Agri 21 Lab Manual PDF

University of the Philippines Los Baños
College of Agriculture and Food Science

Institute of Animal Science
AGRICULTURE 21
Introduction to Animal Science
L A B O R AT O R Y M A N U A L

Copyright @2020 by the Institute of Animal Science
University of the Philippines Los Banos
College, Laguna
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced
or copied in any form or in any means (graphic, electronic or mechanical including
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Published and Printed by: Institute of Animal Science

College of Agriculture and Food Science
University of the Philippines Los Banos
College, Laguna 4031
(63-049) 536-2547/3426
Agriculture 21
Introduc*on to Animal Science 1
Laboratory Manual
FOREWORD
The laboratory portion of Agriculture 21 (Introduction to Animal Science) aims

to provide the students the practical concepts of animal science supplementing the
lecture component of the course.
This laboratory manual contains 13 exercises with clear learning outcomes/

objectives. The laboratory activities, methods as well as illustrations and supplemental
information were updated and improved to make it interesting and easier to
understand.
The revision of this manual was anchored on the need for remote learning
module and outcomes-based education program with the following learning objectives:
- To know the basic concept and principles of animal physiology, breeding,

nutrition, slaughtering, processing and marketing of animal products as they
relate to the animal productivity;
- To demonstrate basic skills in formulating simple animal rations, slaughtering
animals and processing of product; and
- To explain the significance of animal science as a field in agriculture.

I would like to recognize the effort of the faculty members who contributed to
the previous edition of this manual; Dr. Ninfa P. Roxas, Prof. Melani dP. Palad, Dr. Sonia
P. Acda, Dr. Virginia L. Barraquio and Dr. Oliver Abanto. I also wish to acknowledge the
faculty members who contributed in revising this manual.

AGRI21: Introduction to Animal Science
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 1
THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY AND BODY MEASUREMENTS
OF FARM ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
Anatomy is a branch of science that deals with form and structure. Its main
objective is to understand life better, that is, to elucidate processes that constitute life.
Physiology (study of functions of body parts) is commonly pursued more or less
independently; anatomy and physiology; however, are both facets of the total study of
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the animal body. Thorough knowledge of structure imparts much information about its
function. However, a mere description of structure without describing function would
be of little practical value. Conversely, it is impossible to gain a thorough
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understanding of function without the basic knowledge of the structure involved.
Practical applications of the knowledge of external anatomy (emphasis on

surface form and structure) are fundamental for efficient animal production systems.
It is very important for a student in animal science to be familiar with the distinguishing
external features of the different species of farm animals. Such species of farm animal
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would be of great help in their identification and classification. These have immediate
importance in judging, research work, buying and selling animals, handling and
veterinary work.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:
1. Identify morphological differences in livestock and poultry species.

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2. Calculate the body weight estimate of animals using different methods.
MATERIALS
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● Illustration of livestock and poultry external morphology

● Video demonstration on how to take body measurements
METHODS
A. External Anatomy
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1. Locate and identify the different external parts of the body in illustrations/
materials provided with the manual (refer to supplemental information)
2. Observe the similarities and differences between species and sex.
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3. Familiarize yourself with the other husbandry terms (refer to supplemental

information).
B. Body Weight Determination Methods
1. Animals are restrained properly before taking any measurements at the

restraining chute. To get the body length, measurements are taken at the poll
of the head up to the base of the tail, for cattle, carabao and pigs. To get the
heart girth, measurements are taken around the chest area which is behind
the forearm and shoulders. The tape measure is wrapped around the chest
area. The body length of poultry is measured from the ventral side of the body
from the hackle area (clavicle) up to the end of the keel bone near the vent
Copyright @2021 by AA Rayos, RSA Vega, PP Sangel, JMUPH Quimio, JVA Garcia
Animal Physiology
area (for this exercise will not be measured). The heart girth of poultry is
measured by also wrapping the tape measure around the chest area but the
wings are extended outward (also will not be measured in this exercise.
Using the data provided on hearth girth and body length of 5 different animals,
get the estimated body weight (kg) of the pig and cattle by extrapolating with
the values shown in table 1, and equations provided below.
a. Pigs:
Formula 1: LW = -84.068 + 0.902 (HG) + 0.711 (BL) (Sandro, 2014)
Formula 2: LW = -92.732+1.002(HG)+ 0.479 (BL) +0.250(FG)
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(Caubalejo, 2014)
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b. Cattle/Carabao: LW= -466 +4.70 (HG)
2. Weighing scale. Livestock and poultry species use different weighing

scales. Picture of weighing scales
3. Eyeball estimation - (brief description here)
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Common Animal Husbandry Terms
A. General Terms
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1. Parturition – act of giving birth
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a. Calving – act of giving birth in cows

b. Farrowing – act of giving birth in sows
c. Kidding – act of giving birth in goats
d. Foaling – act of giving birth in mares
e. Lambing – act of giving birth in ewes
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2. Gestation – pregnancy time from conception to birth

3. Conception – act of fertilization
4. Dam – female parent
5. Sire – male parent
6. Fertility – ability to produce fertilizable ova and to provide proper

environment for and initiating cell division and embryonic development.
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Ability to produce large number of sperm capable of fertilization.
7. Fecundity or prolificacy – ability to give birth to offspring frequently or

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numerous young at frequent intervals.
8. Sterility – inability to produce normal young

9. Impotency – failure to copulate
10. Puberty – sexual maturity, as exhibited by first heat or ovulation
11. Weaning – the process of separating the young from its dam
12. Weanling – young animal, after separation from its dam
Animal Physiology
B. Cattle (Bos taurus Linnaeus / Bos taurus indicus Linneaus) and Carabao
(Bubalus bubalis Linnaeus)
1. Ox – ruminant member of the bovine family, or sometimes the male

used for draft purposes
2. Cattle – domesticated bovine animals
3. Bull – male breeding ox of any age
4. Cow – mature female ox, one that has given birth
5. Heifer – young female ox under three years of age, usually one that has not
yet given birth
6. Steer – male ox castrated before sexual maturity
7. Stag – male ox castrated after sexual maturity
8. Calf – young ox of either sex, under one year of age
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9. Bull calf – young male calf under one year of age
10. Carabull – carabao bull, caraheifer; caracow; etc.
11. Bullock – usually a stag for draft purposes
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12. Caraheifer – young female carabao under three years of age usually one
that has not yet given birth
13. Caracow – mature female carabao, one that has given birth
14. Transmitting ability – the ability of an animal to pass on either good or
bad traits to its progeny
15. Proven sire – bull about whom one have sufficient unselected information
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to indicate his transmitting ability
C. Horse (Equus equus Linnaeus)
1. Stallion – mature male horse; if the stallion is used for breeding purposes,
the term studhorse is preferred
2. Mare – mature female horse; broodmare is the term for the female horse
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used for breeding purposes
3. Colt – young male horse usually up to 3 years old
4. Filly – young female horse usually up to 3 years old
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5. Foal – young horse of either sex below one year of age

6. Gelding – horse which was castrated while young
7. Yield mare or dry mare – one which has not produced any young during
the breeding season
8. Ridgling – stallion with only one testis or none in its scrotum
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9. Equitition – horsemanship, the art of riding on horseback
D. Swine (Sus scrofa domesticus Erxleben)
1. Boar – male pig of any age

2. Sow – mature female pig, one that has given birth
3. Gilt – young female pig under one year of age, usually one that has not
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yet given birth

4. Shote – young pig of either sex, weighing approximately 60 kg
5. Barrow – male pig which was castrated while young; or a pig that was
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castrated before the secondary sex characters have developed

6. Stag – male pig castrated after sexual maturity
7. Weanling – young pigs separated from the sow, about 5 weeks old
8. Suckling – young pigs from birth up to weaning
9. Litter – group of pigs born in one farrowing
10. Litter size – the number of young pigs born in one farrowing
E. Sheep (Ovis aries) and Goat (Capra hircus Linnaeus)
1. Ram – male sheep of any age for breeding purposes

2. Ewe – female sheep of any age
3. Lamb – young sheep of either sex below one year of age
Animal Physiology
4. Wether – sheep male sheep which was castrated while young preferably
between one to three weeks of age
5. Shearling – yearling sheep with two teeth
6. Fleece – wool covering the sheep
7. Billy goat or buck – male goat of any age
8. Pelt – wool and skin of a sheep
9. Doe – female goat of any age
10. Kid – young goat of either sex below one year of age
11. Wether goat – male goat castrated before the secondary sex characters
have developed
F. Meat and Meat Products
B
1. Meat of different animals
a. Beef – cattle, 1 year old and above
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b. Veal – cattle, less than 1 year old
c. Pork – pig
d. Venison – deer
e. Mutton – sheep, 1 year old and above
f. Lamb – sheep, less than 1 year old
g. Chevon – goat
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h. Horsemeat – horse
i. Carabeef; caraveal – carabao
j. Game meat – game animals (wild hunted)
2. Meat – properly dressed flesh derived from mature animals in good

condition at the time of slaughter
3. Slaughtering – from fasting through stunning, bleeding up to skinning and
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evisceration
4. Butchering – from splitting and quartering, to cutting the carcass into the
retail cuts
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G. Poultry
1. Poultry – a collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic

service to man; can refer also to dressed carcass of fowls
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2. Economically important poultry species:
a. Chicken – Gallus gallus domesticus

b. Duck – Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard); Cairina moschata (Muscovy)
c. Turkey – Meleagris gallopavo
d. Pigeon –Columba livia
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e. Quail – Coturnix coturnix

f. Geese – Anser anser; Anser cygnoides
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3. Chick – young chicken while in the down stage

4. Rooster – a male fowl one year old or over
5. Cockerel – a male fowl less than one year old
6. Capon – a caponized male, readily distinguished by the undeveloped comb
and wattles
7. Pullet – a female fowl less than a year old.
8. Drake – a male duck.
9. Duck – a female duck.
10. Duckling – young duck in the down stage.
11. Plumage – the feathers of a fowl.
12. Poult – the young of the domestic turkey, properly applied until sex
can be distinguished.
Animal Physiology
Table 1.1. Body measurements and estimated weights for pigs (Villegas, 1965)
Body Heart Girth (cm)
Length
(cm) 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
80 36 40 48 60 75 94 118 141 170
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90 42 47 55 67 82 101 123 148 177
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100 50 55 63 77 90 110 126 156 184
110 59 64 72 84 99 117 130 165 193
120 69 74 82 94 109 120 140 175 203
130
140
80
93
85
98
94
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118
105
124
120
133
130
151
153
173
186
190
215
227
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150 107 111 120 132 147 165 187 212 241
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160 121 128 135 146 161 178 202 227 255
170 137 142 151 162 177 196 218 243 272
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Figure 1.1. External parts of carabao
Animal Physiology
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Figure 1.2. External parts of cattle (Scanes, 2011)
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Figure 1.3. External parts of goat (Scanes, 2011)
Animal Physiology
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Figure 1.4. External parts of pig (Scanes, 2011)
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AF
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Figure 1.5. External parts of chicken
Animal Physiology
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Figure 1.6. External parts of duck
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REFERENCES:
FRANDSON, R.D., WILKE W.L., and FAILS A.D. 1986. Anatomy and Physiology of
Farm Animals. 7th Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. A John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Publication 536 pp.
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ITIS. 2019. Retrieved last January 9, 2019 from the Integrated Taxonomic
Information System on-line database, http://www.itis.gov.
PARKER, B. A. 1992. Genetic Improvement. In: Carabao Production in the

Philippines. Ranjhan, S. K. and P. S. Faylon. Editors, PHI/86/005 field
Document No. 13. DOST Book Series No. 126: 27-62.
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SCANES, c. 2011. Fundamentals of Animal Science. DELMAR CENGAGE

Learning, USA. 514 pp.
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VILLEGAS, V. E. 1965. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. McCullogh Printing

Company, Philippines. 330 pp.
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 1
THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY AND BODY MEASUREMENTS
OF FARM ANIMALS
Name: Score:
Lab Section: Date:
B
I. Write the similarities and differences between male and female poultry species
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Poultry Female Male
Chicken
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image from http://bit.ly/1QypyPy
image from
https://www.quora.com/How-can-you-
tell-the-sex-of-a-chicken
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1. Chicken (describe
the following)
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a. Comb and Wattle

b. Shape of
Feathers
c. Presence of Spur
d. Tail Feather
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e. Body framework
Duck Female Male

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Animal Physiology
2. Duck (describe the

following)
a. Crown
b. Tail feather
c. Body Framework
d. Sound
Image from Image from:

http://www.pcaarrd.dost.gov.ph/home/portal/index.p https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo
hp/bids-and-awards-committee- ns/3/3f/Amerikanische_Pekingenten_2013_01
section/scholarships/transparency/announcements/ %2C_cropped.jpg
B
hnrda-aanr-2017-2022/hnrda-aanr-2017-2022-
1/1245-2017-2021-duck-r-d-roadmap/file
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II. Write the morphological differences in small and large ruminants
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Ruminant
1. Small Ruminant Sheep Goat

(describe the
following):
a.
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AF
Image from Image from

http://adlaidafarmer.blogspot.com/2009/02/raising- https://bai.gov.ph/index.php/kambing/categ
sheep-in-philippines.html ory/18-kambing
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b. tail
c. cover
d. horns
e. glands
f. lip
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Animal Physiology
2. Large Ruminant Cattle Carabao

(describe the
following):
Image from Image from

https://businessdiary.com.ph/2386/how-to- https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/8324623
raise-cattle-in-the-backyard/ 12341732100/
a. skin
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b. horn
c. stature/build
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III. Body Weight Determination
Pig - HG: 121 cm, BL: 117 cm

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Cattle - HG: 208 cm
Method Pig ID# Cattle ID

Weight based on estimation
Method I (Table extrapolation)
Method II (Formula)
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Actual Weight (kg) 110.6 427
A. Compute the accuracy (%) of the body weight estimation for pig and cattle
1. Body measurement Method I:

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2. Body measurement Method II:
Animal Physiology
Guide Questions:
a. Using the figures below, put a line on the location where body
measurements heart girth (HG) and body length (BL) was measured.
Example Figure 1. Cattle Figure 2. Pig
B
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Example: image from https://in.pinterest.com/pin/332914597448809930/
Figure 1. image from https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/655273814511472481/
Figure 2. image fromhttps://www.netclipart.com/isee/omxxmJ_pig-clip-art-
realistic-realistic-pig-clip-art/
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b. Which method gave the closest estimate of the actual body weight of pigs
and cattle?
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c. What are the factors that influence the differences in the body weight
estimation?
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B. If the price of live pig is PhP. _____, using the weights computed above,
how much did the farm lose/gain based on body measurement
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C. If the price of live cattle is PhP. _____, using the weights computed above,
how much did the farmer lose/gain based on body measurement
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 2
PULSE RATE, RESPIRATION RATE AND BODY TEMPERATURE (PRT)
OF SOME FARM ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of the pulse rate, frequency of respiration and body temperature

(PRT), and the methods of measuring them is indispensable especially in examining
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and observing an apparently sick animal. Functionally, abnormality in any of these
indicators could be a sign of disorder in the animal. Students in basic animal science
courses are expected to know these parameters and how to measure them in farm
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animals.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
animals
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1. Learn the appropriate methods in determining PRT of farm
2. Interpret PRT values obtained in relation to the condition of farm animals
MATERIALS
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Video demonstration on how to get the PRT parameters of livestock species.
Illustrations on the location where to get PRT of the animals.
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METHODS
Respiration Rate Determination (Video CLip)

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1. Without disturbing the animal, count and record the rising of the hind flank
for one minute. Get two readings and compute for the average. The
respiration rate in poultry is not measured but panting should be observed. If
panting occurs, respiratory problems may have occurred.
Cattle image from https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/655273814511472481/
Pig image fromhttps://www.netclipart.com/isee/omxxmJ_pig-clip-art-realistic-
realistic-pig-clip-art/
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Goat image from https://www.netclipart.com/isee/iiiiJio_transparent-

background-goat-clipart/
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Animal Physiology
2. Pulse Rate Determination

Carabao/Cattle. Carabao and Cattle Locate and feel the expansion of the
coccygeal (a), carotid or submaxillary artery. Count and record the pulse
rate for 30 seconds, then, multiply by two to get the pulse rate per minute. Get
two readings and compute the average. Note: The figure (a) below shows that
the coccygeal artery is also the site for blood collection.
a) coccygeal artery b) carotid artery c) submaxillary

artery
B
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Sheep/Goat. Stand alongside of the goat or sheep. Carefully hold the muzzle
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in one hand then locate and feel the expansion of the femoral artery at the
medial side or underside of the hindlimb. Count and record the pulse rate for
30 seconds, then multiply by two to get the pulse rate per minute. Get two
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readings and compute for the average.

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Pig. Adult pigs are restrained first placed in a restraining chute. Make sure
the pig is acclimatized first with the surrounding before taking any
measurements. Piglets can be restrained by hugging the animal using one
hand and the other hand pressing the head close to the body wall. Other
restraining methods are shown in the figure below. Measure the heart beat
of the pig by auscultation, that is, by using a stethoscope held in place at the
chest area. This should be done with a partner for beginners. Count and
record the heartbeat for 30 seconds, then, multiply by two to get the number
of beats per minute. Get two readings and compute for the average.
Animal Physiology
image from https://ouv.vt.edu/content/dam/ouv_vt_edu/sops/large-
B
animal/sop-swine-injection-subcutaneous.pdf
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3. Body Temperature Determination (Video Clip)
Carefully insert the thermometer into the rectum for a period of about two
minutes; make sure that the pointed end of the thermometer is closed to the
rectal body wall. However, this is not commonly practiced as the method will
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cause stress in animals. Infrared thermometers are now being used in farms.
Chicks body temperature is measured using ear thermometers on the vent. Get
two readings and compute for the average.
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AF
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sheep image fromhttps://goats.extension.org/assessing-the-physical-

condition-of-the-goat/
chick image from
http://en.aviagen.com/assets/Tech_Center/BB_Resources_Tools/Pocket_G
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uides/Ross-Broiler-Pocket-Guide-2015-EN.pdf
image from
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A. Pulse
Each systolic contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, forces more blood into
the arteries and arterioles, which are already filled, with blood under diastolic
pressure. This additional blood at each systole dilates the arteries. The wave of
systolic pressure, which starts at the heart and spreads throughout the arterial
network, is called the pulse or pulse wave. It can be felt in arteries near the surface
of the body, particularly if the artery can be pressed against an underlying bone
Animal Physiology
or other solid structure. The pulse is determined to measure the rate or heartbeat.
The character of the pulse can be of value in the diagnosis of circulatory disease.
B. Respiration
Respiratory system refers to the structures involved in the exchange of gases

between the blood and the lungs and other organs system. The respiratory
system consists essentially of the lungs and the passages that enable air to get
into and out of the lungs. These passages include the nostrils, nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx and trachea. Supplying oxygen to the blood and removing carbon
dioxide from the blood are the two major functions of the respiratory system.
C. Body Temperature
B
The body temperature of an animal is the resulting balance of heat production
and heat dissipation. The temperature of the body of a homoeothermic animal,
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such as farm animals, remain almost exactly constant, within +/ - 1 degrees
Celsius, day in and day out except when an individual develops a febrile illness.
Stability of body temperature is a prerequisite for high productivity in animals.
Rectal temperature is a fair index of the internal temperature of the animal. The
body temperature varies somewhat with exercise and extremes of temperature
of the surroundings as well as age, sex, season, time of the day, feeding, drinking
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and digestion.
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Animal Physiology
Table 2.1. Normal PRT values of livestock and poultry species (Philippine
Recommends for Animal Health Care, 2007)
SPECIES PULSE RATE RESPIRATION Temperature (°C)

(beats per min) RATE
(breaths per min)
Cattle (adult) 40–60 12–16
Calf 90 – 100 25–45

(3 mo to 1 yr)
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Goat (adult) 70–80 12–16
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Kid 100 – 120 12–20
(1 to 6 mo)
Sheep (adult) 70–80 12–16
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38.5 – 39.5
Lamb 95 – 115 16–18

(1 mo to 6 mo)
Carabao (adult) 54 24–27

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Adult Pigs (more than
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3 mos) 65-90 24-27
38.5 – 39.5
Piglets
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(less than 3 mos)

120-140
25-40
Chicken 180-440 15-30 40.5-43.0
Duck - 16-28 40.7
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REFERENCES:
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FRANDSON, R.D., WILKE W.L., and FAILS A.D. 1986. Anatomy and Physiology
of Farm Animals. 7th Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. A John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Publication 536 pp.
PHILIPPINE RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HELATHCARE. 2008. Philippine

Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and
Development (PCAARRD), DOST, Los Baños, Laguna.
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 2
PULSE RATE, RESPIRATION RATE AND BODY TEMPERATURE (PRT)
OF SOME FARM ANIMALS
Name: Score:
Lab Section: Date:
A. Complete the table to get the Actual PRT values
B
PULSE RATE RESPIRATION
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(beat per RATE (breath TEMPERATURE
SPECIES CONDITION
minute) per minute (°C)
1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean
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Cattle/
Goat/Sheep
Pig
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1. Explain the possible effects of the following factors to an animals PRT.
a. Animal size
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b. Animal age
c. Breed/ Strain
d. Health
e. Environmental Conditions
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Animal Physiology
2. Why is there a need for proper handling or restraining to get PRT?
B
3. What other methods/tools can be used to get the PRT of the animals
without disturbing or inflicting pain?
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Example: chicks- panting are observed and chick behavior
a. pigs
b. cattle
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AF
4. Explain briefly your interpretation of the health condition of the animals

tested?
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Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 3
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
INTRODUCTION
Reproductive physiology is one of the most dynamic biological sciences and its
rapid development in the field remains great. There is a need to find socially
acceptable ways of reducing the reproductive capacity of the world’s exploding
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population. Alongside with this is the need to maintain at maximum capacities the
reproductive performance of our domestic animals to provide adequate nutrition for
this increasing hu-man population. These goals can be achieved only if detailed
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knowledge of the different phases of reproduction is understood and recent
development along this line is ap-plied in practical ways. New techniques of increasing
reproductive efficiencies such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer cannot be
fully exploited until the basic principles on which they are based upon are completely
understood.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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1. Identify the different structures and functions of the male and female
reproductive systems
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2. Differentiate structure and functions of the reproductive tract on different
animal species
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MATERIALS
Specimens of male and female reproductive tracts of goat/sheep, pig, and

chicken
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Picture charts of male and female reproductive systems of chicken, pig, and
goat/sheep
METHODS
1. Using the specimens of the male and female reproductive system as a

model, the different structures are identified.
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2. A video presentation will be used to discuss the different internal structures.

3. Student will identify the functions of the structures.
4. Using the chart, similarities and differences in the reproductive system of
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the different animal species are pointed out.

5. Using the available specimens, the different structures and attribution to
functions are described.
A. The Male Reproductive System and their Function
1. Testis is the paired primary sex organ of the male and its main functions are
for the site of sperm maturation and the secretion of the male sex hormone,
Animal Physiology
androgen. Testes in birds are located within the body cavity; in mammals,
they lie outside of the abdominal cavity in a pouch of skin called the scrotum.
Scrotum is the external covering of the testes. It protects the testes from
direct mechanical injuries. It also provides the testes an environment which
is a few degrees (2-5°C) cooler than the body temperature. This is not
present in poultry species.
2. Penis is an erectile tissue whose main function is to drain the urinary bladder
of urine. It is an organ of erection and ejaculation and serves to intro-duce
the spermatozoa into the vagina. In poultry species, it may be intromit-tent
(Anseriformes) and non-intromittent (Galliformes)
B
3. Excurrent Ducts
Epididymis is a long convoluted tube, which connects the vasa efferentia
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of the testis with the ductus deferens (vas deferens). It serves as a place for
maturation of the spermatozoa before ejaculation.
Ductus Deferens (vas deferens) is a muscular tube, which merges with the
epididymis. It extends upward to the abdominal cavity and finally empties in
the urethra. During ejaculation, this muscular tube propels the spermatozoa
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from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct in the urethra.
Urethra is a canal starting from the junction of the ampulla and ends at the
opening of the penis. It serves as a common passage of semen and urine.
4. Accessory Sex Glands/ Organs (not present in poultry species)

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a. Ampulla is an enlarged portion of the ductus deferens just before its
entrance into the urethra. It serves as a temporary storage of sperm until
ejaculation time. This is absent in pigs.
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b. Seminal Vesicles are paired glands, which are located on either side
of the ampulla. They produce a secretion high in fructose, which acts
as vehicle for sperm transport.
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c. Prostate Gland is an unpaired gland, which more or less completely

surrounds the urethra. It produces a viscous secretion, which
stimulates sperm activity and gives the semen its characteristic odor.
This is absent in goat.
d. Cowper’s Gland/ Bulbourethral Gland is a small-paired gland located

on either side of pelvic urethra. This gland responsible for the boar taint.
This becomes underdeveloped when pigs are castrated at an early age.
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B. The Female Reproductive System and their Function

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1. Ovary is a paired, almond shaped organ situated near the uterine horn
just behind the kidney. It is the site for ova maturation and secretes the
female sex hormones like estrogen.
2. Uterine Tubes/Oviduct/Fallopian Tubes is a structure that conducts the

ova from each ovary to the respective horn of the uterus. It serves as a
site of fertilization and site of early embryonic development. This is well
developed in poultry species for egg production and divided into different
parts:
Animal Physiology
a. Infundibulum is a portion of the uterine tube adjacent to the ovary

whose expanded form is like a funnel-shaped structure. It picks up
the egg when released by the ovary at the time of ovulation.
b. Magnum is the site for albumen secretion.
c. Isthmus is the side for outer and inner shell membrane secretion.
3. Uterus is of the domestic mammals consists of a body, a cervix (neck),

and two horns. The uterus is a tubular structure extending from the
termination of both fallopian tubes to a point where the horns of the uterus
joins the body of the uterus and continues to the cervix. Its function
includes the following: site of implantation and serves in a nutritive and
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productive capacity for the developing embryo. In poultry species, this is
known as the shell gland where eggshell is formed.
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Cervix is considered the neck of the uterus. It serves as a passage way of
semen. It protects the uterus from foreign material. During pregnancy, it
secretes a sticky mucus seal.
4. Vagina is a tube extending from the cervix down to the vulva. It receives the
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penis in copulation and provides a passageway for the fully developed fetus
during parturition. In poultry species, the cuticle or “bloom” is secreted onto
the shell for easy passage in the cloaca (urodeum) or vent and also serves
as protection for the egg.
5. Vulva serves as the common passage way for the products of reproduction
and urine.
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6. Clitoris, a rudimentary organ situated ventrally to the vulva, is homologous
to the penis in the male.
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Figure 3.1. Mammalian Male Reproductive System. Ductus

deferens (DD), Ampulla (A), Prostate gland (PG),
Animal Physiology
Seminal Vesicle (SV), Sigmoid flexure (SF),

Prepuce (PF), Penis (GP, SP) (Akers & Denbow,
2013)
2 3
1
2 9
B
4
5
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6
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Figure 3.2. Mammalian Male Reproductive System. (1) testes,

(2) Epididymis, (3) Ductus deferens, (4) Ampulla,
(5) Seminal Vesicle, (6) Prostate gland, (7) Cowper’s
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gland, (8) ureter and Urinary Bladder
(image from JMUPHQUIMIO, IAS-CAFS)
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Figure 3.3. Mammalian Female Reproductive System
Animal Physiology
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Figure 3.4. Avian Male Reproductive System (Jacob & Pescatore (nd)
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Ovary
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Infundibulum
oviduct
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Magnum
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Isthmus
colon
uterus
vagina
cloaca
Figure 3.5. Avian Female Reproductive System (image from

Dr. JMUPHQUIMIO, IAS-CAFS)
Animal Physiology
REFERENCES:
FRANDSON, R.D., W. LEE WILKE, and A. DEE FAILS. 2009. Anatomy

and Physiology of Farm Animals. 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. 536 pp.
SENGER P. 2012. Pathways to Pregnancy and Parturition. 3rd edition.

Current Conceptions Inc., USA.
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Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 3
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Name: Score:
Lab. Section: Date:
Label the structure and identify the functions (40 pts.):
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2 3
1
2
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5
6
7
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8
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A. Male (Goat)
Label Structure Function
1
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4
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5
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Animal Physiology
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B. Female (Swine)
Label Structure
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10
11
12
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13
14
15
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Animal Physiology
16
17
18
B
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19
21 20
C. Female (Chicken)
22
23
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Label Structure Function
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16
17
18
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19
20
21
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22
23
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II. Comparative anatomy of the reproductive tract (60 pts.):
A. Male (indicate if present or absent)
Structure Goat Pig Chicken
Testis
Scrotum
Animal Physiology
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Ampulla
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Cowper’s/Bulbo-
urethral gland
B
Bladder
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Penis
Sigmoid flexure
Glans penis
Sheath/Prepuce
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B. Female (indicate if present or absent, if absent, give its equivalent)
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Structure Goat Pig Chicken
Vulva
Clitoris
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Vagina
Urinary bladder
Cervix
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Body of the uterus
Horns of the uterus

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Oviducts
Ovary
Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 4
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
INTRODUCTION
The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its associated glands. This
tract, a tubular structure for the ingestion and digestion of food, has an ultimate purpose
of providing efficient assimilation of nutrients necessary for life. The gastrointestinal
tract provides the most readily accessible route for substances to enter the body. It
carefully selects these substances through a variety of mechanism, including food
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selection (palatability), rapid rejection of toxic substances (increased rate of passage)
and gastric digestion of substances before they have access to the more permeable
intestinal tract. Knowledge of the comparative anatomy and physiology of the digestive
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system of the different species of farm animals is a necessity in providing proper feeds
that can be efficiently utilized by the animals.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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1. Identify the different parts of the digestive system of the simple-stomach,

modified simple-stomach, herbivorous monogastric, and the compound-
stomach animals;
2. Describe the function of the different parts of the digestive system; and
3. Explain the basic differences in the digestion process between non-
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ruminants and ruminant animals.
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MATERIALS
Picture charts of the digestive system of non-ruminants and ruminants

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METHODS
1. Classify the different types of digestive systems provided and describe the
distinguishing features of each type.
2. Compare the organs composing the digestive system of the three species
of animals provided and give some possible sources of variation as to the
type of feed each species would be adapted to.
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A. Definition of Terms
1. Digestion is a mechanical breakdown of feed and the consequent chemical

changes brought about by the digestive juices, bacteria and protozoa.
2. Prehension refers to the seizing and conveying of feed into the mouth.
3. Mastication or chewing is the mechanical breakdown of feed into finer

particles. The importance of mastication lies on the fact that (a) finely divided
feed presents a greater surface area than coarse feed for the action of
digestive enzymes and (b) mastication allows the feed to be well mixed with
the saliva thus facilitates swallowing.
Animal Physiology
4. Insalivation is the mixing of feed with the saliva.
5. Bolus formation (in ruminants) is the formation of “balls” of feed out of the
masticated feed particles.
6. Rumination is the process, which permits an animal to forage and ingest

feed rapidly, then complete chewing at a later time. It embraces those
mechanical factors of digestion whereby feed in the stomach is regurgitated,
remasticated, reinsalivated and reswallowed.
B. Parts of the Digestive System and their Functions
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1. The main functions of Mouth and Buccal Cavity are for prehension,
mastication, and insalivation. In ruminants, this part of the digestive tract is
used in the bolus formation. The mouth may also serve as a defensive and
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offensive weapon.
2. Pharynx is a common passage for feed and air. Inspired air crosses the
pharynx to enter the larynx while feed crosses the pharynx to enter the
esophagus.
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3. Esophagus is a muscular tube which connects the stomach to the mouth.
The crop found in poultry is an invagination of the esophagus and its the
temporary storage of food.
4. Stomach is a muscular organ which is the site for feed storage, grinding and
mixing of feed, absorption, enzymatic action and microbial fermentation.
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5. Small Intestine is the site of further digestion and absorption of certain
products from the stomach digestion. The small intestine is composed of
three parts, the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
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6. Large intestine is the site of water absorption, storage of waste material, and
bacterial digestion of fiber. The cecum and colon are parts of the large
intestine.
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C. Accessory Glands and their Functions
1. Salivary Glands provide mucus which aid in the swallowing process. In

some animals, saliva contains the enzyme, ptyalin.
2. Pancreas produces digestive enzymes needed in the digestive processes

that take place in the small intestine.
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3. Liver secretes bile needed for the emulsification of fat in the small intestine.
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D. Types of Animals according to Structure of their stomach
1. Monogastric or simple-stomach animals are animals with one

compartment stomach such as pigs.
2. Herbivorous monogastrics such as horse have a functional cecum

enabling them to utilize roughages as nutrient sources.
3. Modified simple stomach - poultry species has the gizzard (for mixing and
grinding feed), the crop (for storage of feed) and the proventriculus (secretion
of gastric enzymes for digestion).
Animal Physiology
4. Ruminants or compound stomach animals (cattle, carabao, sheep and

goat) have a four-compartment stomach which is composed of the following:
a. Rumen is the main site of microbial fermentation of feeds.

b. Reticulum regulates the passage of feed from the rumen to the
succeeding compartments. It also aids in the regurgitation of feed back
to the mouth. It is also a site of microbial fermentation.
c. Omasum further grinds and reduces the feed into finer particles be-fore
the feed enters the abomasum.
d. Abomasum is the true stomach of ruminants. It is glandular and has
similar functions as that of the monogastric stomach.
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REFERENCES:
FRANDSON, R.D., W. LEE WILKE, and A. DEE FAILS. 2009. Anatomy and
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Physiology of Farm Animals. 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 528 pp.
ROXAS, D. B. 2006. Animal Feeds and Feeding: With Emphasis on the Tropics.
University Publications Office. University of the Philippines Los Baños.
College, Laguna.
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Animal Physiology
AGRICULTURE 21
EXERCISE 4
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Name: Score:
Lab Section Date:
I. Complete the table below.
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Organ of Distinguishing
Farm Animal Classification Prehension Feature
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Pig
Sheep
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Horse
Cattle
Chicken
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II. Identify the classification of each digestive system, give an animal
example and correctly label the illustrations.
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1. Type of digestive system/ animal example:
_______________________________________________
(1)
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(3)
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(2) (4)
Animal Physiology
2. Type of digestive system/ animal example:
______________________________________________
(5)
(6)
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(7) (9)
(8)
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3. Type of digestive system/animal example:
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_________________________________________
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(10)
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(11)
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Animal Physiology
4. Type of digestive system/animal example:
_______________________________________________
(12)
(13)
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(14) (15)
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III. Properly label the different parts of the digestive systems that are shown
be-low and give the function of each item.
(1,5)_________________________________________________________
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(2,10_________________________________________________________
(3)___________________________________________________________
(4)___________________________________________________________
(6)___________________________________________________________
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(7)___________________________________________________________
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(8)___________________________________________________________
(9)___________________________________________________________
(10,11)_______________________________________________________
(12)__________________________________________________________
(13)__________________________________________________________
(14)__________________________________________________________
(15)___________________________________________________________
AGRI 21: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL BREEDING
EXERCISE 5
LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY BREEDS IN THE PHILIPPINES AND
THEIR ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT TRAITS
INTRODUCTION
Animal breeding is aimed at the improvement of animals by changing
their genetic abilities for economically important traits such as the quantity,
quality, efficiency, and value of their products. The choice of the most
appropriate animal genetic resources to be used in a given environment or
production system should be the first step when developing a breeding
program. The next question to be answered is which traits should be improved
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in the next generation. A breeding goal or objective is the specification of the
traits to be improved including the emphasis given to each trait; it gives the
direction in which we want to improve the population.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the importance of having a functional recording system;
2. Describe the different livestock and poultry breeds locally available;
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3. Classify livestock and poultry breeds based on origin, geographical
availability, and utilization;
4. Identify economically important traits in livestock and poultry;
5. Measure qualitative and quantitative traits of farm animals; and
6. Compute the measures of variability of economically important traits.
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MATERIAL
• Calculator
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METHODS
1. Given the list of animal breeds in the worksheet, classify them based
on utilization, origin, and geographical availability.
2. Based on their utilization, identify two traits that you want to improve.
3. Using the given data on quantitative traits, compute the mean, variance,
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and coefficient of variation.
A. Animal Performance Recording (APR) is the systematic

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measurement of various indicators of animal performance and the use

of that information in decision-making process. However, before animal
performance recording takes place an animal identification system
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should be first established. Animal identification system (AIS) form the

core component of any animal recording system; all animals measured
and recorded should be identifiable. AIS should be universal, can last
the life time of the animals, and have sufficient room for additional
animals.
1. H and W’s of APR
a. Why record: to collect information about the animal population

to aid making selection decisions (genetic improvement).
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Copyright 2020 by CAS Estrella, OL Bondoc, JMD Dominguez, and AJ Salces
ANIMAL BREEDING
b. What to record: animal pedigree and animal performance (or

traits) indicated in the breeding goal or traits associated in
attaining the genetic improvement of a particular trait.
c. Who will record: anyone with sufficient training and experiences
to use the measuring and recording devices.
d. When to record: particular stage of the life cycle of an animal
that the traits is expressed to the fullest.
e. How to record: use of simple procedures and equipment to
measure many animals should be preferred over complex tools
List of breeds that are locally available in the Philippines can be seen in the
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Agriculture 21 Lecture Module
B. Classification of Breeds based on their Breeding Goal or
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Utilization
1. Meat
2. Eggs
3. Milk
4. Wool/fleece
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5. Adaptation
6. Draft power
7. Aesthetic value (fancy-type)
8. Dual-purpose/ Multipurpose
C. Classification of Breeds based on Origin

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1. Native or indigenous
2. Exotic or introduced
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D. Classification of Breeds based on Geographical Availability

1. Local
2. Transboundary
E. Trait
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A distinguishing characteristic or a particular feature, typically belonging

to an individual, in which man has an interest with the animal.
Types of Traits
1. Qualitative Traits – traits that fall into clearly distinguishable

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categories. These traits are controlled by a single gene and can

easily be fixed in the population. Moreover, environment has little to
no effects in expression of these type of traits. Furthermore,
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qualitative traits are usually used for development of breed

uniformity and standards.
• Examples are coat color and pattern, plumage color and
pattern, presence of horn, number of teats, shank color,
skin color, egg shell color, and yolk color.
2. Quantitative Traits – traits which do not fall into discrete categories

but are measured on a continuous scale. Most of the economically
important traits in livestock and poultry breeds are of this type.
These traits are generally controlled by very many genes and are
highly affected by the environment.
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ANIMAL BREEDING
Classification of Quantitative Traits
a. Reproduction Traits – feature traits that determine the

number and viability of the progenies.
• Examples are litter size, litter birth weight, birth
weight, percent fertility, calving difficulty, percent
survival from birth to weaning.
b. Production Traits – features that cover performance of

the animal in productive terms but must be defined as to
the period of time involved; traits that pertain to product
or output of livestock and poultry.
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• Examples are average daily gain, feed efficiency,
feed conversion ratio, live backfat thickness, age at
90 kg, total milk yield or milk production, rate of lay,
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and age at first egg, draft power, and pulling ability.
c. Product Quality Traits – features that affects the

acceptability and economic value of the animal product.
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• Examples are dressing percentage, lean
percentage, carcass fat depth, marbling score, rib or
loin eye are, meat tenderness, milk fat yield or
percentage, milk protein yield or percentage, lactose
percentage, yolk index, and albumen index.
d. Type and Conformation Traits – features of a more

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aesthetic nature where personal preference is important
with/without bearing on animal performance.
• Examples are stature, body depth, feet and leg
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score, rear udder width and depth, and teat

placement.
e. Adaptation and Robustness traits – traits which make

an animal more fit under the conditions of its
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environment.
• Examples are disease resistance and heat
tolerance.
F. Population Measures
Continuous variables such as quantitative traits are described by a
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mean (x) and measures of variation. To describe the variation, sample

standard deviation (σ), sample variance (σ2) and coefficient of variation
(CV) can be used.
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1. Mean – calculated by simply adding up values from a population of

animals and dividing by the number of individual animals. In a
mathematical notation, the formula for a mean is:
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ANIMAL BREEDING
Where:
x̅ (read as x bar) = mean
Xi = value of one observation
n = number of observations
The formula uses summation notation a mathematical shorthand

denoting a sum. The sigma (Σ) in the formula indicates that the
elements to the right of the sigma are to be added together.
2. Importance of Variation in Animal Breeding
The mean indicates the population average, but it reveals nothing
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about how individuals deviate from the average. It tells nothing
about the uniformity of the animal population; it tells nothing about
variation in the population.
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In an animal breeding context, variation usually refers to the
differences among animals within a population and it is the source
of genetic improvement. If there is little variation in a trait,
identification of superior animals will be difficult because no animals
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is much better than any other. It is important not only to have
variation in a population, but also to have some way to measure it.
3. Measures of Variation
a. Variance – a mathematical measure of variation.
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Where:
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σ2 = Variance
x̅ = mean
Xi = value of one observation
n = number of observations
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b. Standard Deviation – a mathematical measure of

variation that ca be thought of as an average deviation
from the mean. The square root of the variance.
Where:
σ = Standard deviation
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σ2 = Variance
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c. Coefficient of Variation – is the standard deviation by

the mean. It is useful for comparing the degree of
variation from one trait to another, even if the units are
different.
CV = σ / x̅
Where:
σ = Standard deviation
x̅ = Mean
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ANIMAL BREEDING
4. Sample Problem
The following are records of five animals for birth weight and
weight. Compute the mean, variance, standard deviation, and
CV.
Animal ID Birth Weight (kg)

1 0.9
2 0.7
3 0.8
4 0.7
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5 1.1
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Mean: (0.9 + 0.7 + 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.1 / 5) = 0.84 kg
Variance: [(0.9 – 0.84)2 + (0.7 – 0.84)2 + (0.8 – 0.84)2 + (0.7 –

0.84)2 + (1.1 -0.84)2] / (5 – 1)
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= [(0.06)2 + (-0.14)2 + (-0.04)2 + (-0.14)2 + (0.26)2] / 4
= 0.112 / 4
= 0.028 kg2
Standard Deviation: (0.028)(1/2) = ±0.167 kg

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Coefficient of Variation: 0.167 kg / 0.84 kg = 0.20
On average, birth weight is 0.84kg. With a standard deviation of

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0.167 kg, data is distributed between 0.67 (0.84 – 0.167 kg) and
1.01 (0.84 + 0.167 kg). Coefficient of variation of 0.20 may be
compared with CV values of other traits.
G. Basic Genetic Model for Quantitative Traits

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Variation in the performance (or quantitative traits) among animals can

be explained using the basic genetic model:
σ2P = σ2G + σ2E

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Phenotypic Variance (σ2P) – a measure of performance for a trait in an

individual
Genetic Variance (σ2G) – the effects of the genetic make-up on the
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performance
Environmental Variance (σ2E) – the effects that external (non-genetic)
factors have on animal performance
Generally, not all variation in observed phenotypes or performance is a

result of differences in genetic make-up. Part of the observed trait
variation is due to the differences in the environment.
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ANIMAL BREEDING
REFERENCES
BONDOC, O.L. 2008. Animal Breeding: Principles and Practice in the

Philippine Context. UP Press, Philippines. 386 pp.
BOURDON, R.M. 2000. Understanding Animal Breeding. Prentice Hall, USA.

538 pp.
FAO (FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION). 2007. The State of the

World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. FAO,
Rome. 524 pp.
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OLDENBROEK, K., and L. VAN DER WAAIJ. 2014. Textbook Animal Breeding
Breeding: Animal Breeding and Genetics for BSc students. Centre for
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Genetic Resources and Animal Breeding and Genomics Group,
Wageningen University and Research Centre, Netherlands. 311 p.
WILLIS, M.B. 1991. Dalton’s Introduction to Practical Animal Breeding.
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Blackwell Science, United Kingdom. 166 pp.
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ANIMAL BREEDING
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 5
Livestock and Poultry Breeds in the Philippines and
their Economically Important Traits
Name: ___________________________________ Score: ___________

Lab Section: ___________ Date: ___________
I. For each livestock or poultry breed found in the Philippines, fill in the
corresponding classification, and give two economically important traits that
are listed in the Quantitative Traits.
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Breed Name Breeding Economically Geographical
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Origin
Goal Important Traits Availability
Philippine
Carabao
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Holstein
Friesian
Paraoakan
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Anglo-Nubian
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Landrace
Brahman
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Boer
Quezon Black
(or Black
Tiaong)
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White Leghorn
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Itik Pinas (IP) -

Kayumanggi
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ANIMAL BREEDING
II. Quantitative and qualitative traits may vary between breeds. Compute the
mean, sample variance, and CV for the quantitative traits shown, then
answer the questions.
White Leghorn
Long Short
Egg Shell
Egg Haugh Yolk Circum- Circum-
Weight Thickness
No. Unit Color ference ference
(g) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
1 66.90 67.50 5 0.33 15.90 13.60
2 67.50 69.10 6 0.32 15.50 13.50
3 58.80 65.20 5 0.32 15.00 13.45
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Mean
σ2
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CV
Rhode Island Red

Long Short
Egg Shell
Weight Thickness
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(g) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
1 60.20 56.00 6 0.34 15.70 13.50
2 58.50 55.20 5 0.31 15.80 13.40
3 59.45 57.40 5 0.32 15.30 13.30
Mean
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σ2
CV
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Paraoakan
Long Short
Egg Shell
Weight Thickness
(g) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
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1 53.10 63.80 7 0.33 14.75 12.40

2 52.20 65.40 8 0.33 14.85 12.60
3 54.40 66.50 8 0.33 14.65 12.50
Mean
σ2
CV
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1. What equipment or apparatus are used to measure the abovementioned

traits?
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a. Egg weight: ________________________________

b. Haugh unit: ________________________________
c. Yolk color: ________________________________
d. Shell thickness: ________________________________
e. Long circumference: ________________________________
f. Short circumference: ________________________________
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ANIMAL BREEDING
2. Which breed has the heaviest and lightest egg weight?
3. Which breed has the highest and lowest variation in long circumference?
4. Give two specific factors which contribute to variation in these traits.
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ANIMAL BREEDING
EXERCISE 6
SELECTION AND MATING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The tools available for animal breeders in improving animal

performance are selection and mating system.
Selection is a process in which some individuals are chosen over

others as parents of the next generation. Selection can be natural (due to
nature) or artificial (imposed by man). For selection to be effective, candidates
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for selection should have accurate records of themselves and their relatives.
The success of a selection program, therefore rests on sound record keeping
and reliable evaluation of the genetic worth of an animal. Moreover, selection
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is usually done within the breeds.
Inbreeding and outbreeding are systems of mating that result to change

in the genetic composition of farm animal population. Inbreeding is the mating
of closely related individuals while outbreeding is the opposite of inbreeding.
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Crossbreeding, which is a form of outbreeding, refers to the mating of animals
belonging to different genetic groups. The reduction in the average
performance as a consequence of mating related animals is called inbreeding
depression. The phenomenon where the performance of the crossbred
offspring is better than the average of the parental breeds is called hybrid vigor
or heterosis. Knowing the important role in changing the genetic composition
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of a population, it is important to understand their genetic and phenotypic
effects in a population and how they are measured. Improvement of
performance due to mating systems depends on the heterozygosity or
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homozygosity of the animals in the breeding population.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Adjust and standardize animal performance records;
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2. Select animals using the selection index method;

3. Identify benefits and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding; and
4. Compute heterosis and inbreeding coefficient.
MATERIAL
• Calculator
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METHODS
1. Using the formula for adjusting and standardizing performance records,
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adjust data on pigs. Take note of the changes in absolute value when
data are adjusted.
Adjusted 30 days weaning weight = (actual weight/actual age) *30
2. A set of animal performance records are provided in the worksheet,

using the following selection index formula below to identify animals that
will be selected. SI = 240 + 110 (ADG in kg/day) – 50 (FE) – 19.7 (BFT
in cm), where ADG refers to average daily gain, FE for feed efficiency,
and BFT for backfat thickness
10
ANIMAL BREEDING
3. A mating scheme of producing market pigs is presented. Explain the

principles of selection and mating system in this mating scheme.
4. Records from a dairy farm is presented. Evaluate the effect of

crossbreeding on the performance of the herd by computing the
heterosis for each trait.
5. Records from two different herds are provided. Compute for the
inbreeding coefficient (Fx) of the animals and the average inbreeding
coefficient of the whole herd.
B
PL
A. Standardization of Animal Performance Records – adjusting animal
performance records based on known environmental, non-genetic (e.g.,
age) factors to avoid computational biases. Standardized records are
used in selection.
-U
B. Selection is the process of choosing animals to be the parents of the
next generation. Selection is based on normal external appearance,
phenotypic value (performance records) and/or estimated breeding
value. For this exercise we will just perform selection based on
phenotypic value (or performance records).
Using the selection Index

S
The best method for selecting for more than one trait is selection index.
This method involves the separate determination of the values for each
AF
of the traits selected for, and the addition of these values to give a total
score for all of the traits. The animals with the highest total scores are
then kept for breeding purposes.
Selection index is an index or combination of weighting factors and

genetic information on more than one trait. The weighted combination
-C
of traits defining aggregate breeding value is sometimes called the

breeding objective.
C. Mating Systems
Strategies for mating animals selected to be parents is called mating

S
systems. These include inbreeding and outbreeding. These two

strategies are based on pedigree relationship.
IA
Pedigree are information on the genotype or performance of ancestors

and/or collateral relatives of an individual. Pedigree relationship is
relationship between animals due to kinship. Examples include full-sib,
half-sib, and parent-offspring relationships.
Recall that, genetic differences can be attributed to three gene actions:

additive, dominance, and epistasis. Non-additive gene action (e.g.,
dominance, and epistasis) depends on gene combination / interaction,
and therefore, any changes due to inbreeding depression and heterosis
cannot be inherited or transmitted to the next generation. While additive
gene action reflects the independent effect of each gene, the breeding
11
ANIMAL BREEDING
value of an animal is due to additive gene effects, and half can be

transmitted to the next generation.
1. Inbreeding results from the mating of related animals. Inbreeding

occurs in the progeny of related parents. If the parents are inbred
but are unrelated, then their progeny are not inbred.
The consequences of inbreeding include exposure of undesirable

gene combinations (sometimes they are lethal); and inbreeding
depression. On the other hand, the practical uses of inbreeding are
increased prepotency, detection of lethal genes, concentrated use
B
of a genetically superior individual, and formation of inbred lines.
Inbreeding coefficient (FX) a measure of the level of inbreeding in
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an individual. To measure the degree or intensity of inbreeding is
through an analysis of pedigree records. There are different ways
to compute FX, but the simplest way to compute it:
FX = (1/2) aSD
-U
where
Fx inbreeding coefficient of individual X
asD additive relationship between parents S and D
S Sire (Father)
D Dam (Mother)
S
Relationship Additive Genetic Relationship
(aSD)
AF
Parent-offspring 0.50
Full sibs 0.50
Half sibs 0.25

-C
Grandparent-grandoffspring 0.25
Aunt/Uncle – nephew/niece 0.25
First cousins 0.125

S
IA
Avoid mating close relatives, nothing closer than first cousins, or

aunt/uncle – nephew/niece.
12
ANIMAL BREEDING
For example:
Using the pedigree of individual below,

calculate the inbreeding coefficient of X.
Relationship of S and D? Parent-offspring

aSD = 0.50
FX = ½ (0.50) = 0.25
2. Outbreeding refers to mating of animals less closely related than

the average of population form which they came. Outbreeding is the
B
opposite of inbreeding. In general, the performance value lost on
inbreeding depression tends to be restored on outbreeding.
Moreover, outbreeding destroys family, line, or strain formation,
PL
reduce prepotency of an animal, and tends to increase average
phenotypic merit of animals (hybrid vigor).
Heterosis (H) or Hybrid vigor is the increase in the performance of

hybrids over that of purebreds, most noticeably in reproductive
-U
traits. Mathematically:
Heterosis (H) = (PF1 – PP)/ Pp
Where:
PF1 = Mean performance of the F1 offspring
S
PP = Mean performance of the purebred
parents
AF
Crossbreeding is the most common type of outbreeding.

Crossbreeding is the mating of sires of one breed to dams of
another breed. This type of outbreeding takes advantage of
heterosis and breed complementarity.
-C
Breed complementarity is an improvement in the overall

performance of the crossbred offspring resulting from crossing
breeds of different but complementary biological types. In swine,
sheep, and beef cattle, breed complementarity typically comes from
crossing maternal breeds with paternal breeds.
S
Maternal breed – a breed that excels in maternal traits
Maternal traits – a trait especially important in breeding females.

IA
Examples include fertility, freedom from dystocia, milk production,

mothering ability, and other reproductive traits.
Paternal breed – a breed that excels in paternal traits
Paternal traits – a traits especially important in market offspring.

Examples are growth and production traits, and meat quality traits.
13
ANIMAL BREEDING
Examples of crossbreeding
a. Two-breed crossing – using two breeds to produce a crossbred

progeny with a breed composition of 50% Breed A – 50% Breed
B. Moreover, crossbred females can be sold or served as
replacement females to produce market animals and not
breeder animals.
b. Backcrossing – crossing the female progeny of a two-breed

crossing with one of the parent purebreds. This crossing will a
produce a progeny with a breed composition of 75% Breed A –
25% Breed B. The progenies of this cross are sold.
B
c. Three-breed crossing – a two-breed cross female is mated to
another purebred producing a progeny with a breed composition
PL
of 25% Breed A – 25% Breed B – 50% Breed C. All triple
crossbred progenies are also sold.
d. Four-breed crossing (Topcrossing) – this crossing utilizes four
-U
breeds, and the breeder may develop two specialized crosses:
one line is specialized in paternal traits while the other line is
specialized in maternal traits. The progeny of this cross will have
a breed composition of 25% Breed A – 25% Breed B – 25%
Breed C – 25% Breed D.
S
AF
REFERENCES
-C
BOURDON, R.M. 2000. Understanding Animal Breeding. Prentice Hall, USA.

538 pp.
BUCHANAN, D.S., A.C. CLUTTER, S.L. NORTHCUTT, and D. POMP. 1993.

Animal Breeding: Principles and Applications. 4th Edition. Animal
Science Department, Oklahoma State University.
S
FAO (FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION). 2016. Development of

IA
Integrated Multipurpose Animal Recording Systems. FAO Animal

Production and Health Guidelines. FAO, Rome. 189 pp.
OLDENBROEK, K., and L. VAN DER WAAIJ. 2014. Textbook Animal Breeding
Breeding: Animal Breeding and Genetics for BSc students. Centre for
Genetic Resources and Animal Breeding and Genomics Group,
Wageningen University and Research Centre, Netherlands. 311 p.
WILLIS, M.B. 1991. Dalton’s Introduction to Practical Animal Breeding.

Blackwell Science, United Kingdom. 166 pp.
14
ANIMAL BREEDING
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 6
Selection and Mating System
Name: ___________________________________ Score: ___________

Lab Section: ___________ Date: ___________
I. Adjustment and standardization of actual performance records of

farm animals.
• Rank the following female piglets based on their actual weaning weight
alone.
B
• Adjust and standardize their weaning weight using the standardization
formula. Rank again based on the adjusted weaning weight.
PL
Ranking Adjusted Ranking
Actual
Piglet Actual age before 30-days after
weaning
number (days) adjustment weaning adjustment
weight (kg)
-U
(1) weight (2)
1 9.9 28
2 10.0 27
3 7.6 29
4 6.8 26
5 10.4 32
S
A. Are the rankings using actual records and adjusted records the
same? Why is this so?
AF
-C
S
B. If you are going to select animals, which would you use as your
basis for selection, the actual weight or the adjusted weight? Why?
IA
15
ANIMAL BREEDING
II. Selection Index Method. Rank the following performance tested Landrace
boars using the SI method and select the top 3 pigs on the basis of the
equation below:
SI = 240 + 110 (ADG in kg/day) – 50 (FE) – 19.7 (BFT in cm)
ADG
Pig ID FE BFT (cm) SI value Rank
(kg/day)
11 1.083 2.41 1.00
B
12 1.000 2.43 1.48
13 1.039 2.50 1.40
PL
14 1.013 2.21 1.22
15 1.071 2.28 1.21
16 1.152 2.24 1.38
-U
17 1.136 2.08 0.67
18 1.136 2.65 1.31
19 1.097 2.78 1.27
20 1.078 2.58 1.37
S
Computation:
AF
-C
S
IA
16
ANIMAL BREEDING
III. Mating System. Analyze the mating system of the swine industry as
shown in the figure below. Landrace and Large White breeds are
known for reproduction traits, while the colored breed, Duroc is known
for production and carcass quality traits.
B
PL
Answer the following:
-U
A. What would be the expected reproductive performance of F1
crossbred females compared to its parental purebred? Why do you
S
say so?
AF
-C
B. Why cross F1 crossbred females with a Duroc boar to produce

market pigs? What principle is at work here?
S
IA
C. What is the expected quality and quantity of your market pigs?

Why?
17
ANIMAL BREEDING
IV. Heterosis. Records from a dairy farm is presented. Evaluate the effect of
crossbreeding on the performance of the herd by computing the heterosis
for each trait.
Purebred Parents
Mean
Traits Australian Performance Heterosis
Holstein
Friesian Mean of F1
Friesian
Sahiwal
Age at First
45 35 30
Calving (month)
Total Milk Yield
3,100 2,900 3,500
B
(liter / lactation)
Fat Yield (kg) 120 120 130
PL
Computation:
-U
A. Which trait has the highest heterosis (regardless of sign)?
S
AF
B. Which trait has the lowest heterosis (regardless of sign)?

-C
C. Did you notice any pattern between the heterosis level and trait
classification?
S
IA
D. How do you interpret a negative heterosis value?
18
ANIMAL BREEDING
V. Inbreeding Coefficient. Records from two different animal herds are

provided. Compute for the inbreeding coefficient (F) of the inbreds and the
average inbreeding coefficient of the whole herd.
Herd 1
Relationship of the Inbreeding
ID No.
Parents Coefficient
111 Parent-Offspring
112 Full sibs
113 Half sibs
114 No relationship
B
115 No relationship
116 No relationship
117 No relationship
PL
118 No relationship
119 Parent-Offspring
120 No relationship
Sum
Mean
Herd 2
ID No.
211
Parents
-U
Relationship of the
No relationship
Inbreeding
Coefficient
S
212 No relationship
213 No relationship
AF
214 No relationship
215 No relationship
216 No relationship
217 No relationship
218 No relationship
-C
219 No relationship
220 No relationship
Sum
Mean
Computation:
S
IA
19
ANIMAL BREEDING
EXERCISE 7
ADVANCES AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR
ANIMAL GENETIC IMPROVEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Advances in reproductive physiology, molecular genetics, statistics and
computer science led to the development of technologies that may increase
genetic improvement through selection. Recall that the response to selection
(aka genetic gain, genetic progress, genetic improvement, genetic lift, genetic
change) per year is summarized in the formula:
B
R per year = Heritability x Selection differential
Generation interval
PL
The use of technologies in aid of genetic improvement may (1) increase
accuracy of selection (often measured as heritability of a trait); (2) increase the
selection differential, and/or (3) decrease the generation interval.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
-U
1. Compute the genetic gain;
2. Understand the role of technologies in genetic improvement; and
3. Classify technologies belonging to advances in statistics and
computing, molecular genetics, or reproductive biotechnology.
S
MATERIAL
• Calculator
AF
METHODS
1. Compute the genetic gain
2. Classify the different technologies given in the worksheet.
3. Identify if the technology has an effect on either heritability of a trait,
selection differential or generation interval.
-C
A. Response to Selection
The amount of genetic progress (ΔG) made in one generation of
S
selection for quantitative trait depends upon the heritability (h2),

selection differential (Sd) and generation interval.
IA
Heritability estimates refer to the portion of the phenotypic differences

that is due to genetics. For traits with high heritability values, the
differences among animals, is largely due to genetics. Remember that
the effect of the environment may mask the genetic potential of the
animal, thus, for traits with higher heritability estimates, the higher is the
accuracy of identifying the genetically superior animal.
Selection differential is the measured superiority of the selected

animals over the average of the population. The selection differential is
denoted by the following formula: Sd = Pselected – Ppopulation.
20
ANIMAL BREEDING
When a cut-off value is set for a trait (aka truncation point), a proportion
of animals will be selected from the group. Imagine if your cut-off value
or truncation point is close to the average of the population, then the
average performance of the selected parents may be close (and not
better) from the average performance of the whole group! When the
selection differential is expressed as the average of the selected
parents in standard deviation units, this is called Selection intensity.
Similarly, the “choosier” the animal breeder is, the higher the selection
intensity, the larger the difference between the selected animals and the
average of the population.
Generation interval is the average age of the parents when their
B
offspring are born. Generation interval increases if the breeder animal
has a lower reproductive trait and is kept longer in the farm.
PL
B. Technologies in Animal Breeding
1. Reproductive Biotechnologies
These technologies increase the reproductive rate of the animal.
They offer an alternative to natural mating to produce offspring.
-U
2. Molecular Genetic Technologies
These technologies are used to identify candidate genes or regions
in the genome associated with animal productivity, discover
polymorphic sites, and manipulate DNA segments. The primary
application of molecular genetic technologies is seen in genomic and
molecular assisted selection (MAS) whereby, animals are genotyped
S
and selected based on DNA test results. This leads to high accuracy
and may lower generation interval.
AF
3. Advances in Statistics, Biocomputing and Computer Science

Animal breeding programs generate very large data sets. Through
technologies in statistics and computer science, all possible
information available can be used to predict the breeding value of
the animal with high accuracy.
-C
C. Examples of Technologies
1. Pronuclear microinjection – this is a technology in transgenics,
whereby the pronucleus of a newly fertilized egg in injected with a
foreign DNA.
S
2. High density SNP genotyping – this technology is based on single

nucleotide polymorphism (pronounced as “SNPs”) which is
IA
scattered in the whole genome, making it possible to get the

“genotype” of the whole genome and thus selection of the animal
based on its genome is possible.
3. Genome editing technology (CRSPR/Cas9 and TALENs) –

through clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
(aka CRSPR) or transcription activator-like effector nuclease
(TALENs) systems, precise targeted modifications (removal or
addition of specific DNA fragments) in the animal’s genome are
allowed. Gene/genome editing, leads to the creation of “new”
genotypes.
21
ANIMAL BREEDING
4. PCR-based genotyping technology – Polymerase chain reaction

(PCR) is a technology where many copies of specific DNA segment
or gene are made. PCR can amplify DNA regions where
polymorphic sites are present. Polymorphic sites in genes or DNA
segments are important “genetic markers” because it can identify
alleles at a linked locus. Through these genetic markers, it is
possible to differentiate a superior from an inferior animal.
Examples of genetic markers that can be amplified by PCR are
microsatellites, SNPs, insertion-deletions. Combined with
restriction enzyme, PCR products can be cut and form banding
patterns which would tell the genotype of the animal. This technique
is called PCR-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-
B
RFLP). PCR-RFLP is widely used in DNA testing facilities.
Because the DNA sequence does not change through time, animal
PL
performance can be predicted even before it is able to express the
trait of interest. The list below shows examples of genetic markers
that are associated with economically important traits and are now
widely used as DNA tests in commercial breeding (Dekkers, 2004).
-U
Trait category Genetic marker
Milk quality k-casein
B-lactoglobulin
Meat quality Ryanodine receptor (RYR)
Rendement napole (RN)
S
Reproduction Estrogen receptor (ESR)
Prolactin receptor (PRLR)
AF
Booroola
Growth and composition Insulin like growth factor (IGF)-2
Callipyge
-C
5. Artificial insemination – is introduction of sperm cells into the

female reproductive tract through artificial means. Frozen-thawed
or extended fresh semen may be used.
6. Somatic nuclear transfer and Embryo splitting – a technology

S
for the production of identical animals (imagine twins!). Clones

can be made by splitting the embryo at a particular time. For the
IA
production of “unlimited” number of clones, cloning via nuclear

transfer is another procedure. Dolly is the first mammal cloned
from an adult somatic cell.
22
ANIMAL BREEDING
B
PL
-U
S
https://askabiologist.asu.edu/content/story-dolly
AF
7. Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) – this technology

utilizes a hormonal treatment to enable the female to ovulate
several ova than it usually does. The animal is inseminated, then
the embryos are removed non-surgically and transferred to recipient
females.
-C
8. BLUP (Best Linear Unbiased Prediction) – use of mixed models

to estimate the breeding value from pedigree and performance
records of the animal and its relative while correcting the phenotype
for environmental effect.
S
9. In vitro oocyte maturation and in vitro fertilization – immature

oocytes are placed in a medium and incubated. Once it matures, it
will be fertilized in vitro. The embryo may be frozen and then later
IA
on, transferred to a recipient female. Lately, there is a

biotechnology reported in South Australia, Australia used in sheep
called “JIVET” short for juvenile in vitro embryo transfer. This
“speed breeding” technology uses oocytes from juvenile lambs. The
immature oocytes follow the same process as abovementioned.
10. Genomic EBV – The prediction of breeding value of an animal is

based on thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms laid out in
the whole animal genome as opposed to the use of a subset of
genetic markers in MAS. To derive genomic estimated breeding
23
ANIMAL BREEDING
value (EBV), complex prediction models are used even without the
individual phenotype of the animal.
11. Sperm sexing – Y and X bearing sperm cells can be separated,

such that sex-sorted semen can be used to inseminate females
and produce the desired sex of the offspring.
12. Embryo sexing – sex of the embryos can be determined through

PCR. Males carry the specific SRY gene.
13. Gamete and embryo cryopreservation – cryopreservation is a

process of storing biological material (ex., gametes and embryo)
B
at very low temperature and still maintain their viability.
PL
-U
S
REFERENCES
AF
BARNUM, S.R. 2005. Biotechnology: An Introduction. Thomson Learning

Academic Resource Center, USA. 324 pp.

-C
BOURDON, R.M. 2000. Understanding Animal Breeding. USA: Prentice Hall.
BUCHANAN, D.S., A.C. CLUTTER, S.L. NORTHCUTT, and D. POMP. 1993.

Animal Breeding: Principles and Applications. Animal Science
Department, Oklahoma State University, USA.
S
DEKKERS, J.C.M. 2004. Commercial application of marker- and gene-assisted

selection in livestock: strategies and lessons. Journal of Animal Science
IA
82: E313-328.
LI, Q., Z. QIN, Q. WANG, T. XU, Y. YANG, and Z. HE. 2019. Applications of
genome editing technology in animal disease modelling and gene
therapy. Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal 17:689-
698.
https://www.slu.se/en/departments/clinical-sciences/about-the-
department/reproduktionsbioteknologi/
24
ANIMAL BREEDING
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 7
Advances and New Technologies for
Animal Genetic Improvement
Name: ___________________________________ Score: ___________

Lab Section: ___________ Date: ___________
I. Prediction of Genetic Gain. If the milk yield of a herd of cow is 6,479

kg while those kept for breeding is 6,890 kg, and the h2 estimate of milk
B
yield is 0.85 and the generation interval of dairy cattle is 4 years, what
will be the expected genetic gain in milk yield per year?
PL
-U
II. Classify the following advances and new technologies whether they
belong to advances in statistics and computing, molecular genetics, or
reproductive biotechnology. Factors that they affect in the genetic
improvement is also identified. Provide a short explanation how the
following technologies could affect these factors.
S
AF
-C
S
IA
25
ANIMAL BREEDING
Technologies
B Classificationa
Factorsb Explanation
1. Best Linear
Unbiased Prediction
(BLUP)
2. Artificial
PL h2 Sd L
Insemination
3. Cloning via Somatic
Nuclear Transfer
4. PCR-based
-U
genotyping technology
5. Multiple Ovulation
and Embryo Transfer
S
(MOET)
6. In vitro oocyte
maturation and in vitro
fertilization
AF
a
7. Genomic EBV
-C
RB – Reproductive Biotechnology; MGT – Molecular Genetic Technology; AS – Advances in Statistics, Biocomputing and
Computer Science
b 2
h – heritability or accuracy of selection ; Sd- Selection differential; L – generation interval
S
IA
26
ANIMAL NUTRITION
EXERCISE 8
NUTRIENT SOURCES: ROUGHAGES, CONCENTRATES AND
SUPPLEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Feed expense accounts for as much as 80% of the total expenses in
livestock and poultry production. Feeds do not only affect farm productivity but
also impact farm profitability. Thus, a good knowledge of feeds influences the
B
success or failure of livestock and poultry farms. Knowing when and how to use
different feeds for different species and classes of farm animals is important for
those engaged in livestock and poultry production.
PL
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the roughages, concentrates, and supplements that are
-U
commonly used in animal feeding; and
2. Classify feeds based on their nutrient composition.
MATERIALS
Guide to nutrient sources (pictures and description of feed ingredients
S
provided)
METHODS
AF
• Study the guide to common nutrient sources provided in class. Observe the
differences in color and shape of the feed samples. Classify each feed
ingredient based on nutrient composition using the feed composition table.
Describe the physical characteristics (e.g. color and shape) of each
-C
ingredient.
• Draw each of the feeds indicated in the worksheet and label it properly
highlighting the distinct characteristics of each.
S
1. Feeds - defined as any material grown or developed to be fed to livestock

and poultry to sustain or support life. It usually connotes complete feeds,
IA
rations, or diets, but may also be used to refer to feed ingredients or

components of mixed feeds. Feedstuff can be used interchangeably with
feeds.
2. Classification of Feeds
a) Roughages - feed materials containing more than 18% crude fiber
and are generally low in energy content (<60% TDN or Total
Digestible Nutrients)
b) Concentrates - feeds that are high in energy content (>60% TDN)
and low in crude fiber (<18%)
Copyright 2020 by C.B. Adiova, J.R.V. Conejos, and K.S. Decena 1

ANIMAL NUTRITION
o Energy feeds
o Animal protein feeds
o Plant protein feeds
c) Supplements - feedstuffs that are mixed with a primary grain and/or
roughage to provide all the nutrients required to support the form of
production for which it is intended
o Amino acid supplements
o Mineral supplements
o Vitamin supplements
B
d) Feed additives – non-nutritive substances added in the feed for
specific purposes such as enzymes, probiotics, prebiotics,
acidifiers, etc.
PL
3. Common Roughages
a) Grasses – normally with 6-10% crude protein and <0.9% calcium
content
-U
o Guinea grass
Distinctive parts: presence of trichomes in nodes
o Para grass
Distinctive parts: presence of trichomes in whole culm
o Napier grass
Distinctive parts: rough leaves (no trichomes in culm)
S
o Star grass
Distinctive parts: presence of roots at nodes
AF
o Alabang X
Distinctive parts: presence of trichomes at nodes
b) Legumes and other forages – normally with 10.5% crude protein or
higher and >0.9% calcium content
-C
o Madre de cacao
o Ipil-ipil
o Centrosema
o Madre de agua
4. Common Concentrates
S
a) Energy feeds - contain a variable amount of nutrients but

exceptionally high in energy. Energy feeds include cereal grains,
IA
milling by-products, processed tubers, fats, and oils, and some

considered as miscellaneous feeds.
o Ground corn is the entire corn kernel ground or chopped.
o Wheat grain/Feed wheat refers to the entire wheat kernel
including the hulls.
o Sorghum grains include hegari, kafir, milo grains, and other
varieties of sorghum grains.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Rice bran is composed mainly of pericarp or bran layer of

o
rice and germ that are removed from rice grains in the
manufacture of polished rice for human consumption.
o Cassava meal is also known as tapioca or manioc. It is
produced from ground sliced and dried cassava tubers.
Fresh tubers contain anti-nutritional factor, known as
hydrocyanic acid (HCN) or prussic acid, which can be
destroyed by proper drying.
b) Animal protein feeds – derived from end-products of meat
B
packaging, dairy processing, and marine industries (>47% crude
protein; >1.0% calcium; >1.5% phosphorus; <2.5% crude fiber)
o Tankage and meat meal (e.g. pork meal) scraps made from
PL
trimmings, inedible parts, and organs, cleaned entrails,
residues from the production of fats, and certain condemned
carcasses.
-U
o Fishmeal is obtained from clean, dried, ground tissues of
undecomposed whole fish or fish cuttings, with or without
the extraction of oil.
c) Plant protein feeds – derived from end-products of oil extraction
from a group of seeds (<47% crude protein; <1.0% calcium; <1.5%
phosphorus; >2.5% crude fiber)
S
o Soybean meal/ soybean oil meal/soya meal is the by-
product obtained by grinding the cake or flakes which remain
AF
after the extraction of oil from soybean seeds.

o Full-fat soybean meal/ extruded soybean meal is produced
by extrusion of whole soybean seeds, without the removal
of any of its components.
-C
o Copra meal/ coconut oil meal/ coconut meat meal is a by-

product obtained after extraction of oil from dried coconut
meat.
5. Feed Supplements
a) Synthetic amino acids - These are feedstuff carrying large amounts
S
of one or more pure amino acids, which may be added to a ration to

make up for an amino acid deficiency. Synthetic amino acids are
IA
produced by bacterial fermentation and exist as optical isomers, as

either D- or L-amino acids such as DL-methionine, L-lysine and L-
threonine.
b) Mineral supplements - These are feedstuffs rich in one or more of
the inorganic elements needed to perform certain essential body
functions.
o Limestone is a primary source of calcium in animal diets
o Monocalcium phosphate is a phosphorus source
o Salt or common table salt is a source of sodium and chlorine.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
oMineral premix is a mixture of trace minerals and a carrier

formulated to provide the requirements of the animals when
added in the diet at the recommended rate.
c) Vitamin supplements - Vitamin premix is a mixture of different
vitamins and a carrier formulated to provide the requirements of the
animals when added in the diet at a recommended rate. Provided
in the form of vitamin premix.
6. Feed Additives
These are non-nutritive substances that when added to diets may improve
B
the performance and feed efficiency of livestock and poultry.
a) Enzymes are protein molecules that can catalyze biochemical
reactions. (e.g. phytase will act on phytic acid to release bound
PL
phosphorus)
b) Antioxidants are substances that protect the polyunsaturated fatty
acids from destruction by peroxidation.
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Definition of terms:
• Crude Fiber - the insoluble carbohydrate fraction consisting
primarily of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
• Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) - indicates the relative energy value
of a feed; the sum of the digestible protein, digestible fiber,
digestible fat, and digestible nitrogen-free extract
S
• Soilage - fresh herbage cut and chopped in the field and fed to
animals in confinement.
AF
• Silage - fermented forage stored under anaerobic conditions in a

silo. Forages made into silage are green chops or dry crops to which
the moisture must be maintained at 60-65%.
• Hay - forage/roughage harvested during the growing period and
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preserved by drying for later use in animal feeding. Hays are

characterized by having 18-34% crude fiber and 40-60% TDN.
• Crop residues – plant parts left in the field after harvesting the
primary crop such as corn stover and rice straw.
S
REFERENCES
JURGENS, M. H. 1982. Animal Feeding and Nutrition. Kendall/Hunt

IA
Publishing Co., USA.
MANNETJE, L. and R.M. JONES. 1992. Plant Resources of South-East Asia

(PROSEA) 4: Forages. Pudoc-DLO, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
300 pp.
PHILSAN. 2010. Feed Reference Standards. 4th edition. Philippine Society

of Animal Nutritionists.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Table 8.1 Nutrient Composition of Common Feed Ingredients (as fed basis) (PHILSAN, 2010).
ME, Kcal/kg Total Available

Dry Crude Crude Crude Calcium, Lysine, Met +
Feed Ingredient Phosphorus Phosphorus
Poultry Swine Matter, % Protein, % Fat, % Fiber, % % % Cys, %
% %
Cassava meal 2400 2800 90.00 3.80 0.40 1.10 0.12 0.10 0.03 0.14 0.09
Yellow corn (local) 3300 3350 89.29 8.05 3.94 2.44 0.17 0.26 0.07 0.26 0.37
B
Sorghum 3300 3250 88.00 9.00 2.70 2.20 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.21 0.36
Wheat (US milling) 3080 3200 79.10 11.75 1.50 2.36 0.16 0.24 0.10 0.34 0.46
L
Blood meal (drum dried) 3065 2850 90.00 80.00 1.00 0.50 0.30 0.25 0.25 5.04 2.08
Fish meal (Peruvian) 2700 2350 90.19 63.51 8.60 0.68 2.63 3.51 3.51 4.85 2.39
P
Fish meal (local, 50%) 2500 2150 87.70 49.40 14.60 1.00 5.86 3.61 3.61 3.12 1.61
Fish meal (local, 55%) 2700 2450 96.60 54.60 17.60 0.35 4.44 2.44 2.44 4.17 2.06
Fish meal (local, 60%) 2800 2310 92.69 59.19 13.28 0.57 4.83 2.94 2.94 4.52 2.23
U
Meat & bone meal (50%) 2000 1820 94.00 50.00 10.00 1.70 8.00 4.20 4.20 2.44 1.09
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 800 1400 90.00 20.00 4.40 10.30 0.35 0.27 0.09 0.80 0.72
-
Soybean meal 2500 2950 90.72 47.65 1.23 3.43 0.47 0.71 0.21 3.06 1.43
Copra meal (expeller) 1800 2850 96.20 21.00 10.51 8.76 0.22 0.66 0.10 0.53 0.63
Corn bran 1400 2600 88.60 9.00 8.50 7.00 0.17 0.50 0.13 0.40 0.36
S
Molasses 1960 2330 75.00 2.90 0.00 8.80 0.80 0.08 0.02 0.01 0.03
Rice bran, D1 2400 3000 91.40 12.14 13.79 5.27 0.15 1.48 0.22 0.55 0.51
Wheat pollard (hard) 1300 2130 88.90 17.19 3.54 8.58 0.22 1.05 0.37 0.69 0.62
F
Skim milk powder - 3400 94.20 33.50 0.50 - 1.25 0.95 0.95 2.68 1.27
Sweet whey powder 1910 3100 96.92 11.90 0.85 0.65 0.62 0.69 0.69 0.95 0.45
A
Coconut oil 8600 8000 99.00 - 99.00 - - - - - -
Monocalcium phosphate - - - - - - 16.24 22.11 22.11 - -
C
Dicalcium phosphate - - - - - - 24.46 19.89 15.91 - -
Monodicalcium phosphate - - - - - - 16.51 21.32 21.32 - -
Limestone - - 99.87 - - - 38.55 0.16 - - -
-
Oyster shell - - 98.00 - - - 35.00 0.10 - - -
Salt - - 95.00 - - - - - - - -
L-Lysine - - 99.00 78.8 - - - - - 78.8 -
S
DL-Methionine - - 99.00 98.5 - - - - - - 98.5
A
I
ANIMAL NUTRITION
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 8
Nutrient Sources: Roughages, Concentrates and Supplements
Name:___________________________ Score:______________
Lab Section:______________________ Date :______________
Draw the feedstuffs specified below. Classify the feedstuffs as concentrates or

supplements. For concentrates, indicate if energy, animal protein or plant
protein feeds. For supplements, indicate if synthetic amino acid, vitamin, or
B
mineral supplement. Describe the physical characteristics (color & shape) of
each ingredient.
PL
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S
Identification: Ground corn Identification: Ground feed wheat
Classification: _______________________ Classification: _______________________

AF
Description: Description:
_______________________________________ ___________________________________
_______________________________________ ___________________________________
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S
IA
Identification: Sorghum Identification: Soybean Meal
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Identification: Copra Meal Identification: Full-fat Soya
B
PL
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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S
Identification: Whey Powder Identification: Pork Meal
AF
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_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
S
IA
Identification: Rice Bran Identification: Wheat Pollard
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Identification: Copper Sulfate Identification: Monocalcium Phosphate
B
PL
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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S
Identification: Limestone (Fine) Identification: Cassava Meal
AF
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
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_______________________________________ _______________________________________
S
IA
Identification: DL-Methionine Identification: L-Lysine
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
_______________________________________ _______________________________________

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Make an illustration of each of the roughages specified below. Label the distinct
characteristics of each.
B
PL
Common name: Napier grass
Scientific name: ___________________
-U Common name: Guinea grass
Scientific name: ___________________
S
AF
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S
IA
Common name: Para grass Common name: Madre de agua

Scientific name: ___________________ Scientific name: ___________________

ANIMAL NUTRITION
B
PL
Common name: Alabang X Common name: Star grass
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Scientific name:____________________
S Scientific name: ___________________
AF
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S
Common name: Centrosema Common name: Madre de cacao

IA
Scientific name: ___________________ Scientific name:____________________
Discussion: Differentiate concentrates from roughages and compare its

utilization in animal feeding.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

ANIMAL NUTRITION
EXERCISE 9
METHODS OF FEED EVALUATION AND QUALITY CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
Feed quality control is important in the feed and animal industry. The
first consideration in feed quality control is the quality of feed ingredients or raw
materials. Use of inferior quality raw materials results in inferior quality mixed
feeds and a feed manufacturer who does not maintain the quality of products
may easily lose customers.
B
Whereas physical examination of both feed ingredients and mixed
feeds is the quickest, easiest, and most effective tool for quality control,
chemical and microbiological assays are used to verify and ensure the quality
PL
of the feeds.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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1. Identify the components of an unknown feed mixture;
2. Differentiate adulterants from feed ingredients;
3. Identify the apparatus used in the determination of proximate
composition of feeds; and
4. Convert proximate composition of feeds from as-fed to dry matter basis.
S
MATERIALS
• Guide to common nutrient sources (PDF file).
AF
• Supplemental information on different methods of feed evaluation.
METHODS
• Study the guide to common nutrient sources and the supplemental
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information provided in this exercise.

• Identify the components of unknown mixtures shown in the worksheet.
If there is an adulterant, discuss why do you think it is considered as an
adulterant.
• Study the provided information about different methods of feed
evaluation and answer the questions in the worksheet.
S
IA
Methods of Feed Evaluation and Quality Control

I. Physical Evaluation
Physical evaluation involves examination of raw materials/feed
ingredients with the naked eye. The usual observations made to
detect off quality raw materials/feed ingredients are the color, odor,
texture, taste, dampness, presence of adulterant/foreign material,
presence of mold and insect infestation.
Physical evaluation includes feed microscopy which is the study
of the appearance of feed samples and/or adulterant under the

ANIMAL NUTRITION
stereomicroscope. With this technique, the purity of the sample or

presence of adulterants/foreign materials is easily detected.
• Adulterants
Adulterants are substances/impurities of cheaper value and low
quality that are intentionally added to the feeds/feed ingredients
to change its physical or chemical characteristics. Normally,
adulterants are added to add bulk or weight to the feed. The
following are examples of adulterants in feeds for monogastric
animals:
o Fine sand - used to increase feed weight.
B
o Saw dust - has high gross energy content but low digestible
energy content due to the high amount of cellulose; cellulose
PL
is indigestible to monogastric animals due to the absence of
endogenous cellulase.
o Corn cobs - also contain high amount of cellulose (same with
saw dust)
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o Rice hull - contains high amount of cellulose and lignin which
is also indigestible to monogastric animals.
II. Chemical Evaluation

Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis or Weende method is the most
S
extensively used method for the determination of the nutritive
value of feeds. The analyses include moisture, ether extract,
AF
crude fiber, crude protein, ash and nitrogen free extract.

o Moisture is determined by accurately weighing a finely
ground sample before and after drying it to constant weight
at 105 °C (usually overnight). All substances that volatilize
at this temperature represent the moisture content of the
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sample.
Apparatus: Oven
o Ether extract is the sum of all the ether-soluble materials. It
is determined by extracting a finely ground dried sample with
boiling ether and then distilling off the ether and weighing
S
the residue. This residue is mostly fat and fatty acid esters,
but includes all ether-soluble substances, such as waxes,
essential oils, and pigments. On the other hand, ether
IA
extract does not measure phospholipids or protein-bound

fats. Thus, while it is incorrect to designate the ether extract
as “fat”, it is sometimes referred to as crude fat.
Apparatus: Soxhlet apparatus
o Crude fiber is a rough measure of that portion of
carbohydrates that is poorly utilized by monogastric animals.
The analysis attempts to simulate digestion in the stomach
and in the small intestine. It is determined by boiling the
finely ground sample successively for 30 minutes with weak
concentration of H2SO4 and with weak concentration of

ANIMAL NUTRITION
NaOH. Crude fiber is measured as the loss in ignition at 550

°C for 4 hours of the dried residue remaining after digestion
of the sample. It is composed mostly of cellulose,
hemicelluloses and lignin.
Apparatus: Refluxing unit
o Crude protein is computed as total nitrogen content of the
sample multiplied by 6.25. This assumes that protein in
feeds have 16% nitrogen (100 divided by 16 is equal to
6.25). However, not all proteins are composed of 16%
nitrogen, thus the term “crude protein”. The nitrogen content
B
of the sample is determined by a process called Kjeldahl
method which involves sample digestion, distillation, and
titration.
PL
Apparatus: Kjeldahl apparatus
o Ash is an estimate of the inorganic content of a feed sample.
The analysis involves igniting the sample in the furnace
which burns off all organic matter to carbon dioxide and
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water. The residue remaining after combustion represents
mineral content of the feed sample.
Apparatus: Muffle furnace
o Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) represents the sum of the
remaining undetermined portions of the feed and is meant
to represent the more digestible portion of carbohydrates
S
such as starch and other soluble sugars. It is the only
component of proximate analysis that is determined only by
AF
calculation (no chemical analysis involved). It is being

calculated as:
NFE = 100 – (moisture + ash + crude protein + crude fat +
crude fiber)
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Expressing feed nutrient values:

Normally, the nutrient values of the feeds are expressed
on “as fed basis” which refers to the consistency of the feed
when it is offered to the animal. When comparing two or more
feed samples, it is important to express the nutrient values on a
S
“dry matter basis” (moisture-free) to eliminate the effect of

varying moisture content of feed samples.
IA
The values can be converted from as-fed to dry matter

basis using ratio and proportion method of calculation as shown
below:
Sample Calculation:
If a feed sample has 85% dry matter content (or
15% moisture) and 19% crude protein, the crude protein
content on a dry matter basis would be:
85 19 19 (100)
= ; 𝑋= = 22.35%
100 𝑋 85

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Partitioning of Feed Components
B
PL
III. Microbial Evaluation
-U
Microbiological tests are used to determine the presence of
S
Salmonella spp. and mycotoxin-producing fungi such as Aspergillus
flavus and Fusarium in feeds. Aflatoxins are the most widespread
AF
and best known of all mycotoxins. Mycotoxins in feeds may cause

poor growth rate, poor feed efficiency, liver diseases, increased
mortality, pale egg yolk color, and reduced egg shell strength.
In a routine microbiological test, the first analytical procedure

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applied to the feed sample is the “pass/fail” test that does not
distinguish the types of mycotoxins. This is used for a quick
determination to see whether the problem exists. A confirmatory
procedure is employed such as thin layer chromatography (TLC) or
high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) when necessary.
S
REFERENCES
IA
AOAC. 1993. Official Methods of Analysis. 14 th ed. Assoc. Office. Anal. Chem.
Washington, D.C.
KHAJARERN, J. and S. KHAJARERN. 1999. Manual of Feed Microscopy and

Quality Control. 3rd ed. Klang Nana Wittaya Co. Ltd. , Khon Kaen,
Thailand.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 9
Methods of Feed Evaluation and Quality Control
Name:______________________________ Score:______________
Lab Section:____________________ Date :________________
I. Using the guide to nutrient sources, identify the components of the

unknown mixture shown in each picture.
B
1. Mixture A components:
a. ______________________
PL
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
2. Are there any adulterants in the
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mixture? _________________
3. If yes, what is/are the adulterant/s
present in the mixture?
__________________________
S
4. Mixture B components:
AF
a. ______________________
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
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mixture? _________________
__________________________
S
7. Mixture C components:
IA
a. ______________________
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
mixture? _________________
__________________________

ANIMAL NUTRITION
10. Give one example of an adulterant and explain why it is considered as

an adulterant.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
II. Identify the apparatus used to determine the different components of
B
proximate analysis.
Component Apparatus
PL
Moisture content
Crude ash
Crude protein
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Crude fiber
Crude fat
Given the following results of proximate analysis, calculate the amount of

nitrogen-free extract (NFE). Determine also the amounts of crude ash,
S
crude protein, crude fiber, and crude fat on a dry-matter basis.
As-Fed Basis Dry Matter Basis
Component
(Amount in %) (Amount in %)
AF
Moisture content
Crude ash
Crude protein
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Crude fiber
Crude fat
NFE
S
III. Discuss the importance of physical evaluation, chemical evaluation, and

microbial evaluation in feed quality, feed safety, and animal performance.
___________________________________________________________
IA
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

ANIMAL NUTRITION
EXERCISE 10
FEED FORMULATION FOR FARM ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
The aim in feed formulation is to provide the animals with the required
nutrients in proper amount and proportion that will result in the most economical
production. The species, age and the amount and type of work or product
produced by the animal, determine the amount and proportion of nutrients
required. Feeding standards serve as aid in formulating rations for livestock
B
and poultry animals. These are tables that indicate the nutrient requirements of
different animals that were established based on results of several research
studies.
PL
LEARNING OUTCOMES
3. Use feeding standard and feed composition tables;
-U
4. Formulate feeds using Pearson square and trial and error methods; and
5. Evaluate rations based on nutrient composition of ingredients and
nutrient requirements of farm animals.
MATERIALS
Feeding standards
S
Nutrient composition tables
Calculator
AF
METHODS
• Using the feeding standards, determine the nutrient requirements of farm
animals indicated in the answer sheet.
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• Formulate rations using Pearson Square method.

• Evaluate the ration provided in the answer sheet. Calculate the amount of
nutrient(s) provided by each feed ingredient in the ration. Multiply the
amount of each feed ingredient (kg) by the amount of nutrient present in
one kilogram of the same feed ingredient. Determine the total amount of
the nutrient in the ration and compare it to the nutrient requirement of the
S
animal. If the ration does not satisfy the nutrient requirements of the animal,
adjust the formulation using Trial and Error method.
IA
Methods in Feed Formulation

A. Trial and Error Method
Steps:
1. Decide on what nutrients to consider in the formulation (e.g. energy,
protein, amino acids, calcium, and phosphorus).
2. List the nutrient requirements of the animals.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
3. Make an arbitrary ration using selected feed combinations. The total

amount of all ingredients should be 100.
4. Using the feed composition table, compute for the nutrients
contributed by each of the ingredients.
5. Make the necessary adjustments in the amount of ingredients if the
nutrients in the ration do not satisfy the requirements of the animals.
Example:
A farmer needs a fattener ration with 14% CP and 3000 kcal
ME/kg using yellow corn, rice bran, soybean oil meal, salt, limestone,
B
dicalcium phosphate, vitamin premix and mineral premix. How much of
each feed ingredient should be used to satisfy the requirements of the
animals?
PL
The crude protein of the arbitrary ration is as follows (using the feed
composition table):
Ingredient Parts/100 CP %CP
-U
Yellow corn 60.0 0.0805 4.8300
Rice bran D1 22.5 0.1214 2.7315
Soybean oil meal 12.0 0.4765 5.7180
Salt 0.3 0 0
Limestone 3.0 0 0
S
Dicalcium phosphate 2.0 0 0
Vitamin premix 0.1 0 0
AF
Mineral premix 0.1 0 0

TOTAL 100 13.2795
The ME of the ration is computed in the same manner:

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Ingredient Parts/100 kcal ME/kg kcal ME/kg

Yellow corn 60.0 3350 2010
Rice bran D1 22.5 3000 675
Soybean oil meal 12.0 2950 354
Salt 0.3 0 0
S
Limestone 3.0 0 0
Dicalcium phosphate 2.0 0 0
IA
Vitamin premix 0.1 0 0

Mineral premix 0.1 0 0
TOTAL 100 3039
The arbitrary ration satisfies the desired level of energy but is

deficient in crude protein. To adjust the CP content:
i. Select two feed ingredients which should be adjusted, in
this case, soybean oil meal and yellow corn.
ii. Determine the difference between the calculated and
desired level of protein.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
14 – 13.2795 = 0.7205
iii. Determine the difference in the protein content of
soybean oil meal and yellow corn. 0.4765 – 0.0805 =
0.3960
iv. Divide the difference obtained in (ii) by the difference in
(iii)
0.7205 ÷ 0.3960 = 1.8194 (approx. 1.82)
Final Ration:
Kcal
B
% CP of Kcal ME/kg
Ingredient Parts/100 %CP
ration ME/kg of
ration
PL
Yellow corn
58.18 8.05 4.68 3350 1949.03
(60-1.82)
Rice bran D1 22.50 12.14 2.73 3000 675.00
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Soybean meal
13.82 47.65 6.59 2950 407.69
(12+1.82)
Salt 0.30 0 0 0 0
Limestone 3.00 0 0 0 0
Dicalcium
2.00 0 0 0 0
S
phosphate
Vitamin premix 0.10 0 0 0 0
AF
Mineral premix 0.10 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 100.00 14.00 3031.72
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B. Pearson Square Method

Compared with the trial and error method, Pearson square method is
an easier and a much simpler way of determining the correct proportion of
2 feed ingredients or 2 feed groups to obtain a desired level of protein.
However, only the protein content of the ration is being considered.
S
Case I. When only 2 feed ingredients are involved:

A farmer wants to mix hog grower ration containing 16% CP. However,
IA
only yellow corn and soybean oil meal are available. How much of each
ingredient should be used?
Steps:
i. Draw a square.
ii. Insert the desired level of %CP (16) at the middle of the square.
iii. Place yellow corn (8.05% CP) on the upper left corner and
soybean oil meal (47.65% CP) on the lower left corner.
iv. Subtract the %CP in YC from the desired %CP (16 – 8.05 =
7.95) and place the difference in the corner of the square
diagonally opposite YC, this amount is for soybean oil meal.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
v. Subtract the desired %CP from the %CP in soybean oil meal
(47.65 – 14 = 33.65) and place the difference on the corner of
the square diagonally opposite soybean oil meal. This amount
is for yellow corn.
vi. Get the percentage composition as shown below:
YC 31.65 (31.65/39.60)*100 = 79.92% YC

8.05
16
B
SM
47.65 7.95 (7.95/39.60)*100 = 20.08% SM
39.60
PL
Case II. When 3 or more feeds are involved:
The same farmer will formulate hog grower ration (16% CP) using
yellow corn, rice bran and soybean oil meal.
-U
Steps:
i. Choose 2 ingredients that can be grouped (YC and RB can be
grouped together because both are energy sources).
ii. Decide on the proportion of feeds in the mixture (YC and RB
2:1)
iii. Compute for the %CP of the mixture.
S
Yellow corn 8.05 x 2 = 16.10
Rice bran 12.14 x 1 = 12.14
AF
Total: 28.24 ÷ 3 = 9.41
YC-RB 31.65 (31.65/38.24)*100= 82.77% YC-RB

9.41
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16
SM 6.59 (6.59/38.24)*100= 17.23% SM

47.65 38.24
The 82.77% is the amount of YC-RB mixture. Divide it by 3 parts

S
to get the amount of RB then multiply it by 2 to get the amount

of YC. The amount of RB should be 27.59% and the YC is
IA
55.18%.

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Table 10.1. Nutrient recommendations for broiler-type chicken (PHILSAN,

2010).
Booster Starter Finisher
Nutrient
0 –2 weeks 2-4 weeks 4-6 weeks
Crude protein, % 22.3 20.0 18.7
Metabolizable energy (ME), 2900 2800 2800
kcal/kg
Lysine, % 1.16 1.01 0.90
Methionine, % 0.49 0.39 0.33
Met + Cys, % 0.87 0.70 0.62
Calcium, % 0.87 0.84 0.78
B
Phosphorus, avail., % 0.46 0.42 0.39
PL
Table 10.2. Nutrient recommendations for egg-type chicken (PHILSAN, 2010).
Starter Grower Developer Layer 1
Layer 2
Nutrient 0-6 6-12 12-18 18-42
42-cull
weeks weeks weeks weeks
Crude protein, % 19.60 16.00 14.30 17.20 16.20
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ME, kcal/kg 2800 2750 2700 2750 2750
Lysine, % 0.90 0.69 0.70 0.78 0.78
Methionine, % 0.36 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.33
Met + Cys, % 0.70 0.58 0.58 0.68 0.65
Calcium, % 0.98 1.13 0.95 3.50 3.70
Phosphorus, avail., % 0.48 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.41
S
Table 10.3. Nutrient recommendations for swine (PHILSAN, 2010).
AF
Pre-
Creep Starter Grower
starter Finisher Gesta Lacta
Nutrient booster 23-40 41-60 Boar
8-22 ≥60 kg -ting -ting
2-8 kg kg kg
kg
Crude
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protein, 21.0 19.8 18.0 16.5 14.0 14.70 16.50 16.9

%
ME,
3300 3200 3150 3000 3000 3000 3500 2900
kcal/kg
Lysine,
1.48 1.38 1.18 1.05 0.85 0.47 0.90 0.80
%
Met +
S
0.81 0.76 0.65 0.58 0.47 0.27 0.54 0.48

Cys, %
Ca, % 1.10 1.08 0.85 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.20 0.90
IA
P, avail.,
0.54 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.50
%
REFERENCES
PHILSAN. 2010. Feed Reference Standards. 4th edition. Philippine Society

of Animal Nutritionists.
ROXAS, D. B. 2006. Animal Feeds and Feeding: With Emphasis on the

Tropics. University Publications Office. University of the Philippines Los Baños.
College, Laguna.
ANIMAL NUTRITION
AGRICULTURE 21
Exercise 10
Feed Formulation for Farm Animals
Name:_________________________________ Score:_______________
Lab Section:______________ Date :_______________
I. Formulation using Pearson Square Method
a) Using Pearson Square Method, formulate __50__ kilograms of
B
a ration with 18% CP using soybean meal and yellow corn. How
much of each ingredient (in kg) should be used in order to satisfy
the protein requirement of the animal?
PL
-U
S
AF
b) A farmer wishes to formulate a 200 kg ration containing

__16__% CP using yellow corn, rice bran D1 and fish meal
(Peruvian). The yellow corn and rice bran D1 are combined in
3:1 proportion. How much of each ingredient (in kg) should be
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used in the ration?

S
IA

ANIMAL NUTRITION
II. Formulation using Trial and Error Method
A. Nutrient requirements of: ___Grower Pig_____

Lysine (% Lys): _________________
Metabolizable energy (kcal ME/kg): _________________
Determine the % Lys and ME content of the feed formulation below:

Energy
Energy
% Lys (kcal
Ingredient Amount % Lys1 (kcal
of ration ME/kg) of
ME/kg)1
B
ration
Yellow corn
60.0
(local)
PL
Soybean meal 20.0
Rice bran D1 15.8
Limestone 2.2
Dicalcium
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1.5
phosphate
Salt 0.3
Vitamin premix 0.1
Mineral premix 0.1
TOTAL 100.0 - -
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1
Based on the % Lys and ME content of ingredients in Table 8.1
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Did the formulation satisfy the % Lys and ME requirements of Grower Pig?
If not, do the necessary adjustments for it to satisfy the requirements of the
animal (Show your calculations in the space provided).
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ANIMAL NUTRITION
Final Ration:
Energy
% Lys Energy
(kcal
Ingredient Amount % Lys of (kcal
ME/kg) of
ration ME/kg)
ration
Yellow corn (local)
Soybean meal
Rice bran D1
B
Limestone
Dicalcium
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phosphate
Salt
Vitamin premix
Mineral premix
TOTAL 100.0
-U - -
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Discussion: What are the factors that must be considered in formulating diets
for farm animals? Briefly explain each.
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

AGRI 21. INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND MARKETING
EXERCISE 11
SLAUGHTER AND FABRICATION
INTRODUCTION
The ultimate goal of any meat producer is to produce high quality meat.
The manner of slaughtering is one of the many factors affecting meat quality
that deserves serious consideration. Slaughtering and meat handling cannot
improve the quality of meat brought about by breeding, feeding and
management. Improper procedures used before and during slaughter
operation can impair the quality of the meat and lower the yield. Fabrication
prepares the meat for marketing. Proper cutting of the carcass into standard
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wholesale and retail cuts enables the separation of meat based on its value.
The yield of the meat cuts would help estimate the revenue from a slaughtered
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livestock or poultry.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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1. Discuss the principles and procedure for livestock slaughter, poultry

dressing, and carcass fabrication;
2. Identify meat from different species based on physical characteristics;
3. Determine the carcass yield and cost of the resulting meat.
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MATERIALS
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Video Presentations
Slaughter of Pig
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1L81MeX1E_DX6DPDjLwPa_f1m9
ON2Ubch/view?usp=sharing)
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Slaughter of Carabao
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1F3UMyKZwSXiBI92db7RefkZaTa
yrxsoj/view?usp=sharing)
Dressing of Chicken
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(https://drive.google.com/file/d/14_SXjG5D8OvjfQFxqqDh_55Tc2r
CImTs/view?usp=sharing)
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Pork Carcass Fabrication

(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1MPAlDkipjvXA6g74v927DT24IZy
sPjqm/view?usp=sharing)
METHODS
The student will watch the videos on slaughtering and chicken dressing,
and fabrication of a pork carcass. Based on the knowledge gained from the
videos and the supplemental information, the student will accomplish the
worksheet.
Copyright @2020 by MCR Oliveros, CM Bueno, AM Tapia, JKT Malilay 1

A. Slaughter
Slaughter is the process of butchering animals to produce meat for

human consumption. As such, only animals that are healthy and do not show
symptoms of diseases are passed for slaughter. To ensure that meat is
wholesome and safe for human consumption, antemortem and post-mortem
inspections are done. The basic slaughter procedure for different species of
animals are essentially the same except on the initial cleaning of carcasses
(i.e. flaying, defeathering, scalding, scraping, singeing). Among farm animals,
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chickens are the easiest to slaughter. The procedure is easy to carry out and
it does not require complicated equipment.
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Dressing of Chicken
1. Restrain the chicken by holding the wings and feet/shanks with both
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hands. Proper care in handling must be observed to avoid bone
dislocation or fractures.
2. Position the chicken with head downward and feet upward and then
prepare for bleeding.
3. Bleed the chicken by cutting the throat just behind the lower jaw at
the left side of the neck.
4. Wash chicken with tap water. This will remove the dirt. This is to allow
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the scald water to penetrate the feathers and reach the skin evenly.
5. To scald the bird, hold it at the shank and dip it into the hot water (59
to 60°C) with agitation for 30-60 seconds until the water penetrates
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the feathers to the skin.

CAUTION: Do not place the chicken into the scalding water until
breathing and all movements have stopped to prevent contamination
of the internal air sacs with inhaled scald water.
6. Hand-pluck the feathers by rubbing the carcass with hand. Begin
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defeathering immediately after scalding since plucking is more

difficult if the carcass is allowed to cool. Scales of shank can be
removed by dipping it in scalding water for 30-60 seconds and
immediately rubbing it with the hand while still hot.
7. Remove the head by cutting just below the lower jaw, and the shank
by cutting at the hock joint.
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8. To eviscerate the chicken, make a horizontal cut across body midway

between the end of the breastbone and vent. Then make a separate
cut around the vent. Make a horizontal cut at the lower neck just
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above the chest and loosen the crop, esophagus, and the trachea.
Insert your hand at the larger horizontal cut at the vent and loosen the
organs, taking care not to rapture or cut intestines to avoid
contaminating the meat.
After all organs have been loosened from the chicken, grasp the
gizzard, and gently but firmly pull it from the body cavity. The rest of
the intestines and internal organs will follow except the heart,
reproductive organs, kidney, and lungs, which must be removed
separately. The lungs are imbedded in the ribs and are removed by
raking through the ribs with the fingers.

9. Wash the carcass thoroughly with clean water and dip in sanitizing
solution.
10. Clean the giblets.
11. Chill the carcass using ice water bath.
B. Fabrication
Fabrication is the process of cutting the carcass into standard

wholesale and retail cuts. The procedure uses specific separation points in the
carcass thus, the appearance and composition of meat cuts are standardized.
There are four wholesale cuts of pork – shoulder, loin, belly, and ham. These
B
primal cuts are further sliced into retail cuts. For instance, loin when cut into ½
to 1-inch thickness produces pork chops.
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Meat from different species can be identified through lean and fat color,
and lean texture. It is important to know the physical characteristics of meat to
avoid mistakes in buying.
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Criteria for Species Identification
Species Lean Color Fat Color and Consistency
Cream white to yellow, firm,

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Beef Bright cherry red to dark red
and dry
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Carabeef Different shades of dark red flinty white
Pork grayish pink to grayish red white, greasy

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Chevon light to dark red chalk white, brittle and dense
seldom has fat, cream white, if

Veal pink to pinkish brown
any
Horse Bright red Cream to yellow, soft

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Measures of Yield
• Dressing percentage = carcass weight / liveweight x 100

• Wholesale cut yield = Weight of wholesale cut/carcass weight x 100
*The carcass referred to, does not include the head and all the entrails.
The yield helps estimate the income that can be derived from the sales
of the meat.

REFERENCES
ABERLE, E.D., J.C. FORREST, D.E. GERRARD and E.W. WILLIS. 2001.
Principles of Meat Science 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,
Iowa. 354 p.
BARBUT, S. 2002. Poultry Products Processing: An Industry Guide. CRC

Press, New York. 548 p.
BERCH, M.C. 2007. T-bone Raw [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:T-bone-raw-MCB.jpg
B
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS.
(1991). Guidelines for slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing,
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FAO Animal Pro-duction and Health Paper. FAO-UN, Rome, Italy.
IBARRA, P.I. 1983. Meat Processing for Small and Medium Scale Operations.
College of Agriculture, U. P. Los Baños. College, Laguna. 418 p.
-U
KINSMEN, D.M., A.W. KOTULA and B.C. BREIDENSTEIN (eds.). 1994.
Muscle Foods: Meat, Poultry and Seafood Technology. Chapman & Hall,
Inc., New York. 573 p.
LAWRIE, R.A. 1985. Meat Science. 4th ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 267 p.
S
SAVELL, J.W. and G.C. SMITH. 2000. Laboratory Manual for Meat Science
7th ed. American Press, Massachusetts. 230 p.
AF
THRAINER, R. 2019. Pork Chop [Photograph]. Pixabay.

https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2019/06/10/15/39/chop-
4264606_960_720.jpg
WARRIS, P.D. 2000. Meat Science: An Introductory Text. CABI Publishing,

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New York. 310 p.

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Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 11
SLAUGHTER AND FABRICATION
Name: _________________________ Score:_______________________

Lab Section:_____________________ Date :_______________________
A. Prepare a diagram of the process flow of pig slaughter.
B
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AF
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B. Poultry Dressing Data

S
Compute for the dressing percentages based on the given data

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Items Weight (kg)

Liveweight 1.9
Hot broiler carcass weight 1.3
Giblet weight 0.2
Dressing percentage without
giblets
Dressing percentage with giblets

C. Meat Cut Characteristics and Identification

1. Identify the meat (beef or pork) in the picture below.
B
PL
Source: Thrainer (2019) Source: Berch (2007)
2. Fill out the table below with the physical characteristics of the meat
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shown in the picture.
Physical Characteristics Pork Beef

Lean Color
Fat Color
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D. Cost Analysis
AF
1. Given the data on pig slaughter, compute for the break-even price per
kg of the resulting carcass.
Items Actual Weight (kg) Cost

-C
1. Liveweight (Farm gate 80

price @ PhP 150/kg
2. Slaughter fee PhP 1,000 per head
3. Transportation Cost PhP 500 per head
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4. Total Cost = (1+2+3)

5. Carcass weight 56 kg
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6. Break-even carcass
cost/kg = (4/5)
2. If the selling price of pork is PhP300/kg, what is the percentage mark-

up based on the break-even price?

EXERCISE 12
PROCESSING OF MEAT PRODUCTS
INTRODUCTION
Meat products are processed not only to lengthen the shelf life but also
to improve the sensory characteristics such as flavor, texture, and appearance.
In the process of preserving meat products, the physical appearance, chemical
composition, and consistency of the meat may change but as long as its
palatability and fitness for human consumption is maintained, preservation is
achieved.
B
LEARNING OUTCOMES
PL
At the end of the exercise, the student must be able to:
1. Discuss the basic principles of meat processing;

2. Discuss the mode of action of the basic curing ingredients;
3. Demonstrate the basic processing of tocino;
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4. Relate the importance of meat processing to the value of the finished
products.
MATERIALS
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Video presentation of tocino making
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uXOU0lrmS10SKYnOp6ASuQuCpu2lz
dvf/view?usp=sharing)
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METHODS
The instructor will discuss the basic principles of meat preservation and
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methods of processing.
Students will process 1 kg of tocino (pork or chicken) following the

formulation and procedure provided.
Tocino Manufacture
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1. Wash the meat with potable water.

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2. Chill the meat overnight.

3. Slice the meat across the muscle grain into 1/8 to 1/4 inch thickness
then weigh.
4. Measure the ingredients based on the actual weight of the meat.
Ingredients Amount/kilo of meat

Sugar 150 grams
Salt 16 grams
Curing salt 7 grams
Monosodium glutamate 1 gram
Ground black pepper 2 grams
Chilled Water 150 mL

5. Dissolve all the dry ingredients in water.

6. Add the solution in meat slices.
7. Lightly massage the meat until the liquid is fully absorbed by the
meat.
8. Cure the tocino in the refrigerator for 12-24 hours.
9. Pack and store in the freezer.
A. Basic Principle of Meat Processing
B
Meat processing involves physical and chemical treatment methods
that alters the properties of fresh meat. It goes beyond simple cutting of meat
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with subsequent cooking. The benefits of processing are preservation,
increased availability of a wide variety of meat products, improved palatability
and product quality, and safety. Meat processing technologies include the
following:
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Technical Processes
Cutting/chopping/comminuting
Mixing/tumbling
Stuffing into meat into casings, molders or other containers
Heat treatment
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Chemical/Biochemical Processes
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Salting/curing
Utilization of spices and non-meat additives
Fermentation and drying
Smoking
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The requisite for meat processing is to use good quality meat as starting
material. Spoilage that has set in raw meat cannot be undone by any
processing technique. It is also important that other ingredients are of premium
quality and the recommended level of inclusion is strictly followed. This is
especially true for curing salts.
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B. Curing Ingredients
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The basic curing ingredients are salt, sugar and nitrites.
1. Salt – contributes to flavor. It helps preserve by lowering the water

activity in meat thus, creating an environment that is unfavorable for
microbial growth. It should be noted that the level of salt used in meat
curing is not sufficient to preserve the product. For this reason, salt is
used in combination with other ingredients. Additional preservation
methods are also used in cured meat products.
2. Sugar – overcomes saltiness and contributes to flavor of the product.

3. Nitrite – is also known as curing salt. This ingredient is commonly

sold as a homogenous mixture of 0.5% nitrite and 99.5% sodium
chloride. It functions for the development of the stable red or pink
cured meat color. It is effective against Clostridium botulinum, and
helps prevent oxidation of meat. A small amount of the ingredient is
enough to achieve color development , and meat preservation.
To produce varieties of meat products, other ingredients like herbs and

spices, fillers, binders and extenders are used. These ingredents contribute to
flavor, texture, wáter binding and preservation. Other processing methods like
fermentation, and smoking are also used.
B
REFERENCES
PL
ABERLE, E.D., J.C. FORREST, D.E. GERRARD and E.W. WILLIS. 2001.
Principles of Meat Science 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,
Iowa. 354 p.
-U
IBARRA, P.I. 1983. Meat Processing for Small and Medium Scale Operations.
College of Agriculture, U. P. Los Baños. College, Laguna. 418 p.
HEINZ, G. and P. HAUTZINGER. 2009. Meat processing technology for small-

to medium-scale producers. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok,
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Thailand. 456 p.
SEBRANEK, J.G., S.M. LONERGAN, M. KING-BRINK and E. LARSON. 2001.

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Meat Science and Processing. Pelrage Press, Wisconsin. 275 p.
TOLDRA, F. 2017. Lawrie’s Meat Science, 8 th ed., Woodhead Publishing,

Cambridge. 713 p.
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WARRIS, P.D. 2000. Meat Science: An Introductory Text. CABI Publishing,

New York. 310 p.
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Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 12
PROCESSING OF MEAT PRODUCTS
Name: _________________________ Score:_______________________

Lab Section:_____________________ Date :_______________________
I. Tocino Manufacture (Optional)
A. Provide pictures of the step by step actual processing procedure that

you did during tocino making. Each picture should have a caption (use
B
extra sheets if necessary).
PL
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S
AF
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B. Product Yield. Using the following data, compute for the product yield.
Weight of meat before processing 1.00 kg

Weight of finished product (tocino) 1.25 kg
Product Yield
C. Costing
B
1. Using the provided information, compute for the total cost
production of the finished product.
PL
Cost of
Quantity Unit Cost of
Ingredients
Items (refer to the Item1
formulation)
Used2
(PhP)
(PhP)
Lean pork or chicken
Salt
Sugar
-U 280.00/kg
20.00/kg
60.00/kg
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Curing Salt 40.00/kg
Black pepper 360.00/kg

AF
MSG 165.00/kg
Ingredient Cost - -
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Overhead cost* - - 35.00
Total cost of Production - -
* PhP 35.00 (cost of labor, water, electricity, packaging, storage, etc.)

1
Unit cost of the Item = Price of a package of ingredient / Total quantity in the package
2
Cost of Ingredient = Quantity x Unit Cost of the Item
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2. If the meat will be sold with 30% mark up, how much would the
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selling price be?

Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 13
PROCESSING OF MILK PRODUCTS
INTRODUCTION
Milk, being nature’s nearly perfect food is intended for the nourishment
of the young. It is described as nearly perfect because it contains all the
essential nutrients with the exception of adequate amounts of Vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) and iron. Since milk contains nearly all essential nutrients, it
provides an excellent medium for all types of microorganisms. Therefore, right
after milk is drawn from the cow’s udder, it should be kept cold at 4°C or lower
B
if not to be processed immediately. This delays the undesirable microbiological
and enzymatic changes that could cause milk spoilage. The common locally
processed dairy products in the Philippines are fresh milk, choco milk, kesong
PL
puti, yoghurt, pastillas and ice cream. Milk is processed to extend its shelf life,
add value by improving the taste, texture, appearance, and other quality
attributes and to make available a variety of milk products for the consumers to
choose from.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
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At the end of the exercise, the student must be able to:
1. Identify products derived from milk.

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2. Demonstrate processing of white cheese and pastillas.
3. Perform pastillas processing.
4. Analyze costs calculations in white cheese and pastillas processing.
AF
MATERIALS
Video Presentations
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Processing of White Cheese

(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1abQYCeZ24KrSRyvBGKC7RRQl
5wH9Z5nA/view?usp=sharing)
Processing of Pastillas
S
(https://drive.google.com/file/d/15AylwDQ-
Sp8NN5Gq0Va8LiSTbRDXarj1/view?usp=sharing)
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METHODS
The instructor will discuss general milk treatments, different products

from milk, white cheese and pastillas processing.
The instructor will also provide the current prices of white cheese
ingredients and packaging materials.
Based on the knowledge gained from the videos and the supplemental
information, the student will accomplish the worksheet.

General Milk Treatments are treatments done to the milk before they
are processed into different products. They are as follows:
1. Clarification and Filtration. These treatments are done to remove

extraneous materials and body cells. These are accomplished either
by using a mechanical centrifuge which clarifies the milk by removing
dirt and somatic cells and separates the fat at the same time or by
passing the milk through a clean cheese cloth which serves as a filter.
2. Cooling (2 to 4°C). Milk freshly drawn from the cow’s udder is warm,
B
about 37˚C. This warm temperature is very favorable for the growth
and multiplication of microorganisms which can cause milk spoilage.
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Immediate cooling is done to delay microbiological and enzymatic
changes thus preventing spoilage if milk is not to be processed right
away.
3. Separation. This involves separation of fat-rich portion (cream) from
the nonfat portion or skim milk. Separation is done either by:
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a. Gravity - this is based on the difference in density between
the fat rich portion (cream) and the nonfat portion (skim milk)
b. Mechanical (centrifugation)
4. Standardization. The purpose of this treatment is to provide
products of uniform fat contents. For example, liquid milk with 3.25%
fat, cream cheese with 20% fat, chocolate drink with 2 % fat, and
others.
S
5. Pasteurization. This heat treatment aims to destroy microorganisms
that cause disease and to destroy other microorganisms and
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enzymes that may shorten the shelf-life of the product.

a. Holding process (batch method) - milk is heated to 145F
(62.8C) for 30 minutes, then cooled rapidly.
b. Flash process (HTST) - milk is heated to 165-180F (73.9-
82.2C) for 15 seconds.
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c. Ultra-High Temperature - milk is heated to 140C for 1

second.
6. Vacuumization. This involves the use of equipment that removes
volatile substances such as odors.
7. Homogenization. The fat in milk exists in the form of globules
ranging from 0.1 to 15 μm in diameter. Homogenization will render
the globules uniform in size of about 2 μm. This prevents clustering
S
to form the cream layer so that they will be uniformly suspended in

solution.
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White Cheese Processing
1. Weigh the fresh milk for soft cheese manufacture and put milk into
casserole or cheese vat.
2. Add to the milk table salt equivalent to 3.0% of the weight of the
milk. Stir milk until the salt is completely dissolved.
3. With clean cheese cloth, filter the milk into a casserole.
4. Pasteurize the milk at 720C for at least 15 seconds using direct or
double boiler method.
5. Cool the milk immediately after pasteurization down to 400C.

6. While stirring the milk, add rennet at a rate of 5-7 grams per 100
liters of cheese milk.
7. Cover the milk and set it aside undisturbed for 20-30 minutes.
8. Test the milk for sign of completeness of coagulation.
9. When the milk has been completely coagulated, cut the coagulum
(roughly a square inch) using cheese knife or stainless-steel knife.
10. Then leave the curd for another 10 minutes.
11. After 10 minutes, stir slowly the curd for 10 minutes.
12. After stirring leave the curd undisturbed for 2-3 minutes, then start
removing 40-50% of the whey.
13. Scoop or pour the curd with some whey into the cheese mold.
14. Cover the tray with clean cheese cloth and drain the cheese at room
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temperature for 2-3 hours or at refrigeration for 4-6 hours.
15. After draining, cut the cheese into blocks of desired size/weight.
16. Wrap each block of cheese.
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Pastillas Processing
1. Mix 1 can (370 ml) of evaporated milk, 1/2 cup of sugar.
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2. Heat the mixture under low flame with continuous mixing until the
mixture is thick.
3. Cool, then shape into desired sizes and roll into dry sugar.
4. Pack.
S
Products from Milk
AF
-C
S
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Figure 13.1. Schematic diagram showing how various milk products are
.’derived from milk.

REFERENCES
ARBUCKLE, W.S. 1986. Ice Cream. 4 th ed. The AVI Publishing Co., Inc.
Westport, Connecticut. 482 p.
DULAY, T.A. 1988. Laboratory Manual in Dairy Technology. Metro Manila,

Philippines: National Bookstore. 99-103.
WONG, N.P. 1988. Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry. 3 rd ed. Van Nostrand

Reinhold Company, New York. 767 p.
B
PL
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S
AF
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S
IA

Agriculture 21
EXERCISE 13
PROCESSING OF MILK PRODUCTS
Name: _________________________ Score:_______________________

Lab Section:_____________________ Date :_______________________
A. Identification of Dairy Products

Complete the crossword puzzle by filling in a word that fits each clue.
B
PL
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S
AF
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Across Down
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2. It is produced by agitating the cream which 1. It is a dairy product made from coagulated,
allows fat droplets to clump together until it compressed, and usually ripened curd of milk.
solidifies. 2. It is the liquid by-product of churning cream
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3. It is the liquid by-product generated from into butter.

cheese manufacturing. 4. It is an unsweetened milk product
6. It is a type of Filipino milk candy traditionally concentrated by partial removal of water.
made with carabao’s milk and sugar. 5. It refers to the fat-concentrate derived mainly
8. It is a type of Filipino sweet custard candy from butter by the removal of practically all the
made with milk, sugar, and egg yolks. moisture and non-fat solids.
9. It is a sweetened frozen dairy dessert 7. It is produced by removing fat from whole
usually made from milk or cream, sugar, and milk.
flavorings. 11. It is obtained by evaporation of moisture
10. It is the fat-enriched portion of milk that from whey.
can be separated manually or mechanically. 12. It is a fermented milk product containing a
13. It is a mixture of buffalo’s milk and mixed cultures of Lactobacillus delbrueckii
reconstituted skimmed milk. subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus
14. Indigenous cheese of the Philippines. thermophilus.

B. White Cheese Processing Data
1. Product Yield. Calculate the yield (%) of white cheese that can be
produced from the given data.
Ingredients Kg
Raw Milk 10.00
Weight of Cheese 1.80
B
% Yield
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2. Costing. Using the given information, compute the following:
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Unit Cost
Inclusion Total Cost
Item per kg
(kg) (PhP)
(PhP)
1. Raw Milk 10.00 35.00
2. Table Salt 0.30 2.00

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3. Rennet 0.003 30,000.00
AF
Ingredient Cost (IC) - -
4. Processing Cost - -
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(PC) = (20% of IC )
5. Total Cost (IC+PC) - -
Price per 200-gram - -

cheese
S
Show your computation here:

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C. Pastillas Processing Data (Optional)
1. Provide pictures of the step by step actual processing procedure

that you did during pastillas making. Each picture should have a
caption (use extra sheets if necessary).
B
PL
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S
AF
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2. Costing. Using the given information, compute the following:
Unit Cost Total Cost

Item Inclusion
(PhP) (PhP)
1. Evaporated Milk 1 can 54.00/can
2. Sugar 1/2 cup 65.00/cup
3. Ingredient Cost - -
B
(IC = 1+2)
4. Processing Cost - -
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(PC = 20% of IC )
5. Total Cost (IC+PC) - -
6. Breakeven Price - -
(BP = Total Cost/Yield)
Yield: 217 grams
7. Selling Price
(15% mark-up)
-U- -
S
Show your computation here:
AF
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S
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University of the Philippines Los Baños

College of Agriculture and Food Science

Published and Printed by: Institute of Animal Science

The laboratory portion of Agriculture 21 (Introduction to Animal Science) aims

This laboratory manual contains 13 exercises with clear learning outcomes/

- To know the basic concept and principles of animal physiology, breeding,

Practical applications of the knowledge of external anatomy (emphasis on

1. Identify morphological differences in livestock and poultry species.

2. Calculate the body weight estimate of animals using different methods.

● Illustration of livestock and poultry external morphology

3. Familiarize yourself with the other husbandry terms (refer to supplemental

B. Body Weight Determination Methods

1. Animals are restrained properly before taking any measurements at the

Formula 1: LW = -84.068 + 0.902 (HG) + 0.711 (BL) (Sandro, 2014)

Formula 2: LW = -92.732+1.002(HG)+ 0.479 (BL) +0.250(FG)

2. Weighing scale. Livestock and poultry species use different weighing

3. Eyeball estimation - (brief description here)

Common Animal Husbandry Terms

a. Calving – act of giving birth in cows

2. Gestation – pregnancy time from conception to birth

6. Fertility – ability to produce fertilizable ova and to provide proper

Ability to produce large number of sperm capable of fertilization.

7. Fecundity or prolificacy – ability to give birth to offspring frequently or

numerous young at frequent intervals.

8. Sterility – inability to produce normal young

1. Ox – ruminant member of the bovine family, or sometimes the male

C. Horse (Equus equus Linnaeus)

5. Foal – young horse of either sex below one year of age

9. Equitition – horsemanship, the art of riding on horseback

D. Swine (Sus scrofa domesticus Erxleben)

1. Boar – male pig of any age

yet given birth

castrated before the secondary sex characters have developed

E. Sheep (Ovis aries) and Goat (Capra hircus Linnaeus)

1. Ram – male sheep of any age for breeding purposes

F. Meat and Meat Products

a. Beef – cattle, 1 year old and above

2. Meat – properly dressed flesh derived from mature animals in good

1. Poultry – a collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic

2. Economically important poultry species:

a. Chicken – Gallus gallus domesticus

e. Quail – Coturnix coturnix

3. Chick – young chicken while in the down stage

Body Heart Girth (cm)

80 36 40 48 60 75 94 118 141 170

110 59 64 72 84 99 117 130 165 193

120 69 74 82 94 109 120 140 175 203

Figure 1.1. External parts of carabao

Figure 1.3. External parts of goat (Scanes, 2011)

Figure 1.5. External parts of chicken

PARKER, B. A. 1992. Genetic Improvement. In: Carabao Production in the

SCANES, c. 2011. Fundamentals of Animal Science. DELMAR CENGAGE

VILLEGAS, V. E. 1965. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. McCullogh Printing

Lab Section: Date:

a. Comb and Wattle

Duck Female Male

2. Duck (describe the

Image from Image from:

1. Small Ruminant Sheep Goat