White Paper

Liquid level measurement - Basics 101

Part 2

John Schnake

Executive Summary

The perfect level technology that works for every liquid level and point level application does not exist. Hydrostatic
pressure has been around, it seems forever, and is proven in many applications. Non-contact radar and guided wave
radar level instrumentation are popular and growing. Capacitance and conductivity have long histories of success in
certain applications. However, it is still true that certain level technologies work better for some applications than
other level technologies. This paper will explore a number of technologies for measuring liquid level and point level
and will allow the reader to understand the basics of each technology with its inherent advantages and disadvantages.

This paper is available in its entirety, or in three separate parts. The first part of this paper focuses on hydrostatic level
measurement. The second part focuses on continuous liquid level measurement utilizing newer technologies and the
third, and last part, focuses on point liquid level measurement.

About the Author

John Schnake is Manager, Marketing & Sales Support at Endress+Hauser GmbH+Co, Division Level+Pressure in
Greenwood, Indiana. He received his Bachelor of Science Degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of
Illinois and a Masters of Business Administration from Arizona State University.

John has 18 years of experience in the Automation and Instrumentation business holding positions in Applications
Engineering, Inside Sales, Outside Sales, Product Management and Marketing Management at Honeywell and
Applied Automation.

He is a member of ISA and has published several articles in instrumentation journals. John can be contacted at
Endress+Hauser (317) 535-1365 or via e-mail at: [email protected]

CP 022F/24/ae/08.07
White Paper
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Liquid level measurement - Basics 101 Part 2

Time of Flight technology guided wave radar does contact the process noise. Since the noise is traveling through
Time of flight devices are much newer media because it uses a long wave guide to air (very low density compared to most
technology than hydrostatic devices and better direct the microwave energy. Since solids and liquids), there must be enough
consist of ultrasonic and radar devices the speed of light is well known like the difference in the mass of the reflector to
(non-contact and guided wave). Ultrasonic speed of sound, the level of the liquid can be reflect the waves. In this case, it is your ear
waves are not electromagnetic waves, they measured by measuring the amount of time drum. It has enough mass and the drum
are mechanical sound waves. The speed it takes for the microwaves to travel to the vibrates when the sound is received. The
of mechanical waves travel is well known liquid, and reflect back to the Radar device. speed of ultrasonic waves can be more
– about 1096 feet per second (334 meters/ Diagram 6 provides an explanation of how easily influenced than the speed of light.
second) through air at 68°F. The liquid Time of Flight devices can measure the level The temperature and type of gaseous
level can be determined by measuring the of liquid in a tank. media have a tremendous effect on sound
amount of time it takes for the ultrasonic waves. The temperature of the gaseous
wave to travel to the liquid, reflect and Equation 3: L = E – D media influences the speed of the wave.
travel back to the device. The higher the temperature, the faster the
L = liquid level sound waves travel. While the temperature
Radar, an acronym for Radio Detection E = distance from measuring device to zero at the level device can be compensated by a
and Ranging, was patented by the British level temperature sensor in the ultrasonic device,
in 1935. The technology, based on radio D = distance from measuring device to the level measurement will only be accurate
waves, was used for locating aircraft. liquid if the entire space between the sensor and
Similar research for locating ships as well liquid are the same temperature. The type
as aircraft using radio frequency was Equation 4: D = C x T/2 of gaseous media also influences the speed
underway in the U.S. and Germany. Radar of the sound waves. For example, sound
devices used today for level measurement D = distance from measuring device to travels almost three times faster in helium
operate with electromagnetic radiation liquid than it does air. Most ultrasonic devices
at much shorter wavelengths – 1.5 to C = speed of sound or speed of light can be programmed for the type of gaseous
26 gigahertz – commonly known as T = amount of time for sound or light to media the sound waves will travel through.
microwaves. Non-contact radar and guide travel from device to liquid and back See Diagram 7 below for Advantages and
wave radar operate using the same principle Things to know.
of microwaves; non-contact is considered Based on Diagram 6 and Equations 3 and 4,
free space (not contacting the media) while the level of liquid can be determined from Advantages
the time it takes for sound waves or light
waves to travel from the measuring device • Non-contact (lowest cost)
to the liquid and back to the measuring • Installation at top
device. One also needs to calculate E based • Accuracy independent of density changes,
on the size of the tank. dielectric or conductivity
• No calibration with medium required
Ultrasonic
The principle of ultrasonic devices is based
on the amount of time it takes to send Things to know
and receive a reflected ultrasonic sound • Minimum density required
wave from the media. Ultrasonic waves
• Foam is an issue
are similar to audible sound waves in that
they are mechanical waves. Most ultrasonic • Blocking Distance
transmitters and receivers operate from 10 • Turbulent surfaces
KHz to 70 KHz, well above the frequency • Vapors/gas above the liquid
of audible sound waves. The speed of
• Temperature difference between liquid and
sound in air is well known at (1096 feet
sensor
per second (334 meters/second) through
air at 68°F). In order for ultrasonic waves • No vacuum (10 psia), no high pressures (44
to be reflected, they need a media with a psia)
certain mass (density). In level measuring
applications, there must be enough mass Diagram 7 – Ultrasonic level devices – Advantages
and Things to know
in the liquid (density) to reflect the sound
waves. Using audible sound waves as an
analogy, you can think of your ear drums
Diagram 6 – Time of Flight principle
and what happens to them when hearing a

2
Advantages of ultrasonic include: the device generally accepted as the most accurate Advantages
is non-contact; it can be installed at the top level devices – some can measure level to
of the tank as a compact device or remote. ±0.5 mm or ±0.02 inches. This is one of • Very accurate - ±0.5 mm (0.02 inches)
Measurement accuracy is not affected by the main reasons why suppliers, processors • Installation at top
density, dielectric number or conductivity and sellers of crude oil and other high cost • Non-contact
changes. While ultrasonic level devices are materials will use a radar device as part of
• Accuracy independent of dielectric constant,
used in many liquid and solid applications, their tank gauging equipment to accurately
density and conductivity
they are traditionally used more in the measure level. See Diagram 8 for a typical
wastewater industry. There are things to non-contact radar device. • No re-setup required when changing
keep in mind though. Foam is an issue liquids
since it is like air and does not have enough
mass to deflect the sound waves. Turbulent Things to know
surfaces can affect the angle of incidence
• Must take into account tank design
of the sound waves and therefore cause
multiple reflections. Large temperature • Foam can be an issue
difference between the level of the product • Blocking distance
and where the sensor is located is an issue • Turbulent surfaces
since temperature changes the speed of
sound. Remember too that different gases • Minimum dielectric constant
affect the speed of sound. And, last but
Diagram 9 – Advantages & Things to know with
not least, sound cannot travel through a radar devices
vacuum and most ultrasonic devices are
designed to only operate up to 45 – 50 psi.
Guided wave radar
Radar (non-contact) Guided wave radar devices use the same
Non-contact radar devices use microwaves Diagram 8 – Typical non-contact radar device principle as non-contact radar devices
in the 6 to 26 gigahertz range to measure – it has the ability to transmit and receive
liquid level in tanks. Like the speed of Great accuracy and contact-less reflected microwave energy. Guided wave
sound, the speed of light (electromagnetic measurement are not the only positives of (sometimes called TDR – Time Domain
radiation) is well known – 186,000 miles non-contact radar. See Diagram 9 below Reflectometry) operates at 1.5 GHertz.
per second. Based on equations 3 and for Advantages and Things to know. Non- While the electronics are mostly the same
4 above, the level can be calculated by contact radar devices can be installed in as non-contact radar, the big difference is
knowing the dimensions of the tank and the top of the tank (unlike hydrostatic) and the wave guide. The wave guide is a metal
measuring the amount of time it takes for are not affected by liquids with changing rod or rope which guides the energy to the
the microwaves to reflect off the process dielectric number, conductivity or density. process media. See Diagram 10 below. The
media. Why do radar level devices use When using non-contact radar, you must wave guide directs approximately 80% of
microwaves compared to other types of also take into account the tank shape. the available energy down the guide within
energy in the electromagnetic spectrum? Nozzles and other devices protruding an 8” radius.
Microwaves have little effect from type into the tank can have some affect on
of gases, temperature, pressure, buildup measurement. The liquid level should be
and condensate. However, the ability smooth and foamless. Agitated surfaces
for the process medium to reflect or not and foam can have some affect on level
reflect microwaves needs to be taken into measurements. Similar to ultrasonic, some
account. One can determine this ability radar devices will experience a blocking
to reflect light or microwaves by looking distance. However, some other radar designs
at the dielectric number of the media. (pulsed radar) do not experience blocking
The dielectric number is a measure of the distances. Blocking distance is when the
polarization power of an insulating material level gets too close to the radar device;
or how much charge can be stored in a type the reflections cannot be received while
of material vs. air. Water has a dielectric the radar is emitting microwave pulses.
number of 80 and is considered a great Last but not least, the liquid must have a
reflector of microwaves. Air has a dielectric minimum dielectric number. Minimum
number of 1 and is considered a poor dielectric for free space installation is
reflector of microwaves. Aqueous mixtures generally 2. A radar device with a stilling
tend to work well with radar due to the well or bypass tube can be used down to
high dielectric number. However, while 1.6.
hydrocarbon based liquids can be measured,
the measuring ranges may be lower due to
lower dielectrics numbers. Petroleum oil
has a dielectric number of 2 while gasoline
has a dielectric number between 2 and
3. Because, ambient conditions have little
effect on microwaves, radar devices are Diagram 10 – Guide wave radar devices – cable and
rod versions

3
Why would getting more energy directed Capacitance level measurement dielectric. See Equation 6 and Diagram 13
on the process media be of help? It’s all Commercial capacitance level transmitters below.
about the signal to noise ratio. Even with are proven devices and were first introduced
interferences from nozzles or point level in the 1950’s. They are also extremely Equation 6:           


devices, more energy can be reflected versatile in that they can measure the
back to the measuring device. More continuous level and point level of liquids, C = capacitance
energy also means being able to work slurries, liquid-liquid interface as well as Er = dielectric number of the electric
better with lower dielectric liquids as point level of solids. Capacitance technology insulator
well as applications that might have foam. for level devices has also become known L = length of the capacitance probe
Just like non-contact radar, guide wave as reactance, admittance or RF technology. D = diameter of the tank
radar devices are very accurate ±2 mm The theory for capacitance level transmitters d = diameter of the capacitance probe
and the accuracy is independent of the can be credited to Michael Faraday through
liquid’s conductivity, density and dielectric his work in electromagnetic induction,
number. No re-configuration is needed if electric generators and transformers. Part
changing measuring liquids in the tank. See of his work resulted in the measure of
Advantages and Thing to know in Diagram capacitance which is defined as electric
11 below. The following things should charge per voltage. The SI engineering
be remembered. Just like non-contact unit for capacitance, farad, was named
radar, you must take into account tank after him. A capacitor consists of two
design. Agitators are an issue with guided electrode plates and an electrical insulator
wave because the probe/cable protrudes (dielectric). Charge can be stored in a
into the tank. While light foam is not capacitor by directing direct current across
an issue, heavy foam can effect the level the electrodes. The amount of charge stored
measurement. Guided wave radar devices or capacitance is dependent on the distance
work particularly well in a tank bypass. between the electrodes, the area of the Diagram 13 – Capacitance theory applied to a
electrode plate and type of dielectric. See cylindrical tank

Advantages Equation 5 and Diagram 12 below.

Both the capacitance of the probe using
• Very accurate - ±0.2 mm (0.04 inches) air as the dielectric (empty tank) and the
Equation 5: C = (0.0884 ∗ Er ∗ A) / d
• Works with some foam capacitance of the probe in the media to be
• Installation at top measured (full tank) must be calculated.
C = capacitance
Equation 5 should be used for both of these
• Accuracy independent of dielectric constant, Er = dielectric number of the electric
calculations – only the dielectric of the
density and conductivity insulator
liquid to be measured will affect the second
• No re-setup required
A = area of the electrode plates
calculation. This provides the change in
D = distance between the electrode plates
capacitance from empty tank (zero) to
Things to know full tank (full span). See Diagram 14 for a
summary of the Advantages and Things to
• Must take into account tank design
know. In general, capacitance devices work
• Heavy foam can be an issue well with non-conductive liquids that have
• Blocking Distance dielectric numbers less than 10. They also
• Turbulent surfaces work well with conductive liquids which
are considered to be conductive when the
• Minimum dielectric constant dielectric is over 10. Capacitance probes
are far from expensive compared to radar
Diagram 11 – Guide wave radar devices –
Advantages and Things to know or ultrasonic. They are a well established
Diagram 12 – Simple capacitor
technology and operate with a fast speed of
response. See Diagram 14 for Advantages
This theory of capacitors can be applied and Things to know. A fast speed of
to a cylindrical tank. For non-conductive response is important when quickly filling
liquids, the metal capacitance probe is small tanks. Capacitance probes are quite
one electrode, the metal tank wall acts as versatile and can be used for interface
the second electrode and the liquid is the measurement of oil/water mixtures. They
dielectric. Capacitance probes can also be are also used in high pressure and high
used with conductive liquids. The metal temperature applications and can be used
probe will be insulated with a dielectric in some applications with foam depending
– Teflon® as an example. The metal probe is on the conductivity of the foam. Things to
one electrode, the liquid in the tank coupled know include: There are many versions of
with the metal tank wall is the second capacitance probes based on media type (is
electrode and the probe insulation is the the liquid conductive or non-conductive)
and tank wall material. A probe coating

4
must be used with conductive liquids and   Advantages
you will need to take into account material
• Very versatile

chemical compatibility with the liquid. The 
 
capacitance calculation for empty and full • Non-invasive, no-contact
is important because a minimum change • No moving parts
of capacitance of about 10 pF is needed for
• When all else fails!
measurement. Last but not least, foam can
be tricky with capacitance probes. If the
Things to know
foam is conductive, the capacitance probe
will see the liquid and the foam as the • Most expensive level device
complete level. Check with your supplier for • Is gamma safe? Yes
other cases. • Agencies track all sources
• Requires extra documents/paperwork
Advantages • Swipe tests
• Very cost effective • Regulations dependent on country


• Established principle
 

 Diagram 16 – Advantages and Things to know for

Gamma
• Fast speed of response 



• Interface measurement possible Diagram 15 - Gamma level measurement device

Gamma is a versatile technology that can
• High temperatures and pressures possible be used to measure continuous level, point
While the thought of having nuclear level, density of the media or interface.
material in one’s plant can concern many, Gamma’s biggest advantage is that it is
Things to know gamma level devices have been proven to not only non-contact measurement, it is
• Many versions be safe and reliable if safety procedures non-invasive; it is mounted on the side
• Conductive/insulator and regulations are followed. The sale of the tank and there is no intrusion into
• Probe coating - chemical compatibility of these devices is heavily regulated by the tank. Gamma devices have no moving
the governments (Nuclear Regulatory parts and are often only considered when
• Ground reference tube
Commission in the U.S. or Canadian all other level technologies have failed.
• Non-metallic
Nuclear Safety Commission in Canada Things to know include: You should expect
• Re-calibration with different media for example) of each country. There are to pay more for a gamma device than any
• 10 pF minimum span piles of documentation and procedures other level measurement device. Also, you
• Foam can be an issue
that describe how qualified manufacturers should understand gamma radiation and the
can safely build, store and distribute the precautions that your company will need to
Diagram 14 – Advantages and Things to know for gamma devices, how qualified buyers can take to make sure the product is working
capacitance level measurement safely use them, and how qualified service safely. This includes performing swipe tests,
personnel can safely commission, maintain documenting them and being prepared to
Radiometric (gamma) level or decommission the devices. The safety of be audited. It also includes documenting
measurement personnel is number one and the amount the amount of radiation that operation or
Similar to radar devices, gamma level of radiation over time that one can receive maintenance personnel would receive when
devices use electromagnetic radiation is well known and documented. All of working close to the gamma level device.
emitters and receivers to measure the this must be taken into account when And lastly, radiation safety and regulations
level of liquids in tanks. However, gamma purchasing gamma level devices. However, to use gamma devices are country
devices use electromagnetic radiation at used safely, some of the most critical level dependent. If you are a global company with
a different part of the electromagnetic measurements can be made with a gamma operations in different countries, you may
spectrum. They use gamma rays which device. See Diagram 16 for Advantages and need to implement different procedures and
have much higher frequency and therefore Things to know. process depending on which country you
smaller wavelengths vs. microwaves. See are using the equipment in.
Diagram 15. A source of gamma radiation,
usually Cesium 137 or Cobalt 60 depending This paper is the second of three parts.
on the application, is placed in a lead source For the complete paper, please request
container. The container can be closed CP024F/24/ae.
(emitting no radiation) or open (emitting
gamma radiation). A detector, capable of
measuring the amount of radiation from
the source, is installed on the other side
of the tank. If the tank is empty, the
detector receives most of the available
gamma radiation. If the tanks starts to
be filled with liquid, the liquid level will
attenuate (absorb) some of the available
gamma radiation. When the tank is full,
the detector receives very little radiation
compared to the empty tank scenario.

5
 References
“Level Measurement and Inventory Tank Gauging”, Control Engineering, May, 2006

“Application Information of Radar Level Measurement for Hydrocarbon Measurement”,

Endress+Hauser White Paper, Alexander Roettcher & Dieter Markanic, March 2006

“In Control Part III – Liquid Level Measurement”, Ask Tom! 2001,
http://www.waterandwastewater.com/www_services/ask_tom_archive/in_control_part_
3.htm

“Capacitance Level Measurement – How it Works”, Endress+Hauser White Paper, Robert A.

Green

“Capacitor Theory”, http://www.ece.uwaterloo.ca/~lab100/ls1notes.pdf

“The Theory and Practice of Level Measurement” Endress+Hauser Inc., Wim van de Kamp

“504-1200 Series Installation and Operating Instructions”, Ametek- Drexelbrook.

http://new.ametek.com/content-manager/files/STD//504-1200-000-LM2.pdf

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