Agri 21 Lab Manual PDF
Agri 21 Lab Manual PDF
Agri 21 Lab Manual PDF
AGRICULTURE 21
Introduction to Animal Science
L A B O R AT O R Y M A N U A L
Copyright @2020 by the Institute of Animal Science
University of the Philippines Los Banos
College, Laguna
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced
or copied in any form or in any means (graphic, electronic or mechanical including
photocopying, recording, taping or information and retrieval system) without written
permission of the publisher.
FOREWORD
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 1
THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY AND BODY MEASUREMENTS
OF FARM ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
Anatomy is a branch of science that deals with form and structure. Its main
objective is to understand life better, that is, to elucidate processes that constitute life.
Physiology (study of functions of body parts) is commonly pursued more or less
independently; anatomy and physiology; however, are both facets of the total study of
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the animal body. Thorough knowledge of structure imparts much information about its
function. However, a mere description of structure without describing function would
be of little practical value. Conversely, it is impossible to gain a thorough
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understanding of function without the basic knowledge of the structure involved.
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would be of great help in their identification and classification. These have immediate
importance in judging, research work, buying and selling animals, handling and
veterinary work.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
MATERIALS
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METHODS
A. External Anatomy
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1. Locate and identify the different external parts of the body in illustrations/
materials provided with the manual (refer to supplemental information)
2. Observe the similarities and differences between species and sex.
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Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
area (for this exercise will not be measured). The heart girth of poultry is
measured by also wrapping the tape measure around the chest area but the
wings are extended outward (also will not be measured in this exercise.
Using the data provided on hearth girth and body length of 5 different animals,
get the estimated body weight (kg) of the pig and cattle by extrapolating with
the values shown in table 1, and equations provided below.
a. Pigs:
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(Caubalejo, 2014)
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b. Cattle/Carabao: LW= -466 +4.70 (HG)
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
A. General Terms
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1. Parturition – act of giving birth
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
B. Cattle (Bos taurus Linnaeus / Bos taurus indicus Linneaus) and Carabao
(Bubalus bubalis Linnaeus)
B
9. Bull calf – young male calf under one year of age
10. Carabull – carabao bull, caraheifer; caracow; etc.
11. Bullock – usually a stag for draft purposes
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12. Caraheifer – young female carabao under three years of age usually one
that has not yet given birth
13. Caracow – mature female carabao, one that has given birth
14. Transmitting ability – the ability of an animal to pass on either good or
bad traits to its progeny
15. Proven sire – bull about whom one have sufficient unselected information
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to indicate his transmitting ability
1. Stallion – mature male horse; if the stallion is used for breeding purposes,
the term studhorse is preferred
2. Mare – mature female horse; broodmare is the term for the female horse
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used for breeding purposes
3. Colt – young male horse usually up to 3 years old
4. Filly – young female horse usually up to 3 years old
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
4. Wether – sheep male sheep which was castrated while young preferably
between one to three weeks of age
5. Shearling – yearling sheep with two teeth
6. Fleece – wool covering the sheep
7. Billy goat or buck – male goat of any age
8. Pelt – wool and skin of a sheep
9. Doe – female goat of any age
10. Kid – young goat of either sex below one year of age
11. Wether goat – male goat castrated before the secondary sex characters
have developed
B
1. Meat of different animals
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b. Veal – cattle, less than 1 year old
c. Pork – pig
d. Venison – deer
e. Mutton – sheep, 1 year old and above
f. Lamb – sheep, less than 1 year old
g. Chevon – goat
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h. Horsemeat – horse
i. Carabeef; caraveal – carabao
j. Game meat – game animals (wild hunted)
G. Poultry
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
Table 1.1. Body measurements and estimated weights for pigs (Villegas, 1965)
Length
(cm) 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
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90 42 47 55 67 82 101 123 148 177
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100 50 55 63 77 90 110 126 156 184
130
140
80
93
85
98
94
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118
105
124
120
133
130
151
153
173
186
190
215
227
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150 107 111 120 132 147 165 187 212 241
AF
160 121 128 135 146 161 178 202 227 255
170 137 142 151 162 177 196 218 243 272
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
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Figure 1.2. External parts of cattle (Scanes, 2011)
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AF
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Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
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Figure 1.4. External parts of pig (Scanes, 2011)
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AF
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Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
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Figure 1.6. External parts of duck
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REFERENCES:
FRANDSON, R.D., WILKE W.L., and FAILS A.D. 1986. Anatomy and Physiology of
Farm Animals. 7th Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. A John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Publication 536 pp.
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ITIS. 2019. Retrieved last January 9, 2019 from the Integrated Taxonomic
Information System on-line database, http://www.itis.gov.
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 1
THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY AND BODY MEASUREMENTS
OF FARM ANIMALS
Name: Score:
B
I. Write the similarities and differences between male and female poultry species
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Poultry Female Male
Chicken
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image from http://bit.ly/1QypyPy
image from
https://www.quora.com/How-can-you-
tell-the-sex-of-a-chicken
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1. Chicken (describe
the following)
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e. Body framework
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
a. Crown
b. Tail feather
c. Body Framework
d. Sound
B
hnrda-aanr-2017-2022/hnrda-aanr-2017-2022-
1/1245-2017-2021-duck-r-d-roadmap/file
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II. Write the morphological differences in small and large ruminants
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Ruminant
a.
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b. tail
c. cover
d. horns
e. glands
f. lip
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
a. skin
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b. horn
c. stature/build
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III. Body Weight Determination
A. Compute the accuracy (%) of the body weight estimation for pig and cattle
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
Guide Questions:
a. Using the figures below, put a line on the location where body
measurements heart girth (HG) and body length (BL) was measured.
B
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Example: image from https://in.pinterest.com/pin/332914597448809930/
Figure 1. image from https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/655273814511472481/
Figure 2. image fromhttps://www.netclipart.com/isee/omxxmJ_pig-clip-art-
realistic-realistic-pig-clip-art/
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b. Which method gave the closest estimate of the actual body weight of pigs
and cattle?
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c. What are the factors that influence the differences in the body weight
estimation?
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B. If the price of live pig is PhP. _____, using the weights computed above,
how much did the farm lose/gain based on body measurement
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C. If the price of live cattle is PhP. _____, using the weights computed above,
how much did the farmer lose/gain based on body measurement
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 2
PULSE RATE, RESPIRATION RATE AND BODY TEMPERATURE (PRT)
OF SOME FARM ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
B
and observing an apparently sick animal. Functionally, abnormality in any of these
indicators could be a sign of disorder in the animal. Students in basic animal science
courses are expected to know these parameters and how to measure them in farm
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animals.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
animals
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1. Learn the appropriate methods in determining PRT of farm
MATERIALS
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Video demonstration on how to get the PRT parameters of livestock species.
Illustrations on the location where to get PRT of the animals.
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METHODS
1. Without disturbing the animal, count and record the rising of the hind flank
for one minute. Get two readings and compute for the average. The
respiration rate in poultry is not measured but panting should be observed. If
panting occurs, respiratory problems may have occurred.
Cattle image from https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/655273814511472481/
Pig image fromhttps://www.netclipart.com/isee/omxxmJ_pig-clip-art-realistic-
realistic-pig-clip-art/
S
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
B
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Sheep/Goat. Stand alongside of the goat or sheep. Carefully hold the muzzle
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in one hand then locate and feel the expansion of the femoral artery at the
medial side or underside of the hindlimb. Count and record the pulse rate for
30 seconds, then multiply by two to get the pulse rate per minute. Get two
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Pig. Adult pigs are restrained first placed in a restraining chute. Make sure
the pig is acclimatized first with the surrounding before taking any
measurements. Piglets can be restrained by hugging the animal using one
hand and the other hand pressing the head close to the body wall. Other
restraining methods are shown in the figure below. Measure the heart beat
of the pig by auscultation, that is, by using a stethoscope held in place at the
chest area. This should be done with a partner for beginners. Count and
record the heartbeat for 30 seconds, then, multiply by two to get the number
of beats per minute. Get two readings and compute for the average.
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
B
animal/sop-swine-injection-subcutaneous.pdf
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3. Body Temperature Determination (Video Clip)
Carefully insert the thermometer into the rectum for a period of about two
minutes; make sure that the pointed end of the thermometer is closed to the
rectal body wall. However, this is not commonly practiced as the method will
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cause stress in animals. Infrared thermometers are now being used in farms.
Chicks body temperature is measured using ear thermometers on the vent. Get
two readings and compute for the average.
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AF
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uides/Ross-Broiler-Pocket-Guide-2015-EN.pdf
image from
IA
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
A. Pulse
Each systolic contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, forces more blood into
the arteries and arterioles, which are already filled, with blood under diastolic
pressure. This additional blood at each systole dilates the arteries. The wave of
systolic pressure, which starts at the heart and spreads throughout the arterial
network, is called the pulse or pulse wave. It can be felt in arteries near the surface
of the body, particularly if the artery can be pressed against an underlying bone
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
or other solid structure. The pulse is determined to measure the rate or heartbeat.
The character of the pulse can be of value in the diagnosis of circulatory disease.
B. Respiration
C. Body Temperature
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The body temperature of an animal is the resulting balance of heat production
and heat dissipation. The temperature of the body of a homoeothermic animal,
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such as farm animals, remain almost exactly constant, within +/ - 1 degrees
Celsius, day in and day out except when an individual develops a febrile illness.
Stability of body temperature is a prerequisite for high productivity in animals.
Rectal temperature is a fair index of the internal temperature of the animal. The
body temperature varies somewhat with exercise and extremes of temperature
of the surroundings as well as age, sex, season, time of the day, feeding, drinking
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and digestion.
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AF
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Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
Table 2.1. Normal PRT values of livestock and poultry species (Philippine
Recommends for Animal Health Care, 2007)
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Goat (adult) 70–80 12–16
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Kid 100 – 120 12–20
(1 to 6 mo)
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38.5 – 39.5
38.5 – 39.5
Piglets
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REFERENCES:
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FRANDSON, R.D., WILKE W.L., and FAILS A.D. 1986. Anatomy and Physiology
of Farm Animals. 7th Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. A John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Publication 536 pp.
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 2
PULSE RATE, RESPIRATION RATE AND BODY TEMPERATURE (PRT)
OF SOME FARM ANIMALS
Name: Score:
B
PULSE RATE RESPIRATION
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(beat per RATE (breath TEMPERATURE
SPECIES CONDITION
minute) per minute (°C)
1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean
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Cattle/
Goat/Sheep
Pig
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AF
a. Animal size
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b. Animal age
c. Breed/ Strain
d. Health
e. Environmental Conditions
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
B
3. What other methods/tools can be used to get the PRT of the animals
without disturbing or inflicting pain?
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Example: chicks- panting are observed and chick behavior
a. pigs
b. cattle
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S
AF
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 3
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
INTRODUCTION
Reproductive physiology is one of the most dynamic biological sciences and its
rapid development in the field remains great. There is a need to find socially
acceptable ways of reducing the reproductive capacity of the world’s exploding
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population. Alongside with this is the need to maintain at maximum capacities the
reproductive performance of our domestic animals to provide adequate nutrition for
this increasing hu-man population. These goals can be achieved only if detailed
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knowledge of the different phases of reproduction is understood and recent
development along this line is ap-plied in practical ways. New techniques of increasing
reproductive efficiencies such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer cannot be
fully exploited until the basic principles on which they are based upon are completely
understood.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Identify the different structures and functions of the male and female
reproductive systems
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2. Differentiate structure and functions of the reproductive tract on different
animal species
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MATERIALS
Picture charts of male and female reproductive systems of chicken, pig, and
goat/sheep
METHODS
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
1. Testis is the paired primary sex organ of the male and its main functions are
for the site of sperm maturation and the secretion of the male sex hormone,
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
androgen. Testes in birds are located within the body cavity; in mammals,
they lie outside of the abdominal cavity in a pouch of skin called the scrotum.
Scrotum is the external covering of the testes. It protects the testes from
direct mechanical injuries. It also provides the testes an environment which
is a few degrees (2-5°C) cooler than the body temperature. This is not
present in poultry species.
2. Penis is an erectile tissue whose main function is to drain the urinary bladder
of urine. It is an organ of erection and ejaculation and serves to intro-duce
the spermatozoa into the vagina. In poultry species, it may be intromit-tent
(Anseriformes) and non-intromittent (Galliformes)
B
3. Excurrent Ducts
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of the testis with the ductus deferens (vas deferens). It serves as a place for
maturation of the spermatozoa before ejaculation.
Ductus Deferens (vas deferens) is a muscular tube, which merges with the
epididymis. It extends upward to the abdominal cavity and finally empties in
the urethra. During ejaculation, this muscular tube propels the spermatozoa
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from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct in the urethra.
Urethra is a canal starting from the junction of the ampulla and ends at the
opening of the penis. It serves as a common passage of semen and urine.
b. Seminal Vesicles are paired glands, which are located on either side
of the ampulla. They produce a secretion high in fructose, which acts
as vehicle for sperm transport.
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1. Ovary is a paired, almond shaped organ situated near the uterine horn
just behind the kidney. It is the site for ova maturation and secretes the
female sex hormones like estrogen.
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
c. Isthmus is the side for outer and inner shell membrane secretion.
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productive capacity for the developing embryo. In poultry species, this is
known as the shell gland where eggshell is formed.
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Cervix is considered the neck of the uterus. It serves as a passage way of
semen. It protects the uterus from foreign material. During pregnancy, it
secretes a sticky mucus seal.
4. Vagina is a tube extending from the cervix down to the vulva. It receives the
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penis in copulation and provides a passageway for the fully developed fetus
during parturition. In poultry species, the cuticle or “bloom” is secreted onto
the shell for easy passage in the cloaca (urodeum) or vent and also serves
as protection for the egg.
5. Vulva serves as the common passage way for the products of reproduction
and urine.
S
6. Clitoris, a rudimentary organ situated ventrally to the vulva, is homologous
to the penis in the male.
AF
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S
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
2 3
1
2 9
B
4
5
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6
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
B
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Figure 3.4. Avian Male Reproductive System (Jacob & Pescatore (nd)
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Ovary
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Infundibulum
oviduct
S
Magnum
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Isthmus
colon
uterus
vagina
cloaca
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
REFERENCES:
B
PL
-U
S
AF
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S
IA
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 3
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Name: Score:
B
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2 3
1
2
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4
5
6
7
S
8
AF
A. Male (Goat)
1
-C
4
S
5
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
B
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B. Female (Swine)
Label Structure
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S
9
AF
10
11
12
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13
14
15
S
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
16
17
18
B
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19
21 20
C. Female (Chicken)
22
23
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S
Label Structure Function
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16
17
18
-C
19
20
21
S
22
23
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Testis
Scrotum
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Ampulla
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Cowper’s/Bulbo-
urethral gland
B
Bladder
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Penis
Sigmoid flexure
Glans penis
Sheath/Prepuce
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S
B. Female (indicate if present or absent, if absent, give its equivalent)
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Vulva
Clitoris
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Vagina
Urinary bladder
Cervix
S
Oviducts
Ovary
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 4
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
INTRODUCTION
The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its associated glands. This
tract, a tubular structure for the ingestion and digestion of food, has an ultimate purpose
of providing efficient assimilation of nutrients necessary for life. The gastrointestinal
tract provides the most readily accessible route for substances to enter the body. It
carefully selects these substances through a variety of mechanism, including food
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selection (palatability), rapid rejection of toxic substances (increased rate of passage)
and gastric digestion of substances before they have access to the more permeable
intestinal tract. Knowledge of the comparative anatomy and physiology of the digestive
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system of the different species of farm animals is a necessity in providing proper feeds
that can be efficiently utilized by the animals.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
MATERIALS
METHODS
1. Classify the different types of digestive systems provided and describe the
distinguishing features of each type.
2. Compare the organs composing the digestive system of the three species
of animals provided and give some possible sources of variation as to the
type of feed each species would be adapted to.
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SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
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A. Definition of Terms
2. Prehension refers to the seizing and conveying of feed into the mouth.
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
5. Bolus formation (in ruminants) is the formation of “balls” of feed out of the
masticated feed particles.
B
1. The main functions of Mouth and Buccal Cavity are for prehension,
mastication, and insalivation. In ruminants, this part of the digestive tract is
used in the bolus formation. The mouth may also serve as a defensive and
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offensive weapon.
2. Pharynx is a common passage for feed and air. Inspired air crosses the
pharynx to enter the larynx while feed crosses the pharynx to enter the
esophagus.
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3. Esophagus is a muscular tube which connects the stomach to the mouth.
The crop found in poultry is an invagination of the esophagus and its the
temporary storage of food.
4. Stomach is a muscular organ which is the site for feed storage, grinding and
mixing of feed, absorption, enzymatic action and microbial fermentation.
S
5. Small Intestine is the site of further digestion and absorption of certain
products from the stomach digestion. The small intestine is composed of
three parts, the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
AF
6. Large intestine is the site of water absorption, storage of waste material, and
bacterial digestion of fiber. The cecum and colon are parts of the large
intestine.
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3. Liver secretes bile needed for the emulsification of fat in the small intestine.
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3. Modified simple stomach - poultry species has the gizzard (for mixing and
grinding feed), the crop (for storage of feed) and the proventriculus (secretion
of gastric enzymes for digestion).
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
B
REFERENCES:
FRANDSON, R.D., W. LEE WILKE, and A. DEE FAILS. 2009. Anatomy and
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Physiology of Farm Animals. 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 528 pp.
ROXAS, D. B. 2006. Animal Feeds and Feeding: With Emphasis on the Tropics.
University Publications Office. University of the Philippines Los Baños.
College, Laguna.
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S
AF
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Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 4
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Name: Score:
B
Organ of Distinguishing
Farm Animal Classification Prehension Feature
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Pig
Sheep
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Horse
Cattle
Chicken
S
II. Identify the classification of each digestive system, give an animal
example and correctly label the illustrations.
AF
_______________________________________________
(1)
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(3)
S
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(2) (4)
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
______________________________________________
(5)
(6)
B
PL
(7) (9)
(8)
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3. Type of digestive system/animal example:
S
_________________________________________
AF
-C
(10)
S
(11)
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AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
_______________________________________________
(12)
(13)
B
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S
(14) (15)
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III. Properly label the different parts of the digestive systems that are shown
be-low and give the function of each item.
(1,5)_________________________________________________________
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(2,10_________________________________________________________
(3)___________________________________________________________
(4)___________________________________________________________
(6)___________________________________________________________
S
(7)___________________________________________________________
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(9)___________________________________________________________
(10,11)_______________________________________________________
(12)__________________________________________________________
(13)__________________________________________________________
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Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
EXERCISE 5
LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY BREEDS IN THE PHILIPPINES AND
THEIR ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT TRAITS
INTRODUCTION
Animal breeding is aimed at the improvement of animals by changing
their genetic abilities for economically important traits such as the quantity,
quality, efficiency, and value of their products. The choice of the most
appropriate animal genetic resources to be used in a given environment or
production system should be the first step when developing a breeding
program. The next question to be answered is which traits should be improved
B
in the next generation. A breeding goal or objective is the specification of the
traits to be improved including the emphasis given to each trait; it gives the
direction in which we want to improve the population.
PL
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of having a functional recording system;
2. Describe the different livestock and poultry breeds locally available;
-U
3. Classify livestock and poultry breeds based on origin, geographical
availability, and utilization;
4. Identify economically important traits in livestock and poultry;
5. Measure qualitative and quantitative traits of farm animals; and
6. Compute the measures of variability of economically important traits.
S
MATERIAL
• Calculator
AF
METHODS
1. Given the list of animal breeds in the worksheet, classify them based
on utilization, origin, and geographical availability.
2. Based on their utilization, identify two traits that you want to improve.
3. Using the given data on quantitative traits, compute the mean, variance,
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SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
List of breeds that are locally available in the Philippines can be seen in the
B
Agriculture 21 Lecture Module
PL
Utilization
1. Meat
2. Eggs
3. Milk
4. Wool/fleece
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5. Adaptation
6. Draft power
7. Aesthetic value (fancy-type)
8. Dual-purpose/ Multipurpose
E. Trait
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Types of Traits
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AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
B
• Examples are average daily gain, feed efficiency,
feed conversion ratio, live backfat thickness, age at
90 kg, total milk yield or milk production, rate of lay,
PL
and age at first egg, draft power, and pulling ability.
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• Examples are dressing percentage, lean
percentage, carcass fat depth, marbling score, rib or
loin eye are, meat tenderness, milk fat yield or
percentage, milk protein yield or percentage, lactose
percentage, yolk index, and albumen index.
environment.
• Examples are disease resistance and heat
tolerance.
F. Population Measures
Continuous variables such as quantitative traits are described by a
S
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
Where:
x̅ (read as x bar) = mean
Xi = value of one observation
n = number of observations
B
about how individuals deviate from the average. It tells nothing
about the uniformity of the animal population; it tells nothing about
variation in the population.
PL
In an animal breeding context, variation usually refers to the
differences among animals within a population and it is the source
of genetic improvement. If there is little variation in a trait,
identification of superior animals will be difficult because no animals
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is much better than any other. It is important not only to have
variation in a population, but also to have some way to measure it.
3. Measures of Variation
a. Variance – a mathematical measure of variation.
S
Where:
AF
σ2 = Variance
x̅ = mean
Xi = value of one observation
n = number of observations
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Where:
σ = Standard deviation
S
σ2 = Variance
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
4. Sample Problem
The following are records of five animals for birth weight and
weight. Compute the mean, variance, standard deviation, and
CV.
B
5 1.1
PL
Mean: (0.9 + 0.7 + 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.1 / 5) = 0.84 kg
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= [(0.06)2 + (-0.14)2 + (-0.04)2 + (-0.14)2 + (0.26)2] / 4
= 0.112 / 4
= 0.028 kg2
0.167 kg, data is distributed between 0.67 (0.84 – 0.167 kg) and
1.01 (0.84 + 0.167 kg). Coefficient of variation of 0.20 may be
compared with CV values of other traits.
performance
Environmental Variance (σ2E) – the effects that external (non-genetic)
factors have on animal performance
5
Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
REFERENCES
B
OLDENBROEK, K., and L. VAN DER WAAIJ. 2014. Textbook Animal Breeding
Breeding: Animal Breeding and Genetics for BSc students. Centre for
PL
Genetic Resources and Animal Breeding and Genomics Group,
Wageningen University and Research Centre, Netherlands. 311 p.
-U
Blackwell Science, United Kingdom. 166 pp.
S
AF
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S
IA
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 5
Livestock and Poultry Breeds in the Philippines and
their Economically Important Traits
I. For each livestock or poultry breed found in the Philippines, fill in the
corresponding classification, and give two economically important traits that
are listed in the Quantitative Traits.
B
Breed Name Breeding Economically Geographical
PL
Origin
Goal Important Traits Availability
Philippine
Carabao
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Holstein
Friesian
Paraoakan
S
Anglo-Nubian
AF
Landrace
Brahman
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Boer
Quezon Black
(or Black
Tiaong)
S
White Leghorn
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
II. Quantitative and qualitative traits may vary between breeds. Compute the
mean, sample variance, and CV for the quantitative traits shown, then
answer the questions.
White Leghorn
Long Short
Egg Shell
Egg Haugh Yolk Circum- Circum-
Weight Thickness
No. Unit Color ference ference
(g) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
1 66.90 67.50 5 0.33 15.90 13.60
2 67.50 69.10 6 0.32 15.50 13.50
3 58.80 65.20 5 0.32 15.00 13.45
B
Mean
σ2
PL
CV
-U
No. Unit Color ference ference
(g) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
1 60.20 56.00 6 0.34 15.70 13.50
2 58.50 55.20 5 0.31 15.80 13.40
3 59.45 57.40 5 0.32 15.30 13.30
Mean
S
σ2
CV
AF
Paraoakan
Long Short
Egg Shell
Egg Haugh Yolk Circum- Circum-
Weight Thickness
No. Unit Color ference ference
(g) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
3. Which breed has the highest and lowest variation in long circumference?
B
PL
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S
AF
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S
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
EXERCISE 6
SELECTION AND MATING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
B
for selection should have accurate records of themselves and their relatives.
The success of a selection program, therefore rests on sound record keeping
and reliable evaluation of the genetic worth of an animal. Moreover, selection
PL
is usually done within the breeds.
-U
Crossbreeding, which is a form of outbreeding, refers to the mating of animals
belonging to different genetic groups. The reduction in the average
performance as a consequence of mating related animals is called inbreeding
depression. The phenomenon where the performance of the crossbred
offspring is better than the average of the parental breeds is called hybrid vigor
or heterosis. Knowing the important role in changing the genetic composition
S
of a population, it is important to understand their genetic and phenotypic
effects in a population and how they are measured. Improvement of
performance due to mating systems depends on the heterozygosity or
AF
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Adjust and standardize animal performance records;
-C
MATERIAL
• Calculator
S
METHODS
1. Using the formula for adjusting and standardizing performance records,
IA
adjust data on pigs. Take note of the changes in absolute value when
data are adjusted.
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
5. Records from two different herds are provided. Compute for the
inbreeding coefficient (Fx) of the animals and the average inbreeding
coefficient of the whole herd.
B
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
PL
A. Standardization of Animal Performance Records – adjusting animal
performance records based on known environmental, non-genetic (e.g.,
age) factors to avoid computational biases. Standardized records are
used in selection.
-U
B. Selection is the process of choosing animals to be the parents of the
next generation. Selection is based on normal external appearance,
phenotypic value (performance records) and/or estimated breeding
value. For this exercise we will just perform selection based on
phenotypic value (or performance records).
of the traits selected for, and the addition of these values to give a total
score for all of the traits. The animals with the highest total scores are
then kept for breeding purposes.
C. Mating Systems
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
B
of a genetically superior individual, and formation of inbred lines.
PL
an individual. To measure the degree or intensity of inbreeding is
through an analysis of pedigree records. There are different ways
to compute FX, but the simplest way to compute it:
FX = (1/2) aSD
-U
where
Fx inbreeding coefficient of individual X
asD additive relationship between parents S and D
S Sire (Father)
D Dam (Mother)
S
Relationship Additive Genetic Relationship
(aSD)
AF
Parent-offspring 0.50
Grandparent-grandoffspring 0.25
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
For example:
B
opposite of inbreeding. In general, the performance value lost on
inbreeding depression tends to be restored on outbreeding.
Moreover, outbreeding destroys family, line, or strain formation,
PL
reduce prepotency of an animal, and tends to increase average
phenotypic merit of animals (hybrid vigor).
-U
traits. Mathematically:
Where:
PF1 = Mean performance of the F1 offspring
S
PP = Mean performance of the purebred
parents
AF
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
Examples of crossbreeding
B
c. Three-breed crossing – a two-breed cross female is mated to
another purebred producing a progeny with a breed composition
PL
of 25% Breed A – 25% Breed B – 50% Breed C. All triple
crossbred progenies are also sold.
-U
breeds, and the breeder may develop two specialized crosses:
one line is specialized in paternal traits while the other line is
specialized in maternal traits. The progeny of this cross will have
a breed composition of 25% Breed A – 25% Breed B – 25%
Breed C – 25% Breed D.
S
AF
REFERENCES
BONDOC, O.L. 2008. Animal Breeding: Principles and Practice in the
Philippine Context. UP Press, Philippines. 386 pp.
-C
OLDENBROEK, K., and L. VAN DER WAAIJ. 2014. Textbook Animal Breeding
Breeding: Animal Breeding and Genetics for BSc students. Centre for
Genetic Resources and Animal Breeding and Genomics Group,
Wageningen University and Research Centre, Netherlands. 311 p.
14
Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 6
Selection and Mating System
B
• Adjust and standardize their weaning weight using the standardization
formula. Rank again based on the adjusted weaning weight.
PL
Ranking Adjusted Ranking
Actual
Piglet Actual age before 30-days after
weaning
number (days) adjustment weaning adjustment
weight (kg)
-U
(1) weight (2)
1 9.9 28
2 10.0 27
3 7.6 29
4 6.8 26
5 10.4 32
S
A. Are the rankings using actual records and adjusted records the
same? Why is this so?
AF
-C
S
B. If you are going to select animals, which would you use as your
basis for selection, the actual weight or the adjusted weight? Why?
IA
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
II. Selection Index Method. Rank the following performance tested Landrace
boars using the SI method and select the top 3 pigs on the basis of the
equation below:
ADG
Pig ID FE BFT (cm) SI value Rank
(kg/day)
11 1.083 2.41 1.00
B
12 1.000 2.43 1.48
13 1.039 2.50 1.40
PL
14 1.013 2.21 1.22
15 1.071 2.28 1.21
16 1.152 2.24 1.38
-U
17 1.136 2.08 0.67
18 1.136 2.65 1.31
19 1.097 2.78 1.27
20 1.078 2.58 1.37
S
Computation:
AF
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S
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
III. Mating System. Analyze the mating system of the swine industry as
shown in the figure below. Landrace and Large White breeds are
known for reproduction traits, while the colored breed, Duroc is known
for production and carcass quality traits.
B
PL
Answer the following:
-U
A. What would be the expected reproductive performance of F1
crossbred females compared to its parental purebred? Why do you
S
say so?
AF
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
IV. Heterosis. Records from a dairy farm is presented. Evaluate the effect of
crossbreeding on the performance of the herd by computing the heterosis
for each trait.
Purebred Parents
Mean
Traits Australian Performance Heterosis
Holstein
Friesian Mean of F1
Friesian
Sahiwal
Age at First
45 35 30
Calving (month)
Total Milk Yield
3,100 2,900 3,500
B
(liter / lactation)
Fat Yield (kg) 120 120 130
PL
Computation:
-U
A. Which trait has the highest heterosis (regardless of sign)?
S
AF
C. Did you notice any pattern between the heterosis level and trait
classification?
S
IA
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
Herd 1
Relationship of the Inbreeding
ID No.
Parents Coefficient
111 Parent-Offspring
112 Full sibs
113 Half sibs
114 No relationship
B
115 No relationship
116 No relationship
117 No relationship
PL
118 No relationship
119 Parent-Offspring
120 No relationship
Sum
Mean
Herd 2
ID No.
211
Parents
-U
Relationship of the
No relationship
Inbreeding
Coefficient
S
212 No relationship
213 No relationship
AF
214 No relationship
215 No relationship
216 No relationship
217 No relationship
218 No relationship
-C
219 No relationship
220 No relationship
Sum
Mean
Computation:
S
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
EXERCISE 7
ADVANCES AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR
ANIMAL GENETIC IMPROVEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Advances in reproductive physiology, molecular genetics, statistics and
computer science led to the development of technologies that may increase
genetic improvement through selection. Recall that the response to selection
(aka genetic gain, genetic progress, genetic improvement, genetic lift, genetic
change) per year is summarized in the formula:
B
R per year = Heritability x Selection differential
Generation interval
PL
The use of technologies in aid of genetic improvement may (1) increase
accuracy of selection (often measured as heritability of a trait); (2) increase the
selection differential, and/or (3) decrease the generation interval.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Compute the genetic gain;
2. Understand the role of technologies in genetic improvement; and
3. Classify technologies belonging to advances in statistics and
computing, molecular genetics, or reproductive biotechnology.
S
MATERIAL
• Calculator
AF
METHODS
1. Compute the genetic gain
2. Classify the different technologies given in the worksheet.
3. Identify if the technology has an effect on either heritability of a trait,
selection differential or generation interval.
-C
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
A. Response to Selection
The amount of genetic progress (ΔG) made in one generation of
S
20
Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
When a cut-off value is set for a trait (aka truncation point), a proportion
of animals will be selected from the group. Imagine if your cut-off value
or truncation point is close to the average of the population, then the
average performance of the selected parents may be close (and not
better) from the average performance of the whole group! When the
selection differential is expressed as the average of the selected
parents in standard deviation units, this is called Selection intensity.
Similarly, the “choosier” the animal breeder is, the higher the selection
intensity, the larger the difference between the selected animals and the
average of the population.
B
offspring are born. Generation interval increases if the breeder animal
has a lower reproductive trait and is kept longer in the farm.
PL
B. Technologies in Animal Breeding
1. Reproductive Biotechnologies
These technologies increase the reproductive rate of the animal.
They offer an alternative to natural mating to produce offspring.
-U
2. Molecular Genetic Technologies
These technologies are used to identify candidate genes or regions
in the genome associated with animal productivity, discover
polymorphic sites, and manipulate DNA segments. The primary
application of molecular genetic technologies is seen in genomic and
molecular assisted selection (MAS) whereby, animals are genotyped
S
and selected based on DNA test results. This leads to high accuracy
and may lower generation interval.
AF
C. Examples of Technologies
1. Pronuclear microinjection – this is a technology in transgenics,
whereby the pronucleus of a newly fertilized egg in injected with a
foreign DNA.
S
21
Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
B
RFLP). PCR-RFLP is widely used in DNA testing facilities.
Because the DNA sequence does not change through time, animal
PL
performance can be predicted even before it is able to express the
trait of interest. The list below shows examples of genetic markers
that are associated with economically important traits and are now
widely used as DNA tests in commercial breeding (Dekkers, 2004).
-U
Trait category Genetic marker
Milk quality k-casein
B-lactoglobulin
Meat quality Ryanodine receptor (RYR)
Rendement napole (RN)
S
Reproduction Estrogen receptor (ESR)
Prolactin receptor (PRLR)
AF
Booroola
Growth and composition Insulin like growth factor (IGF)-2
Callipyge
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AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
B
PL
-U
S
https://askabiologist.asu.edu/content/story-dolly
AF
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AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
value (EBV), complex prediction models are used even without the
individual phenotype of the animal.
B
at very low temperature and still maintain their viability.
PL
-U
S
REFERENCES
AF
82: E313-328.
LI, Q., Z. QIN, Q. WANG, T. XU, Y. YANG, and Z. HE. 2019. Applications of
genome editing technology in animal disease modelling and gene
therapy. Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 17:689-
698.
https://www.slu.se/en/departments/clinical-sciences/about-the-
department/reproduktionsbioteknologi/
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 7
Advances and New Technologies for
Animal Genetic Improvement
B
yield is 0.85 and the generation interval of dairy cattle is 4 years, what
will be the expected genetic gain in milk yield per year?
PL
-U
II. Classify the following advances and new technologies whether they
belong to advances in statistics and computing, molecular genetics, or
reproductive biotechnology. Factors that they affect in the genetic
improvement is also identified. Provide a short explanation how the
following technologies could affect these factors.
S
AF
-C
S
IA
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
Technologies
B Classificationa
Factorsb Explanation
1. Best Linear
Unbiased Prediction
(BLUP)
2. Artificial
PL h2 Sd L
Insemination
3. Cloning via Somatic
Nuclear Transfer
4. PCR-based
-U
genotyping technology
5. Multiple Ovulation
and Embryo Transfer
S
(MOET)
6. In vitro oocyte
maturation and in vitro
fertilization
AF
a
7. Genomic EBV
-C
RB – Reproductive Biotechnology; MGT – Molecular Genetic Technology; AS – Advances in Statistics, Biocomputing and
Computer Science
b 2
h – heritability or accuracy of selection ; Sd- Selection differential; L – generation interval
S
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL NUTRITION
EXERCISE 8
NUTRIENT SOURCES: ROUGHAGES, CONCENTRATES AND
SUPPLEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Feed expense accounts for as much as 80% of the total expenses in
livestock and poultry production. Feeds do not only affect farm productivity but
also impact farm profitability. Thus, a good knowledge of feeds influences the
B
success or failure of livestock and poultry farms. Knowing when and how to use
different feeds for different species and classes of farm animals is important for
those engaged in livestock and poultry production.
PL
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the roughages, concentrates, and supplements that are
-U
commonly used in animal feeding; and
2. Classify feeds based on their nutrient composition.
MATERIALS
Guide to nutrient sources (pictures and description of feed ingredients
S
provided)
METHODS
AF
• Study the guide to common nutrient sources provided in class. Observe the
differences in color and shape of the feed samples. Classify each feed
ingredient based on nutrient composition using the feed composition table.
Describe the physical characteristics (e.g. color and shape) of each
-C
ingredient.
• Draw each of the feeds indicated in the worksheet and label it properly
highlighting the distinct characteristics of each.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
S
o Energy feeds
o Animal protein feeds
o Plant protein feeds
c) Supplements - feedstuffs that are mixed with a primary grain and/or
roughage to provide all the nutrients required to support the form of
production for which it is intended
o Amino acid supplements
o Mineral supplements
o Vitamin supplements
B
d) Feed additives – non-nutritive substances added in the feed for
specific purposes such as enzymes, probiotics, prebiotics,
acidifiers, etc.
PL
3. Common Roughages
a) Grasses – normally with 6-10% crude protein and <0.9% calcium
content
-U
o Guinea grass
Distinctive parts: presence of trichomes in nodes
o Para grass
Distinctive parts: presence of trichomes in whole culm
o Napier grass
Distinctive parts: rough leaves (no trichomes in culm)
S
o Star grass
Distinctive parts: presence of roots at nodes
AF
o Alabang X
Distinctive parts: presence of trichomes at nodes
b) Legumes and other forages – normally with 10.5% crude protein or
higher and >0.9% calcium content
-C
o Madre de cacao
o Ipil-ipil
o Centrosema
o Madre de agua
4. Common Concentrates
S
B
packaging, dairy processing, and marine industries (>47% crude
protein; >1.0% calcium; >1.5% phosphorus; <2.5% crude fiber)
o Tankage and meat meal (e.g. pork meal) scraps made from
PL
trimmings, inedible parts, and organs, cleaned entrails,
residues from the production of fats, and certain condemned
carcasses.
-U
o Fishmeal is obtained from clean, dried, ground tissues of
undecomposed whole fish or fish cuttings, with or without
the extraction of oil.
c) Plant protein feeds – derived from end-products of oil extraction
from a group of seeds (<47% crude protein; <1.0% calcium; <1.5%
phosphorus; >2.5% crude fiber)
S
o Soybean meal/ soybean oil meal/soya meal is the by-
product obtained by grinding the cake or flakes which remain
AF
B
the performance and feed efficiency of livestock and poultry.
a) Enzymes are protein molecules that can catalyze biochemical
reactions. (e.g. phytase will act on phytic acid to release bound
PL
phosphorus)
b) Antioxidants are substances that protect the polyunsaturated fatty
acids from destruction by peroxidation.
-U
Definition of terms:
• Crude Fiber - the insoluble carbohydrate fraction consisting
primarily of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
• Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) - indicates the relative energy value
of a feed; the sum of the digestible protein, digestible fiber,
digestible fat, and digestible nitrogen-free extract
S
• Soilage - fresh herbage cut and chopped in the field and fed to
animals in confinement.
AF
REFERENCES
Table 8.1 Nutrient Composition of Common Feed Ingredients (as fed basis) (PHILSAN, 2010).
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 8
Nutrient Sources: Roughages, Concentrates and Supplements
Name:___________________________ Score:______________
Lab Section:______________________ Date :______________
B
mineral supplement. Describe the physical characteristics (color & shape) of
each ingredient.
PL
-U
S
Identification: Ground corn Identification: Ground feed wheat
Description: Description:
_______________________________________ ___________________________________
_______________________________________ ___________________________________
-C
S
IA
Description: Description:
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
B
Description: Description:
PL
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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Identification: Whey Powder Identification: Pork Meal
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Description: Description:
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_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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Description: Description:
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
B
Description: Description:
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_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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Identification: Limestone (Fine) Identification: Cassava Meal
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Description: Description:
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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Description: Description:
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
Make an illustration of each of the roughages specified below. Label the distinct
characteristics of each.
B
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Common name: Napier grass
Scientific name: ___________________
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Scientific name: ___________________
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S
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B
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Common name: Alabang X Common name: Star grass
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Scientific name:____________________
S Scientific name: ___________________
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EXERCISE 9
METHODS OF FEED EVALUATION AND QUALITY CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
Feed quality control is important in the feed and animal industry. The
first consideration in feed quality control is the quality of feed ingredients or raw
materials. Use of inferior quality raw materials results in inferior quality mixed
feeds and a feed manufacturer who does not maintain the quality of products
may easily lose customers.
B
Whereas physical examination of both feed ingredients and mixed
feeds is the quickest, easiest, and most effective tool for quality control,
chemical and microbiological assays are used to verify and ensure the quality
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of the feeds.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
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1. Identify the components of an unknown feed mixture;
2. Differentiate adulterants from feed ingredients;
3. Identify the apparatus used in the determination of proximate
composition of feeds; and
4. Convert proximate composition of feeds from as-fed to dry matter basis.
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MATERIALS
• Guide to common nutrient sources (PDF file).
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METHODS
• Study the guide to common nutrient sources and the supplemental
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SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
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• Adulterants
Adulterants are substances/impurities of cheaper value and low
quality that are intentionally added to the feeds/feed ingredients
to change its physical or chemical characteristics. Normally,
adulterants are added to add bulk or weight to the feed. The
following are examples of adulterants in feeds for monogastric
animals:
o Fine sand - used to increase feed weight.
B
o Saw dust - has high gross energy content but low digestible
energy content due to the high amount of cellulose; cellulose
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is indigestible to monogastric animals due to the absence of
endogenous cellulase.
o Corn cobs - also contain high amount of cellulose (same with
saw dust)
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o Rice hull - contains high amount of cellulose and lignin which
is also indigestible to monogastric animals.
sample.
Apparatus: Oven
o Ether extract is the sum of all the ether-soluble materials. It
is determined by extracting a finely ground dried sample with
boiling ether and then distilling off the ether and weighing
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the residue. This residue is mostly fat and fatty acid esters,
but includes all ether-soluble substances, such as waxes,
essential oils, and pigments. On the other hand, ether
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B
of the sample is determined by a process called Kjeldahl
method which involves sample digestion, distillation, and
titration.
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Apparatus: Kjeldahl apparatus
o Ash is an estimate of the inorganic content of a feed sample.
The analysis involves igniting the sample in the furnace
which burns off all organic matter to carbon dioxide and
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water. The residue remaining after combustion represents
mineral content of the feed sample.
Apparatus: Muffle furnace
o Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) represents the sum of the
remaining undetermined portions of the feed and is meant
to represent the more digestible portion of carbohydrates
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such as starch and other soluble sugars. It is the only
component of proximate analysis that is determined only by
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85 19 19 (100)
= ; 𝑋= = 22.35%
100 𝑋 85
B
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III. Microbial Evaluation
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Microbiological tests are used to determine the presence of
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Salmonella spp. and mycotoxin-producing fungi such as Aspergillus
flavus and Fusarium in feeds. Aflatoxins are the most widespread
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applied to the feed sample is the “pass/fail” test that does not
distinguish the types of mycotoxins. This is used for a quick
determination to see whether the problem exists. A confirmatory
procedure is employed such as thin layer chromatography (TLC) or
high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) when necessary.
S
REFERENCES
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AOAC. 1993. Official Methods of Analysis. 14 th ed. Assoc. Office. Anal. Chem.
Washington, D.C.
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 9
Methods of Feed Evaluation and Quality Control
Name:______________________________ Score:______________
Lab Section:____________________ Date :________________
B
1. Mixture A components:
a. ______________________
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b. ______________________
c. ______________________
2. Are there any adulterants in the
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mixture? _________________
3. If yes, what is/are the adulterant/s
present in the mixture?
__________________________
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4. Mixture B components:
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a. ______________________
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
5. Are there any adulterants in the
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mixture? _________________
6. If yes, what is/are the adulterant/s
present in the mixture?
__________________________
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7. Mixture C components:
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a. ______________________
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
8. Are there any adulterants in the
mixture? _________________
9. If yes, what is/are the adulterant/s
present in the mixture?
__________________________
B
proximate analysis.
Component Apparatus
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Moisture content
Crude ash
Crude protein
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Crude fiber
Crude fat
Moisture content
Crude ash
Crude protein
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Crude fiber
Crude fat
NFE
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___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
EXERCISE 10
FEED FORMULATION FOR FARM ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
The aim in feed formulation is to provide the animals with the required
nutrients in proper amount and proportion that will result in the most economical
production. The species, age and the amount and type of work or product
produced by the animal, determine the amount and proportion of nutrients
required. Feeding standards serve as aid in formulating rations for livestock
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and poultry animals. These are tables that indicate the nutrient requirements of
different animals that were established based on results of several research
studies.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
3. Use feeding standard and feed composition tables;
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4. Formulate feeds using Pearson square and trial and error methods; and
5. Evaluate rations based on nutrient composition of ingredients and
nutrient requirements of farm animals.
MATERIALS
Feeding standards
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Nutrient composition tables
Calculator
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METHODS
• Using the feeding standards, determine the nutrient requirements of farm
animals indicated in the answer sheet.
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animal. If the ration does not satisfy the nutrient requirements of the animal,
adjust the formulation using Trial and Error method.
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SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Example:
A farmer needs a fattener ration with 14% CP and 3000 kcal
ME/kg using yellow corn, rice bran, soybean oil meal, salt, limestone,
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dicalcium phosphate, vitamin premix and mineral premix. How much of
each feed ingredient should be used to satisfy the requirements of the
animals?
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The crude protein of the arbitrary ration is as follows (using the feed
composition table):
Ingredient Parts/100 CP %CP
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Yellow corn 60.0 0.0805 4.8300
Rice bran D1 22.5 0.1214 2.7315
Soybean oil meal 12.0 0.4765 5.7180
Salt 0.3 0 0
Limestone 3.0 0 0
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Dicalcium phosphate 2.0 0 0
Vitamin premix 0.1 0 0
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Limestone 3.0 0 0
Dicalcium phosphate 2.0 0 0
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14 – 13.2795 = 0.7205
iii. Determine the difference in the protein content of
soybean oil meal and yellow corn. 0.4765 – 0.0805 =
0.3960
iv. Divide the difference obtained in (ii) by the difference in
(iii)
0.7205 ÷ 0.3960 = 1.8194 (approx. 1.82)
Final Ration:
Kcal
B
% CP of Kcal ME/kg
Ingredient Parts/100 %CP
ration ME/kg of
ration
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Yellow corn
58.18 8.05 4.68 3350 1949.03
(60-1.82)
Rice bran D1 22.50 12.14 2.73 3000 675.00
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Soybean meal
13.82 47.65 6.59 2950 407.69
(12+1.82)
Salt 0.30 0 0 0 0
Limestone 3.00 0 0 0 0
Dicalcium
2.00 0 0 0 0
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phosphate
Vitamin premix 0.10 0 0 0 0
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only yellow corn and soybean oil meal are available. How much of each
ingredient should be used?
Steps:
i. Draw a square.
ii. Insert the desired level of %CP (16) at the middle of the square.
iii. Place yellow corn (8.05% CP) on the upper left corner and
soybean oil meal (47.65% CP) on the lower left corner.
iv. Subtract the %CP in YC from the desired %CP (16 – 8.05 =
7.95) and place the difference in the corner of the square
diagonally opposite YC, this amount is for soybean oil meal.
v. Subtract the desired %CP from the %CP in soybean oil meal
(47.65 – 14 = 33.65) and place the difference on the corner of
the square diagonally opposite soybean oil meal. This amount
is for yellow corn.
vi. Get the percentage composition as shown below:
16
B
SM
47.65 7.95 (7.95/39.60)*100 = 20.08% SM
39.60
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Case II. When 3 or more feeds are involved:
The same farmer will formulate hog grower ration (16% CP) using
yellow corn, rice bran and soybean oil meal.
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Steps:
i. Choose 2 ingredients that can be grouped (YC and RB can be
grouped together because both are energy sources).
ii. Decide on the proportion of feeds in the mixture (YC and RB
2:1)
iii. Compute for the %CP of the mixture.
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Yellow corn 8.05 x 2 = 16.10
Rice bran 12.14 x 1 = 12.14
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16
55.18%.
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Phosphorus, avail., % 0.46 0.42 0.39
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Table 10.2. Nutrient recommendations for egg-type chicken (PHILSAN, 2010).
Starter Grower Developer Layer 1
Layer 2
Nutrient 0-6 6-12 12-18 18-42
42-cull
weeks weeks weeks weeks
Crude protein, % 19.60 16.00 14.30 17.20 16.20
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ME, kcal/kg 2800 2750 2700 2750 2750
Lysine, % 0.90 0.69 0.70 0.78 0.78
Methionine, % 0.36 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.33
Met + Cys, % 0.70 0.58 0.58 0.68 0.65
Calcium, % 0.98 1.13 0.95 3.50 3.70
Phosphorus, avail., % 0.48 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.41
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Table 10.3. Nutrient recommendations for swine (PHILSAN, 2010).
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Pre-
Creep Starter Grower
starter Finisher Gesta Lacta
Nutrient booster 23-40 41-60 Boar
8-22 ≥60 kg -ting -ting
2-8 kg kg kg
kg
Crude
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P, avail.,
0.54 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.50
%
REFERENCES
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 10
Feed Formulation for Farm Animals
Name:_________________________________ Score:_______________
Lab Section:______________ Date :_______________
B
a ration with 18% CP using soybean meal and yellow corn. How
much of each ingredient (in kg) should be used in order to satisfy
the protein requirement of the animal?
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B
ration
Yellow corn
60.0
(local)
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Soybean meal 20.0
Rice bran D1 15.8
Limestone 2.2
Dicalcium
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1.5
phosphate
Salt 0.3
Vitamin premix 0.1
Mineral premix 0.1
TOTAL 100.0 - -
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1
Based on the % Lys and ME content of ingredients in Table 8.1
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Did the formulation satisfy the % Lys and ME requirements of Grower Pig?
If not, do the necessary adjustments for it to satisfy the requirements of the
animal (Show your calculations in the space provided).
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Final Ration:
Energy
% Lys Energy
(kcal
Ingredient Amount % Lys of (kcal
ME/kg) of
ration ME/kg)
ration
Yellow corn (local)
Soybean meal
Rice bran D1
B
Limestone
Dicalcium
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phosphate
Salt
Vitamin premix
Mineral premix
TOTAL 100.0
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Discussion: What are the factors that must be considered in formulating diets
for farm animals? Briefly explain each.
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
EXERCISE 11
SLAUGHTER AND FABRICATION
INTRODUCTION
The ultimate goal of any meat producer is to produce high quality meat.
The manner of slaughtering is one of the many factors affecting meat quality
that deserves serious consideration. Slaughtering and meat handling cannot
improve the quality of meat brought about by breeding, feeding and
management. Improper procedures used before and during slaughter
operation can impair the quality of the meat and lower the yield. Fabrication
prepares the meat for marketing. Proper cutting of the carcass into standard
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wholesale and retail cuts enables the separation of meat based on its value.
The yield of the meat cuts would help estimate the revenue from a slaughtered
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livestock or poultry.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
Video Presentations
Slaughter of Pig
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1L81MeX1E_DX6DPDjLwPa_f1m9
ON2Ubch/view?usp=sharing)
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Slaughter of Carabao
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1F3UMyKZwSXiBI92db7RefkZaTa
yrxsoj/view?usp=sharing)
Dressing of Chicken
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(https://drive.google.com/file/d/14_SXjG5D8OvjfQFxqqDh_55Tc2r
CImTs/view?usp=sharing)
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METHODS
The student will watch the videos on slaughtering and chicken dressing,
and fabrication of a pork carcass. Based on the knowledge gained from the
videos and the supplemental information, the student will accomplish the
worksheet.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
A. Slaughter
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chickens are the easiest to slaughter. The procedure is easy to carry out and
it does not require complicated equipment.
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Dressing of Chicken
1. Restrain the chicken by holding the wings and feet/shanks with both
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hands. Proper care in handling must be observed to avoid bone
dislocation or fractures.
2. Position the chicken with head downward and feet upward and then
prepare for bleeding.
3. Bleed the chicken by cutting the throat just behind the lower jaw at
the left side of the neck.
4. Wash chicken with tap water. This will remove the dirt. This is to allow
S
the scald water to penetrate the feathers and reach the skin evenly.
5. To scald the bird, hold it at the shank and dip it into the hot water (59
to 60°C) with agitation for 30-60 seconds until the water penetrates
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above the chest and loosen the crop, esophagus, and the trachea.
Insert your hand at the larger horizontal cut at the vent and loosen the
organs, taking care not to rapture or cut intestines to avoid
contaminating the meat.
After all organs have been loosened from the chicken, grasp the
gizzard, and gently but firmly pull it from the body cavity. The rest of
the intestines and internal organs will follow except the heart,
reproductive organs, kidney, and lungs, which must be removed
separately. The lungs are imbedded in the ribs and are removed by
raking through the ribs with the fingers.
9. Wash the carcass thoroughly with clean water and dip in sanitizing
solution.
10. Clean the giblets.
11. Chill the carcass using ice water bath.
B. Fabrication
B
primal cuts are further sliced into retail cuts. For instance, loin when cut into ½
to 1-inch thickness produces pork chops.
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Meat from different species can be identified through lean and fat color,
and lean texture. It is important to know the physical characteristics of meat to
avoid mistakes in buying.
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Criteria for Species Identification
Measures of Yield
The yield helps estimate the income that can be derived from the sales
of the meat.
REFERENCES
ABERLE, E.D., J.C. FORREST, D.E. GERRARD and E.W. WILLIS. 2001.
Principles of Meat Science 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,
Iowa. 354 p.
B
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS.
(1991). Guidelines for slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing,
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FAO Animal Pro-duction and Health Paper. FAO-UN, Rome, Italy.
IBARRA, P.I. 1983. Meat Processing for Small and Medium Scale Operations.
College of Agriculture, U. P. Los Baños. College, Laguna. 418 p.
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KINSMEN, D.M., A.W. KOTULA and B.C. BREIDENSTEIN (eds.). 1994.
Muscle Foods: Meat, Poultry and Seafood Technology. Chapman & Hall,
Inc., New York. 573 p.
LAWRIE, R.A. 1985. Meat Science. 4th ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 267 p.
S
SAVELL, J.W. and G.C. SMITH. 2000. Laboratory Manual for Meat Science
7th ed. American Press, Massachusetts. 230 p.
AF
Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 11
SLAUGHTER AND FABRICATION
B
PL
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S
AF
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B
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Source: Thrainer (2019) Source: Berch (2007)
2. Fill out the table below with the physical characteristics of the meat
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shown in the picture.
1. Given the data on pig slaughter, compute for the break-even price per
kg of the resulting carcass.
6. Break-even carcass
cost/kg = (4/5)
EXERCISE 12
PROCESSING OF MEAT PRODUCTS
INTRODUCTION
Meat products are processed not only to lengthen the shelf life but also
to improve the sensory characteristics such as flavor, texture, and appearance.
In the process of preserving meat products, the physical appearance, chemical
composition, and consistency of the meat may change but as long as its
palatability and fitness for human consumption is maintained, preservation is
achieved.
B
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student must be able to:
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4. Relate the importance of meat processing to the value of the finished
products.
MATERIALS
S
Video presentation of tocino making
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uXOU0lrmS10SKYnOp6ASuQuCpu2lz
dvf/view?usp=sharing)
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METHODS
The instructor will discuss the basic principles of meat preservation and
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methods of processing.
Tocino Manufacture
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SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
B
Meat processing involves physical and chemical treatment methods
that alters the properties of fresh meat. It goes beyond simple cutting of meat
PL
with subsequent cooking. The benefits of processing are preservation,
increased availability of a wide variety of meat products, improved palatability
and product quality, and safety. Meat processing technologies include the
following:
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Technical Processes
Cutting/chopping/comminuting
Mixing/tumbling
Stuffing into meat into casings, molders or other containers
Heat treatment
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Chemical/Biochemical Processes
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Salting/curing
Utilization of spices and non-meat additives
Fermentation and drying
Smoking
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The requisite for meat processing is to use good quality meat as starting
material. Spoilage that has set in raw meat cannot be undone by any
processing technique. It is also important that other ingredients are of premium
quality and the recommended level of inclusion is strictly followed. This is
especially true for curing salts.
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B. Curing Ingredients
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B
REFERENCES
PL
ABERLE, E.D., J.C. FORREST, D.E. GERRARD and E.W. WILLIS. 2001.
Principles of Meat Science 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,
Iowa. 354 p.
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IBARRA, P.I. 1983. Meat Processing for Small and Medium Scale Operations.
College of Agriculture, U. P. Los Baños. College, Laguna. 418 p.
Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 12
PROCESSING OF MEAT PRODUCTS
B
extra sheets if necessary).
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S
AF
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B. Product Yield. Using the following data, compute for the product yield.
C. Costing
B
1. Using the provided information, compute for the total cost
production of the finished product.
PL
Cost of
Quantity Unit Cost of
Ingredients
Items (refer to the Item1
formulation)
Used2
(PhP)
(PhP)
Salt
Sugar
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20.00/kg
60.00/kg
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Curing Salt 40.00/kg
MSG 165.00/kg
Ingredient Cost - -
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2. If the meat will be sold with 30% mark up, how much would the
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Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 13
PROCESSING OF MILK PRODUCTS
INTRODUCTION
Milk, being nature’s nearly perfect food is intended for the nourishment
of the young. It is described as nearly perfect because it contains all the
essential nutrients with the exception of adequate amounts of Vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) and iron. Since milk contains nearly all essential nutrients, it
provides an excellent medium for all types of microorganisms. Therefore, right
after milk is drawn from the cow’s udder, it should be kept cold at 4°C or lower
B
if not to be processed immediately. This delays the undesirable microbiological
and enzymatic changes that could cause milk spoilage. The common locally
processed dairy products in the Philippines are fresh milk, choco milk, kesong
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puti, yoghurt, pastillas and ice cream. Milk is processed to extend its shelf life,
add value by improving the taste, texture, appearance, and other quality
attributes and to make available a variety of milk products for the consumers to
choose from.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student must be able to:
MATERIALS
Video Presentations
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Processing of Pastillas
S
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/15AylwDQ-
Sp8NN5Gq0Va8LiSTbRDXarj1/view?usp=sharing)
IA
METHODS
The instructor will also provide the current prices of white cheese
ingredients and packaging materials.
Based on the knowledge gained from the videos and the supplemental
information, the student will accomplish the worksheet.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
General Milk Treatments are treatments done to the milk before they
are processed into different products. They are as follows:
B
about 37˚C. This warm temperature is very favorable for the growth
and multiplication of microorganisms which can cause milk spoilage.
PL
Immediate cooling is done to delay microbiological and enzymatic
changes thus preventing spoilage if milk is not to be processed right
away.
3. Separation. This involves separation of fat-rich portion (cream) from
the nonfat portion or skim milk. Separation is done either by:
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a. Gravity - this is based on the difference in density between
the fat rich portion (cream) and the nonfat portion (skim milk)
b. Mechanical (centrifugation)
4. Standardization. The purpose of this treatment is to provide
products of uniform fat contents. For example, liquid milk with 3.25%
fat, cream cheese with 20% fat, chocolate drink with 2 % fat, and
others.
S
5. Pasteurization. This heat treatment aims to destroy microorganisms
that cause disease and to destroy other microorganisms and
AF
1. Weigh the fresh milk for soft cheese manufacture and put milk into
casserole or cheese vat.
2. Add to the milk table salt equivalent to 3.0% of the weight of the
milk. Stir milk until the salt is completely dissolved.
3. With clean cheese cloth, filter the milk into a casserole.
4. Pasteurize the milk at 720C for at least 15 seconds using direct or
double boiler method.
5. Cool the milk immediately after pasteurization down to 400C.
6. While stirring the milk, add rennet at a rate of 5-7 grams per 100
liters of cheese milk.
7. Cover the milk and set it aside undisturbed for 20-30 minutes.
8. Test the milk for sign of completeness of coagulation.
9. When the milk has been completely coagulated, cut the coagulum
(roughly a square inch) using cheese knife or stainless-steel knife.
10. Then leave the curd for another 10 minutes.
11. After 10 minutes, stir slowly the curd for 10 minutes.
12. After stirring leave the curd undisturbed for 2-3 minutes, then start
removing 40-50% of the whey.
13. Scoop or pour the curd with some whey into the cheese mold.
14. Cover the tray with clean cheese cloth and drain the cheese at room
B
temperature for 2-3 hours or at refrigeration for 4-6 hours.
15. After draining, cut the cheese into blocks of desired size/weight.
16. Wrap each block of cheese.
PL
Pastillas Processing
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2. Heat the mixture under low flame with continuous mixing until the
mixture is thick.
3. Cool, then shape into desired sizes and roll into dry sugar.
4. Pack.
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Products from Milk
AF
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S
IA
Figure 13.1. Schematic diagram showing how various milk products are
.’derived from milk.
REFERENCES
ARBUCKLE, W.S. 1986. Ice Cream. 4 th ed. The AVI Publishing Co., Inc.
Westport, Connecticut. 482 p.
B
PL
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S
AF
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S
IA
Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 13
PROCESSING OF MILK PRODUCTS
B
PL
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S
AF
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Across Down
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2. It is produced by agitating the cream which 1. It is a dairy product made from coagulated,
allows fat droplets to clump together until it compressed, and usually ripened curd of milk.
solidifies. 2. It is the liquid by-product of churning cream
IA
1. Product Yield. Calculate the yield (%) of white cheese that can be
produced from the given data.
Ingredients Kg
B
% Yield
PL
2. Costing. Using the given information, compute the following:
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Unit Cost
Inclusion Total Cost
Item per kg
(kg) (PhP)
(PhP)
4. Processing Cost - -
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(PC) = (20% of IC )
B
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S
AF
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IA
3. Ingredient Cost - -
B
(IC = 1+2)
4. Processing Cost - -
PL
(PC = 20% of IC )
6. Breakeven Price - -
(BP = Total Cost/Yield)
Yield: 217 grams
7. Selling Price
(15% mark-up)
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Show your computation here:
AF
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IA