Qualitative research: An unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples

that provides insights and understanding of the problem setting.

Quantitative research: A research methodology that seeks to quantify the data and, typically,
applies some form of statistical analysis.

Real Research: Feelings - Qualitative research in the form of focus groups and individual depth
interviews is used to discover what sensory feelings are important for customers. Such feelings
cannot be uncovered by quantitative research. Depth interviews are conducted one-on-one and
allow extensive probing of each respondent. Thus, it is possible to uncover underlying feelings (as
well as values, beliefs, and attitudes). Several examples show how identifying consumers’ sensory
feelings are crucial in designing products. Ford: Ford (www.ford.com) decided to redesign one of its
models by remodelling the dashboard buttons and changing the door styles. However, there was a
problem with the sound when somebody closed the door. It sounded odd. Consumers are often
found to be very sensitive to the sounds a car makes.

A direct approach is not disguised. The purpose of the project is disclosed to the respondents or is
otherwise obvious to them from the questions asked. Focus groups and depth interviews are the
major direct techniques

In contrast, research that takes an indirect approach disguises the true purpose of the project.
Projective techniques, the commonly used indirect techniques, consist of association, completion,
construction, and expressive techniques.

A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and natural

manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The main purpose of
focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market
talk about issues of interest to the researcher. The value of the technique lies in the unexpected
findings often obtained from a free-flowing group discussion.
Advantages of Focus Groups

• Synergism: Putting a group of people together will produce a wider range of information,
insight, and ideas than will individual responses secured privately.
• Snowballing: A bandwagon effect often operates in a group interview, in that one person’s
comment triggers a chain reaction from the other participants.
• Stimulation: Usually after a brief introductory period, the respondents want to express their
ideas and expose their feelings as the general level of excitement over the topic increases in
the group.
• Security: Because the participants’ feelings are similar to those of other group members,
they feel comfortable and are therefore willing to express their ideas and feelings.
• Spontaneity: Since participants are not required to answer specific questions, their responses
can be spontaneous and unconventional and should therefore provide an accurate idea of
their views.
• Serendipity: Ideas are more likely to arise out of the blue in a group than in an individual
interview.
• Specialization: Because a number of participants are involved simultaneously, use of a highly
trained, but expensive, interviewer is justified.
• Scientific Scrutiny: The group interview allows close scrutiny of the data collection process, in
that observers can witness the session and it can be recorded for later analysis.
• Structure: The group interview allows for flexibility in the topics covered and the depth with
which they are treated.
• Speed: Since a number of individuals are being interviewed at the same time, data collection
and analysis proceed relatively quickly.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

• Misuse: Focus groups can be misused and abused by considering the results as conclusive
rather than exploratory.
• Misjudge: Focus group results can be more easily misjudged than the results of other data
collection techniques. Focus groups are particularly susceptible to client and researcher
biases.
• Moderation: Focus groups are difficult to moderate. Moderators with all the desirable skills
are rare. The quality of the results depends heavily on the skills of the moderator.
• Messy: The unstructured nature of the responses makes coding, analysis, and interpretation
difficult. Focus group data tend to be messy.
• Misrepresentation: Focus group results are not representative of the general population and
are not projectable. Consequently, focus group results should not be the sole basis for
decision making.
Depth Interview

An unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly skilled
interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a topic.

Techniques of Depth Interview

• Laddering - A technique for conducting depth interviews in which a line of questioning

proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics. When asked why customers
prefer a product, responses are initially related to attributes. Examples of these responses
would include colour, taste, price, size, and product name. Attributes, consequences, and
values of the underlying motivators are found by “climbing the ladder” to the real reasons
for purchasing products. Following initial responses with “why” questions lead to much more
useful information for the marketer:

• Hidden issue questioning - A type of depth interview that attempts to locate personal sore
spots related to deeply felt personal concerns.
• Symbolic analysis - A technique for conducting depth interviews in which the symbolic
meanings of objects are analysed by comparing them with their opposites.

Projective Techniques

• A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages

respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding
the issues of concern.

• As in psychology, these techniques are classified as:

• association
• completion
• construction
• expressive

Association Techniques

• In association techniques, an individual is presented with a stimulus and asked to respond

with the first thing that comes to mind.
• Word association is the best known of these techniques. In word association, respondents
are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the first
word that comes to mind.
• For example, in the department store patronage study, some of the test words might be
“location,” “parking,” “shopping,” “quality,” and “price.”
• The participant’s response to each word is recorded verbatim, and responses are timed so
that respondents who hesitate or reason out (defined as taking longer than 3 seconds to
reply) can be identified.
Completion Techniques

In completion techniques, the respondent is asked to complete an incomplete stimulus

situation. Common completion techniques in marketing research are:

• sentence completion
In sentence completion, a subject is asked to fill up the blank in a sentence.
The subject uses his/her intuitive ideas to do the job and in the process leaves clues
that are traceable to his/her underlying attitudes, thought process and feelings.
This technique scores over word association in that the subjects can be given more
directive stimulus.
These statements are usually in the third person and are somewhat ambiguous.
Interpretation is usually informal and qualitative, rather than quantitative.
Sentence completion is useful when time is limited, but depth of feeling still has to
be tapped.
For example, in the context of the department store patronage study, the following
incomplete sentence may be used.
A person who shops at Wal-Mart is ----------

• story completion
Story completion is also similar to the above two variations with the exception that
the respondent is required to fill in the conclusion of the story.
The story contains enough clues to direct the responses of the subject but gives no
hints at the ending.
The choice of words and the way the respondent concludes the story helps the
researcher to form an idea about the feelings and personality of the respondent.

Construction Techniques

A projective technique in which the respondent is required to construct a response in the

form of a story, dialogue, or description.

The two main construction techniques are:

• Picture response - A projective technique in which the respondent is shown a
picture and asked to tell a story describing it.

• Cartoons - A projective technique in which cartoon characters are shown in a specific

situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate the dialogue
that one cartoon character might make in response to the comments of another
character. The responses indicate the respondents’ feelings, beliefs, and attitudes
toward the situation.

Expressive Techniques

In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to
relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation. The respondents express not their
own feelings or attitudes, but those of others. The two main expressive techniques are role playing
and third-person technique.
Role Playing

In role playing, respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behaviour of someone else. The
researcher assumes that the respondents will project their own feelings into the role. These can then
be uncovered by analysing the responses, as shown in the following example.

Third-Person Technique

In the third-person technique, the respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and
asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal
beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbour, colleague, or a “typical” person.
Again, the researcher assumes that the respondent will reveal personal beliefs and attitudes while
describing the reactions of a third party. Asking the individual to respond in the third person reduces
the social pressure to give an acceptable answer, as the following example shows.

Data Collection for Descriptive Research

Descriptive research has as its major objective the description of something—usually market
characteristics or functions.

Two major tools for data collection in descriptive research are:

• Surveys - The survey method of obtaining information is based on the questioning of

respondents. Respondents are asked a variety of questions regarding their
behaviour, intentions, attitudes, awareness, motivations, and demographic and
lifestyle characteristics. These questions may be asked verbally, in writing, or via
computer, and the responses may be obtained in any of these forms. Typically, the
questioning is structured. Structured here refers to the degree of standardization
imposed on the data collection process.

In structured data collection, a formal questionnaire is prepared and the questions

are asked in a prearranged order; thus, the process is also direct. The structured-
direct survey, the most popular data collection method, involves administering a
questionnaire. In a typical questionnaire, most questions are fixed-alternative
questions that require the respondent to select from a predetermined set of
responses. Consider, for example, the following question designed to measure
attitude toward department stores

• Observations
Personal Interview Survey

Personal interviews are a very common survey method. Personal interview surveys are used to probe
the answers of the respondents and at the same time, to observe the behaviour of the respondents.

Advantages of personal interview survey

1. High Response Rates - One of the main reasons why researchers achieve good response
rates through this method is the face-to-face nature of the personal interview survey. Unlike
administering questionnaires, people are more likely to readily answer live questions about
the subject (for instance, a product) simply because they can actually see, touch, feel or even
taste the product.

2. Tolerable Longer Interviews - If you wish to probe the answers of the respondents, you
may do so using a personal interview approach. Open-ended questions are more tolerated
through interviews due to the fact that the respondents would be more convenient at
expressing their long answers orally than in writing.

3. Better Observation of Behaviour - Market researchers can benefit from personal interview
survey because it presents a greater opportunity to observe the attitude and behaviour of
the respondents / consumers toward a product.

Disadvantages of personal interview survey

1. High Costs - Face-to-face interview surveys are considerably more expensive than paper-
and-pencil questionnaire surveys, online surveys and other types of surveys.

2. Time-consuming - Personal interview surveys are not usually time-bounded, so the

gathering of data from the respondents can take a longer time. Another thing that makes this
method time-consuming is when there is a need to travel and meet the respondents at
either single or different locations.

Observation Methods

Observation methods are the second type of methodology used in descriptive research. Observation
involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects, and events in a systematic manner to
obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. The observer does not question or
communicate with the people being observed. Information may be recorded as the events occur or
from records of past events.