11 Radioactive decay Answers

Page 195 Test yourself on prior knowledge

1 a) In one half-life, half of a radioactive isotope decays to an isotope of another element.
b) A random process is unpredictable – a die has a probability of 1/6 of turning up a six but you
cannot predict which throw will produce a six.
c) A radioactive isotope (or radioisotope) is an isotope which is unstable; such an isotope decays
by radioactive emission.
1
2 6 pm to midnight is 6 h or 3 half-lives, so amount remaining will be 23 the original amount
1
8
× 1.6 g = 0.2 g remains.
208 204 4
3 a) Po → Pb + He
84 82 2
138 138 0
b) Ba → La + e + ν̅𝑒
56 57 −1
4 There are many possible uses for you to research.

Page 200 Activity

Half-life of protactinium
1 Corrected count rate.
time/s 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
count rate/Bq 8.8 7.3 6.3 6.2 5.8 4.8 4.6 4.3 4.2
corrected count rate/Bq 8.5 7.0 6.0 5.9 5.5 4.5 4.3 4.0 3.9

time/s 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

count rate/Bq 4 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.6 2.4 1.9 2 1.8
corrected count rate/Bq 3.7 2.8 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.1 1.6 1.7 1.5

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

2 Draw the best curve through the points (this is quite hard to do).
Calculate some half-lives by measuring the time the count takes to drop from e.g. 7 Bq to 3.5 Bq,
6 Bq to 3 Bq and 5 Bq to 2.5 Bq. You will find slightly different answers for each case. But you can
take an average that should come out at around 70 s.
3
time/s 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
ln A 2.14 1.95 1.79 1.77 1.70 1.50 1.46 1.39 1.36

time/s 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

ln A 1.31 1.03 0.92 0.79 0.83 0.74 0.47 0.53 0.41

Decay constant, – λ = gradient of the graph

Use value given by Excel or calculate:
2.06−0.40
λ = 170 s
1.66
= 170 s-1

= 0.0098 s-1
0.693
T = 0.0098 s

= 71 s
Using a log graph helps you to average out the random errors. It is easier to draw (or calculate)
the best straight line through the points. The answer obtained through this method is likely to be
more accurate.

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

Page 201 Test yourself

𝐼0 1
1 𝐼20
= 0.818 = 1.22
𝐼20 0.818
𝐼40
= 0.670 = 1.22
𝐼40 0.670
𝐼60
= 0.548 = 1.22 etc.

The ratios are the same for each 20 s interval.

ln 2
2 a) λ = 𝑇1
2
0.693
= 453×24×3600 s-1
= 1.7 × 10-8 s-1
b) i) 109 g of cadmium-109 contain 6 × 1023 atoms
1 g of cadmium-109 contains 6 × 1023/109 atoms
80 μg of cadmium-109 contain 80 × 10-6 × 6 x 1023/109 = 4.4 × 1017 atoms
ii) A = λ N
= 1.7 × 10-8 s-1 × 4.4 × 1017
= 7.5 × 109 Bq
iii) A = A0 e-λt
0.693 -1
It is more convenient for us to work in days here using λ = d
453
0.693
λ t = 453d × (2 × 365) d

= 1.12
So after two years
A = 7.5 × 109 × e-1.12
= 2.5 × 109 Bq
3 A = A0 e-λt
𝐴
ln (𝐴 ) = e-λt
0

ln (1/3) = −λ t
–1.1 = − λ × (45 × 60) s
So λ = 4.0 x 10-4 s-1
0.4 cm2
4 a) The fraction of -rays absorbed =
4𝜋×52 cm2

= 1.3 × 10-3
70
So total count = 1.3 × 10-3
70
Total count = 1.3×10−3
= 5.5 × 104 Bq

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

b) A = λ N
5.5 × 104 = λ × 4 × 1016
5.5×104
λ = 4×1016

= 1.4 × 10-22 s-1

0.693 0.693
T1 = 𝜆
= 1.4×10−12 s−1
2

= 5.0 × 1011 s = 15 900 years

5 a) N atoms of P would have twice the activity of N atoms of Q so λp is twice λQ
0.693
Since λ = it follows that the half-life of P is half that of Q.
T1
2

So half-life of P = 50 years.
N
b) i) 200 years is 2 half-lives of Q, so 4 atoms of Q remain.
2N N
200 years is 4 half-lives of P, so 16 = 8 atoms of P remain.
2N
ii) 50 years is 1 half-life of P, so 2
= N atoms of P remain.
N
In half a half-life atoms of Q remain.
√2
N 1 N
(After 100 years – 2 lots of 50 years – × = are left.)
√2 √2 2
ln 2
Or N50 = N0e – (100 × 100)

= N e-0.5 ln2
= N e-0.3465
N
= 0.707 N =
√2

6 You need to describe how you determine the background count.

Set up a rate meter to determine the count rate as a function of time.
Correct for background count.
Plot the activity against the time. Draw a smooth curve. Check the time for the activity to halve –
repeat with different parts of the graph.
Or Plot ln (A) against t and measure the gradient which is – .

Page 203 Test yourself

7 a) Cobalt-60. Gamma rays can penetrate the plastic bag and syringe, then kill any bacteria. Very
high intensity radiation is used, with operators hidden away behind protective screens.
b) Technetium-99. Gamma rays can escape from the body and be detected. Again radiographers
need to keep away (as they do this all the time). The 6 h half-life means that there is high
intensity radiation (which can be detected) for a short time. The overall dose to the patient is
as low as possible.
c) Iridium-192. Beta particles are more heavily ionising than gamma, so they are better at killing
the cancerous cells. The short half-life of 74 days means a small amount of iridium can deliver
a high activity. But the wire is only inserted for a short time.

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

d) Bismuth-213. The short half-life means that the treatment can be administered in a few hours
in the hospital. Alpha particles are most effective inside the body as they are highly ionising.
Alpha particles are safe for the radiographer, as they will not get out of the patient’s body.
8 a) In 20 minutes, we assume there has been negligible decay of chromium-51.
Volume of blood × 15 700 Bq = 10 ml × 7.4 x 106 Bq
10 ml ×7.4×106
Volume = 1.57×104

= 4.7 l
b) i) A = A0 e-λt
 0.693 
− 2 
 27.7 
= 15.7 kBq × e
= 15.7 kBq × 0.951
= 14.9 kBq
ii) The lower-than-predicted count rate suggests that blood has been lost, but that new blood
has been made to replace the lost blood. This way the total amount of the radioactive
tracer in the blood has been reduced.
9 a) i) Beta particles are more heavily ionising than gamma rays, and their range in the body
relatively short. So the radiation dose is localised and will have an effect on the cells near
to where it is injected.
ii) Beta particles cannot penetrate the body, so they do not reach the surgeon.
0.02×10−3
b) 0.02 mg of ruthenium-106 contain 106
× 6 × 1023 atoms = 1.1 × 1017 atoms.

A =N
0.693
= s-1 × 1.1 × 1017
367×24×3600

= 2.5 × 109 s-1

So total of beta particles: 2 × 1012 = 2.5 × 109 s-1 × t
2×1012
t = 2.5×109 s−1
= 800 s or 13 m 20 s
10 a) A = A0 e-λt
 0.693 
− t
 5730 
66 = 90 × e
66 0.693
ln( ) = – t
90 5730
0.693
– 0.310 = – t
5730

t = 2560 years
b) After 60 000 years over 10 half-lives have elapsed.
1
So A = A0 × (2)10
90 × 0.001 = 0.09 counts per hour
The errors become large and dating unreliable, as this count rate is much smaller than the
background count.

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

11 a) 5.5 MeV = 5.5 × 106 x 1.6 × 10-19 J

= 8.8 × 10-13 J
b) i) Power from the radioactive decay × 0.35 = 470 W
470
P = W
0.35

= 1340 W
P = Activity × 8.8 × 10-13 J
P
A = 8.8×10−13
1340
= 8.8×10−13

= 1.5 × 1015 s-1

ii) A =  N
0.693
= 87.7×365×24×3600 s-1 × N

= 2.5 × 10–10 N
1.5×1015
So N =
2.5×10−10

= 6.0 × 1024 atoms

238 g of plutonium-238 contain 6 × 1023 atoms
6.0×1024 atoms mass
So 6.0×1023 atoms = 238 g

Mass = 10 × 238 g
= 2.4 kg
c) The power available is proportional to the activity of the isotope so
P = P0 e-λt
320 = 470 e-λt
0.68 = e-λt
ln(0.68) = - t
0.693
– 0.38 = – 87.7
t

t = 48.6 years
So Voyager’s instruments will stop working in about 2025 or 2026.
d) The half-life of americium-241 is about five times that of plutonium-238, so the activity of a
given number of atoms is about five times less. Americium-241 and plutonium-238 are of
similar mass, so about 5 times as much Americium would be needed to produce the same
power. Presumably, NASA decided that by 2025 the mission would be complete. So the
plutonium option was probably cheaper and allowed a smaller nuclear generator.

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

Page 206 Test yourself

12 a) When an atom or nucleus is in a metastable state, it exists for an extended time in a state
other than the system’s state of least energy.
b) In an atom, electrons that orbit the nucleus in the lowest level are in the ‘K shell’. These
electrons are very tightly bound to the nucleus and actually spend some time inside the
nucleus itself. The nucleus can capture such an electron, so that a proton is turned into a
neutron.
256 256 4
13 a) Lr → Md + He
103 101 2
248 244 4
b) Fm → Cf + He
100 98 2
210 210 0
c) At → Po + e + ν
85 84 1
196 196 0
d) Ir → Pt + e + ν̅
77 78 −1
165 0 165
e) Er + e→ Ho + ν
68 −1 67
14 a) Heavy nuclei have more neutrons to counterbalance the large electrostatic repulsion of the
protons. With more neutrons there is a great attractive nuclear force.
b) Nuclei which are deficient in protons tend to decay by emission of −; nuclei which are rich in
protons tend to decay by emitting +.
237 209 4 0
15 Np → Bi + 7 He + n e + nν̅
93 83 2 −1
93 = 83 + (7 × 2) − n
n = 97 – 93 = 4

Pages 207–211 Practice questions

1 B
2 C
3 C
4 D
5 C
6 A
7 D
8 C
9 B
10 B

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

238 206 4 0
11 a) U→ Pb + 8 He + 𝑥 e + nν̅
92 82 2 −1
92 = 82 + (8 × 2) − x
x = 98 – 92
x=6
b) i) A = N
0.693
= 4.5 × 109 × 365 × 24 × 3600 s-1 × 6 × 1022 [1]
= 2.9 × 105 Bq [1]
ii) Uranium decreases on curve, lead increases on curve – both labelled [1]
Values add to 6 × 1022 and intersect 4.5 × 109 years, 3 × 1022 atoms [1]

iii) ¾ of the material is Uranium and ¼ lead; so

3
= e–λt [1]
4
3
ln(4) = −t
0.693
=− × t [1]
T1
2
3
ln( )
4
t = −0.693 × T1
2
−0.288
= −0.693
× 4.5 × 109 years
= 1.87 × 109 years [1]
14 14 0
12 a) 6C → 7N + −1e + ν̅ [1]

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

b) i) The decay constant is the probability of one nucleus decaying per unit time; or the fraction
of atoms present decaying per unit time.
0.693
ii) T1 = λ
[1]
2
0.693
= 3.8 × 10−12 s−1 [1]

= 1.8 × 1011 s [1]

= 5780 years[1]
iii) A = N [1]
= 3.8 × 10−12 s−1 × 2 × 1022 × 10−12 [1]
= 0.076 Bq [1]
c) A = A0e–λt [1]
0.051 0.693
ln (0.076) = − 5780 years
× t [1]
0.399
t = × 5780 years
0.693

= 3330 years [1]

131 131 0
13 a) 53I → 54Xe + −1e + ̅ν [1]
b) -particles are ionising. [1]
Ionisation damages the cells by creating acids which can denature DNA. [1]
c) -rays are highly penetrating and will pass through the body. [1]
Most of the -particles will be stopped by the body. [1]
d) 32 days is 4 half-lives. [1]
1 4 1 15
(2) = 16
of the iodine will be left, so 16 has decayed. [1]

e) A = A0e–λt [1]
A0 = Aeλt
0.693
λ = 8

= 0.087 days−1 [1]

t = 0.087 × 2
= 0.173
A0 = 900 kBq × e0.173
= 900 kBq × 1.189
= 1070 kBq [1]
48 0 48
14 a) 24Cr + −1e → 23V + ν [1]
b) i) -rays can penetrate the cylinder wall. [1]
ii) The short half-life produces a high activity for a small mass. [1]
The trial only lasts a few days, so there is no need for a long half-life. With a short half-life
there is no nuclear waste over a long period. [1]

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

iii) A = A0e–λt [1]

A = 450 e−λt
0.693
t = 22
× 40
= 1.26 [1]
A = 450 × e−1.26
= 128 counts per minute [1]
115
c) Fraction left = 128 [1]

= 0.9
So 0.1 has been worn away. [1]
244 240
15 a) 96Cm → 94Pu + 42He [1]
6 × 1023
b) i) N = × 20 [1]
244

= 4.9 × 1022 [1]

ii) A = N
0.693
= 18 × 365 × 24 × 3600 × 4.9 × 1022 [1]
= 6.0 × 1013 Bq [1]
iii) Energy of -particle = 5.8 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19 J
= 9.3 × 10−13 J [1]
P = 9.3 × 10−13 J × 6.0 × 1013 s−1 [1]
= 56 W [1]
iv) P ∝ A, and 36 years = 2 half lives, so
1
P = 4 × 56 W
= 14 W [1]
16 a) i) Two isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. [1]
ii) In one half-life, half the of the nuclei in a sample of a radioisotope will decay. [1]
0.693
b) λ = 0.8 s

= 0.87 s−1 [1]

c) Proton-rich isotopes decay by +. [1]
Isotopes which are rich in neutrons decay by −. [1]
35 35
d) i) 18Ar → 17Cl + 01e + ν [1]
37 0 37
ii) 18Ar + −1e → 17Cl + ν [1]
iii) 41
18Ar →
41
19K + 0
−1e + ν̅ [1]

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

0.693
17 We need to use A = N and λ = [1]
T1
2

0.693 N
so that T1 = [1]
2 A

We can calculate the number of atoms in a sample by knowing its mass. [1]
6 × 1023 × mass
N= 238
[1]
Activity can be measured over a period of time using a GM tube [1]
And total activity of the sample calculated knowing the fraction of emissions entering the GM
tube. [1]

Page 211 Stretch and challenge

0.693
18 a) Ap = 300
N
0.693 × 2 N
AQ = 150
AP N 150 1
= × =
AQ 300 2N 4
1
So Ap = 4 AQ
b) If A0 is the initial activity of sample Q
0.693 × t
1
Ap = 4 A0 e− 300

0.693 × t
AQ = A0e− 150

At time t, AP = AQ
0.693 × t 0.693 × t
1
So 4 e− 300 = e− 150

1 0.693×t 0.693×t
ln 4 − 300
= − 150
1 0.693×t
ln 4 = − 300
0.693×t
– 1.386 = −
300

t = 600 days
Or you might see that after 600 days P has had 2 half-lives and Q has had 4 half-lives. So P’s
activity reduces to ¼ of its original and Q’s activity to 1/16 of its original. So they are now
equal.

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

19
Count
800 511 352 261 205 166 109 75 53 37 27 19
rate s−1
ln (count) 6.68 6.24 5.86 5.56 5.32 5.11 4.69 4.31 3.97 3.61 28 2.94
Time/min 0 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Orange line is the best-fit for second source, green line is best-fit for first source
Considering the orange line:
3−5.8
gradient = − λ2 = = 0.07
40−0

λ2 = 0.07 min-1
0.693
T1 = 0.07
2

= 10.0 min
By about 20 min the count from the first source has become negligible.
So we can now work out the contribution to the total count from each source, using the idea that
T1 (second source) is 10 minutes and that the activity of this source at 20 minutes is 75 counts per
2
second (values at 0 minutes and 10 minutes can be calculated by inspection and the others by
using A = A0e–λt).
Count rate/s−1 800 511 352 261 205 166 109 75 53 37 27 19
Source 1
500 250 125 63 31 16 3 0 0 0 0 0
count rate/s−1
Source 2
300 261 227 198 172 150 106 75 53 37 27 19
count rate/ s−1
Time/min 0 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

By inspection we can see that the half-life of source 1 is 2 min. This can also be worked out from
the graph:  = 0.3 min−1 so T1 = 2 min.
2

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
11 Radioactive decay Answers

20  = 1 + 2
1 1 1
T
=T + T2
1
1 1 1
= +
T 24 36
3 2
= 72 + 72
5
= 72
72
T1 = 5
= 14.4 h
2

So it takes 28.8 h for the activity to drop to a quarter of the initial value (100 Bq to 25 Bq)

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019