Each satellite will have a mass of 4 000 kg and will operate at a height of 830
km above Earth’s surface. What is the acceleration due to gravity at the MetOp-SG’s orbital height?

G ⋅ M1 −11
(6.67 ⋅ 10
2 2
N m /k g )(5.97 ⋅ 10 kg)
24
g= 2 g=
2
g=7.66 m/ s
r ¿¿

IV. Velocity, Force and Acceleration

The motion of a satellite S orbiting a central massive object can be described as using the same
principles as an object in circular motion. The velocity v of the object is represented by a vector that
is tangential to its circular path. The acceleration vector a points towards the center of its circular
path. This acceleration is possible because the net force FN acting on the object also points towards
the center of the circular path. See the diagram below.
S

FN, a
v

v
FN, a

© Brian Swarthout 2021

V. Equation for Orbital Velocity
For a satellite m2 orbiting a more massive central object M1 the centripetal force of the object is:
2
m ⋅v
F C= 2
r

The centripetal force comes from the gravitational force that attracts the satellite toward the more
massive central object. This force is calculated with Newton’s law of universal gravitation:

M 1 ⋅ m2
F G=G ⋅
r2

The magnitude of these two forces are equal to each other.

F C =FG

m⋅ v
2
M 1 ⋅ m2
=G ⋅ 2
r r

The mass of the satellite m2 and the distance of the satellite from the central object r are on both
sides of the equations. Therefore:
2 G ⋅ M1
v=
r

v=
√ G M1
r

v is the velocity in meters per second (m/s).

G is the universal gravitation constant: 6.67 • 10-11 N m2/kg2
M1 is the mass of central object measured in kilograms (kg).
r is the distance between the objects measured in meters (m).

The radius r must be entered as the radius of the central mass plus the satellite’s orbital height
above the central mass. The answer will be given in meters per second.

If the orbital period is already known, then the following equation can be used to calculate the
orbital velocity.

2 πr
v=
T

v is the velocity in meters per second (m/s).

r is the distance between the objects measured in meters (m).
T is the orbital period in seconds.
2 πr is the circumference of the satellite’s orbit.

Example:
© Brian Swarthout 2021
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. Each satellite will have a mass of 4 000 kg and will operate at a height of 830
km above Earth’s surface. What is the orbital velocity of the MetOp-SG satellite?

v=
√ G M1
r

√
−11 2 2 24
(6.67 ⋅10 N m /k g )(5.97 ⋅10 kg)
v= 3
7208⋅10 m

v=7432 m/ s=7.43 km/s

VI. Equation for Orbital Period

The orbital period is the time it takes for a satellite to complete one orbit around the central mass.
To derive the equation for orbital period, we will start with the two equations for orbital velocity
above and then substitute for v.

2 G ⋅ M1 2 πr
v= v=
r T

4 π r G ⋅ M1
2 2

2
=
T r

2 4 π2 r3
T =
G ⋅ M1

T=
√ 4 π2 r3
G M1

The answer will be given in seconds.

Example:
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. Each satellite will have a mass of 4 000 kg and will operate at a height of 830
km above Earth’s surface. What is the orbital velocity of the MetOp-SG satellite?

√
2 3
4π r
T=
G M1

T =√ 4 π ¿ ¿ ¿
2

© Brian Swarthout 2021

T =6093 s=101.6 minutes

VII. Equation for Height

To derive the equation for orbital height, we will start with the two equations for orbital velocity
above and then substitute for v.

G ⋅ M1 2 πr
v 2= v=
r T

4 π r G ⋅ M1
2 2

2
=
T r

3 T 2 ⋅G ⋅ M 1
r =
4 π2

√
2
3 T G M1
r= 2
4π

Example:
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. In the previous example we determined that the orbital period of the satellite is
101 minutes. Use this information to confirm the orbital height of the MetOp-SG satellite.

√
2
3 T M1
r= 2
4π

3
r =√ ¿¿ ¿
6
r =7.21⋅10 m÷ 1000=7208 km

subtracting the Earth’s radius gives the satellite’s height above the surface of the Earth.

r =7208 km−6378 km=830 km

VIII. Mechanical Energy of a Satellite in Orbit

The mechanical energy of a satellite in orbit is the sum of its kinetic energy EK and its potential
energy EP.

© Brian Swarthout 2021

The potential energy of a satellite in orbit is calculated using the following equation:

−G M 1 m 2
E P=
r

The equation for the kinetic energy of a satellite in orbit can be derived as shown below:

1 2 2 G M1
E K = mv with v=
2 r

1 G M1
E K = m( )
2 r

G M 1 m2
EK=
2r

From the equation above we can see that the kinetic energy of a satellite in orbit is one half the
magnitude of the satellite’s potential energy.

The total mechanical energy of a satellite in orbit is therefore:

ET =E K + E P

G M 1 m2 −G M 1 m 2
ET = +( )
2r r

−G M 1 m 2
ET =
2r

The total mechanical energy of a satellite will always be negative. This means that the satellite is
gravitationally bound to the object it is orbiting.

Example:
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. In the previous example we confirmed that the orbital height of the satellite is
830 km above Earth’s surface. Use this information to calculate the kinetic energy, the potential
energy and the total mechanical energy of the MetOp-SG satellite.

Potential energy in orbit:

r =RE + hsat r =6378 km+ 830 km r =7208 km

−G M 1 m 2
E P=
r
24
−11 2 2 (5.97 ⋅ 10 kg)( 4000 kg)
E P=−6.67⋅ 10 N m /k g ⋅ 3
7208 ⋅10 m

E P=−2.21 ⋅ 1011 J

© Brian Swarthout 2021

Kinetic energy in orbit:

G M 1 m2
EK=
2r

−11 2 2 24
(6.67 ⋅10 N m /k g )(5.97 ⋅10 kg)( 4000 kg)
EK= 3
2(7208⋅ 10 m)

11
E K =1.10⋅ 10 J

or we can use the following method:

1 2
E K = mv
2

1
E K = (4000 kg) ¿
2

11
E K =1.10⋅ 10 J

The total mechanical energy in orbit:

−G M 1 m 2
ET =
2r

−(6.67 ⋅10−11 N m2 /k g 2)(5.97 ⋅ 1024 kg)(4000 kg)

ET = 3
2(7208 ⋅10 m)

11
T E =−1.10 ⋅10 J

IX. Work Done to Put a Satellite into Orbit

E Ki + E Pi+ W NC =E Kf + EPf

The left side of the equation above is the mechanical energy of the satellite at the surface of Earth
plus the work needed to put the satellite into orbit WNC. The right side of this equation is the
mechanical energy of the satellite when it is in orbit, which can also be found with the following
equation:

−G M 1 m 2
ET =
2r

Substituting we get:

E Ki + E Pi+ W NC =ME

© Brian Swarthout 2021

Example:
MetOp-SG (Meteorological Operational Satellite - Second Generation) is a series of six
meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency and EUMETSAT to be launched
from 2023 to 2037. In the previous example we confirmed that the orbital height of the satellite is
830 km above Earth’s surface. Use this information to calculate the amount of work done to put the
MetOp-SG satellite into orbit. Assume the satellite is launched from the equator.

E Ki + E Pi+ W NC =ET

Kinetic energy at the surface of the Earth:

1 2
E K = mv
2

At the equator the satellite is moving with Earth’s rotation. The velocity of the satellite is therefore:
3
2 πr 2 π (6378 ⋅ 10 m)
v= v= v=464 m/s
T 86400 s

1
E K = (4000 kg) ¿
2

E K =4.31 ⋅ 108 J

Potential energy at the surface of the Earth:

−G M 1 m 2
E P=
r

−11 2 2 24
−(6.67 ⋅10 N m /k g )(5.97 ⋅10 kg)(4000 kg)
E P= 3
6378⋅10 m

11
E P=−2.50 ⋅10 J

Mechanical energy in orbit:

−G M 1 m 2
ET =
2r

−(6.67 ⋅10−11 N m2 /k g 2)(5.97 ⋅ 1024 kg)(4000 kg)

ET = 3
2(7208 ⋅10 m)

11
ET =−1.10 ⋅10 J

We can now solve for the work and plug the values into the equation:
© Brian Swarthout 2021
E Ki + E Pi+ W NC =ET

W NC =ME−E Ki −E Pi

W NC =−1.10⋅ 10 11 J −4.31⋅ 10 8 J −(−2.50 ⋅ 1011 J )

11
W NC =1.40⋅10 J

© Brian Swarthout 2021