ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

48
BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1.25 Introduction
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work and those properties of substan
that bear a relation to heat and work. . ce

Thennodynamics is the study of the patterns of energy change. Most of this course will be
concerned with understanding the patterns of energy change.

More specifically, thennodynamics deals with (a) energy conversion and (b) the direction of
change.

Basis of thermodynamics is experimental observation. In that sense it is an empirical science.

The principles of thennodynamics are summarized in the form of four laws known as zeroth, first,
second, and the third laws of thermodynamics.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with thermal equilibrium and provides a means of
measuring temperature.

The first law of thermodynamics deals with the conservation of energy and introduces the
concept of internal energy.

The second law of thennodynamics dictates the limits on the conversion of heat into work and
provides the yard stick to measure the perfonnance of various processes. It also tells whether a
I: particular process is feasible or not and specifies the direction in which a process will proceed. As a
consequence it also introduces the concept of entropy.
The third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.

1.26 Macroscopic and Microscopic Approaches

Microscopic approach uses the statistical considerations and probability theory, where we deal
with "average" for all particles under consideration. This is the approach used in the disciplines
known as kinetic theory and statistical mechanics.
In the macroscopic point of view, of classical thennodynamics, one is concerned with the time-
averaged influ~nce of many molecules that can be perceived by the senses and measured by the
instruments.
The pressure exerted by a gas is an example of this. It results from the change in momentum of
the molecules, as they.collide with the wall. Here we are not concerned with the actions of individual
molecules but with the time-averaged force on a given area that can be measured by a pressure gage.
From the macroscopic point of view, we are always concerned with volumes that are very large
compared to molecular dimensions, and therefore a system (to be defined next) contains many
molecules, and this is called continuum.
The concept of continuum loses validity when the mean free path of molecules approaches tbe
order of typical system dimensions.
 SOURCES OF ENERGY, BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS AND STEAM 49

1.27 System
We introduce boundaries in our study called the system and surroundings.
The boundaries are set up in a way most conducive to understanding the energetics of what
· we're studying.

Defining the system and surroundings is arbitrary, but it becomes important when we consider
the exchange of energy between the system and surroundings.
Two types of exchange can occur between system and surroundings: (1) energy exchange (heat,
work, friction, radiation, etc.) and (2) matter exchange (movement of molecules across the boundary
of the system and surroundings).
Based on the types of exchange which take place or don't take place, we will define three types
of systems:
• isolated systems: no exchange of matter or energy
• closed systems: no exchange of matter but some exchange of energy
• open systems: exchange of both matter and energy

1.28 Control Volume

• control volume is defined as a volume which encloses the matter and the device inside a
control surface.
• Every thing external to the control volume is the surroundings with the separation given by
the control surface.
• The surface may be open or closed to mass flows and it may have flows from energy in
terms of heat transfer and work across it.
• The boundaries may be moveable or stationary.
• In the case of a control surface that is closed to the mass flow, so that no mass can enter or
escape the control volume, it is called a control mass containing same amount of matter at
all times.

1.29 Property
• In thermodynamics a property is any characteristic of a system that is associated with the
energy and can be quantitatively evaluated.
• The property of a system should have a definite value when the system is in a particular
state.

• Thermodynamic property is a point function.

• Properties like volume of a system that depend on the mass of a system are called
extensive properties.
ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
so
• Properties like pressure or temperature which do not depend on the system mass are call
. . . ed
mtens1ve properties.

• The ratio of extensive property to the mass of the system are called specific properties and
therefore become intensive properties.

• Substance can be found in three states of physical aggregation namely, solid, liquid and
vapor which are called its phases.

• If the system consists of mixture of different phases, the phases are separated from each
other by phase boundary.

• The thermodynamic properties change abruptly at the phase boundary, even though the
intensive properties like temperature and pressure are identical.

1.30 Equilibrium
• When the property of a system is defined, it is understood that the system is in equilibrium.

• If a system is in thermal equilibrium, the temperature will be same throughout the system.

• If a system is in mechanical equilibrium, there is no tendency for the pressure to change. In

a single phase system, if the concentration is uniform and there is no tendency for mass
transfer or diffusion, the system is said to be in chemical equilibrium.

• A system which is simultaneously in thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium is said

to be in thermal equilibrium.

1.31 Process
A process is path followed by a system in reaching a given final state of equilibrium state
starting from a specified initial state.
An actual process occurs only when the equilibrium state does not exist.
An ideal process can be defmed in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is
infinitesimal.
All the states the system passes through during a quasi-equilibrium process may be considered
equilibrium states.
For non-equilibrium processes, we are limited to a description of the system before the process
occurs and after the equilibrium is restored.
Several processes are described by the fact that one property remains constant.
The prefix iso- is used to describe such processes.
A process is said to be reversible if both the system and its surroundings can be restored to their
respective initial states by reversing the direction of the process.
 v "fl <e u r~\,~, , 2 , ., - ttr1
SOURCES OF ENERGY, BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS AND STEAM 51

• reve .bl "f h

rsi e: 1 t e process happens slow enough to be reversed.
• irreversible: if the process cannot be reversed (like most processes) .
• isobaric: process done at constant pressure
• isochoric: process done at constant volume
• isothermal: process done at constant temperature
• adiabatic: process where q=O
• cyclic: process where initial state = final state

1.32 Internal Energy

• The molecule as a whole can move in x, y and z directions with respective components of
velocities and hence possesses kinetic energy.
• There can be rotation. of molecule about its center of mass and than the kinetic energy
associated with rotation is called rotational energy.
• In addition the bond length undergoes change and the energy associated with it is called
vibrational energy.

• The electron move around the nucleus and they possess a certain energy that is called
electron energy.

• The microscopic modes of energy are due to the internal structure of the matter and hence
sum of all microscopic modes of energy is called the internal energy.
Bulle kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy (PE) are considered separately and the other
energy of control mass as a single property (U).
The total energy possessed by the body is given by:
E =KE+ PE+ U

1.33 Work
Whenever a system interacts with its surroundings, it can exchange energy in two ways- work
and heat.
In mechanics, work is defined as the product of the force and the displacement in the direction
of the force.
a) Work done when a spring is compressed or extended: According to Hooke's law
Spring force = - k (x - x0)
Where k is the spring constant, x 0 is the equilibrium position, and x is the final position. The
negative sign shows that the direction of the spring force is opposite the direction of the displacement
from x0• The external force is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the spring force, so
 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

External force (force of your hands)= k (x -xo)·

Now we want to calculate the work done when we stretch the spring from p ..
' ~rt~!
position 2. to
.I w = F dx = k (x - Xo) d(x-x0) = 1/2 k [(x2-Xo)2 - (x 1-x0)2]
Ii
I
: I b) Work done when a volume is increased or decreased
Consider a gas in a container with a movable piston on top. If the gas expands, the pisto
. n moves
out and work is done by the system on the surroundmgs.
Alternatively, if the gas inside contracts, the piston moves in and work is done b
surroundings on the system. Why would the gas inside contract_or expand? y !he

It would if the external pressure, Pex• and the internal pressure, Pin• w~re different. To calculate
the work done in moving the piston, we know that the force = p~essure times area and then work
equals pressure times area times distance or work equals pressure tlilles the change in volume. So, W
= the integral of (Pex) dV
The differential work done (dW) associated with a differential displacement (dl) is given by
dW = F dl
For a piston cylinder assembly,
dW = F dl = PA (dl) = P dV
If the gas is allowed to expand reversibly from the initial pressure P to final pressure P, then the
work done is given by
W = Jp dV
• The integral represents the area under the curve on a pressure versus volume diagram.
Therefore the work depends on the path followed and work is a path function and hence
not a property of the system.
• The above expression does not represent work in the case of an irreversible process.
• The thermodynamic definition of work is " Work is said to be done by a system on the
surrounding if the sole effect external to the system could be reduced to the raising of a
mass through a distance".

1.34 Heat
Heat like work, is a form of energy.
The energy transfer between a system and its surroundings is called heat if it occurs by virtUe of
the temperature difference across the boundary.
The two modes of energy transfer - work and heat- depend on the choice of the system.
 SOURCES OF ENERGY, BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS AND STEAM 53

Heat energy moves from a hotter body to a colder body upon contact of the two bodies.
If two bodies at different temperatures are allowed to remain in contact, the system of two
bodies will eventually reach a thermal equilibrium (they will have the same temperature).
A body never contains heat. Rather heat is a transient phenomenon and can be identified as it
crosses the boundary.

t.35 The State Postulate

The state of the system is described by its properties.
Once a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume some
values automatically.

The number of properties required to fix a state of a system is given by the state postulate:
The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive
properties.

The system is ·called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects.
The state postulate requires that the two properties specified be independent to fix the state.
Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held
constant.
Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties, and together
they can fix the state of a simple compressible system.
Thus, temperature and pressure are not sufficient to fix the state of a two-phase system.
Otherwise an additional property needs to be specified for each effect that is significant.
An additional property needs to be specified for each other effect that is significant.
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDmONING
3.16 Introduction
From earlier times, the art of artificial cooling is employed in ice making, preservation of the
perishables such as, milk, food, drinks, medicines, etc. and indoor air cooling to provide human
comfort and cool environment required in electronic, precision manufacturing and process industries,
and also in numerous other applications like cryogenics, etc. The two methods employed for artificial
cooling are ; (i) refrigeration and (ii) air-conditioning. Refrigerators are used in ice making,
preservation of perishables, cryogenics, etc. and air-conditioners are used in indoor air cooling.
3.17 Refrigeration Defined
Refrigeration is defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of the
surroundings and maintains it at the lower temperature by continuously abstracting the heat from it.
3.18 Principle of Refrigeration
In refrigeration, the heat is to be removed continuously from a system at a lower temperature
and transfer it to the surroundings at a higher temperature. This operation according to the Second
Law of Thermodynamics can only be performed by the aid of the external work. Therefore in a
140 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

refrigerator, power is to be supplied to remove the heat continuously from the refrigerator cabinet to
keep it cool at a temperature less than the atmospheric temperature.
Definitions
3.19 Refrigeration Effect Unit of Refrigeration and Ice Making Capacity
In a refrigeration system, the rate at which the heat is absorbed in a cycle from the interior
space to be cooled is called refrigerating effect.
The capacity of a refrigeration system is expressed in tons of refrigeration which is the unit of
refrigeration. A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed in order to form one
ton of ice in 24 hours when the initial temperature of the water is 0°C. Here it should be noted that
one American ton (2000 pounds) is taken as the standard in the refrigeration practice.
In S.I. System,
1 Ton of Refrigeration = 210 kJ/min = 3.5 kW
Ice Making Capacity: An Ice Making Machine is normally specified by its Ice Making'
Capacity. Ice Making Capacity is defined as the capacity of the Refrigerating System to make ice
beginning from water (at room temperature) to solid ice. It is usually specified by kg/hr.
. I I

·3.20 Coefficient of Performance and Relative Co-efficient of Performance

The performance of a refrigeration system is expressed by a factor known as the coefficient of
performance (COP). The COP of a refrigeration system is de.fined as the ratio of heat absorbed in a
system to the work supplied.
If Q = Heat Absorbed or Removed, kW W = Work supplied, kW
I
COP = JL
w
Relative Co-efficient of Performance (Relative COP): The ratio of the Actual COP to the
Theoretical COP is known as Relative Co-efficient of Performance.
Actual COP
Relative COP = - - - - -- -
Theoretical COP

3.21 Refrigerant
In a refrigerator, a medium called refrigerant continuously extracts the heat from the space
within the refrigerator which is to be kept cool at temperatures less than the atmosphere and finally
rejects to it. Some of the fluids like, Ammonia, Freon, Methyl Chloride, Carbon dioxide are tbe
commonly used refrigerants.

3.22 Refrigeration Concepts

The principle of refrigeration is based on the following basic concepts.
1. Heat flows from a system at higher temperature to another at lower temperature. d
. . r phase an
2. Fluids by absorbing the heat, change from liquid phase to vapou
subsequently condense by giving off the heat.
1NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 141

3 The boiling and freezing tempe tur f · · ·

· . ra es o a fluid depend on its pressure. When a certam
fluid at a very low pressure and t · ·
. . . emperature is compressed, even though its pressure
· lf i'f its
mcreases 1t. may still be in the condensed state itse · temperature 1s
· not mcrease
· d to
the saturation temperature corresponding to th . d
e mcrease pressure.
4. Heat can flow from a system at 1 t ·
. ow emperature to a system at higher temperature by
the aid of external work as per the Second law of Thermo dynam1cs. .
3,23 Parts of a Refrigerator
To accomplish the task of producing the cooling effect a refrigerator must consist of the
following main parts as shown in Fig. 3.8. '
1. Evaporator 3. Circulating System
2. Condenser 4. Expansion Device
J. Evaporator
EVAPORATOR
As the name itself implies, the evaporator
is the heart of the refrigerator where the liquid
refrigerant is evaporated by the absorption of
heat from the refrigerator cabinet in which the
substances which have to be cooled are kept. COMPRESSOR OR EXPANSION
PUMP
The evaporator consists of simply metal tubing DEVICE
which surrounds around the freezing and
cooling compartments to produce the cooling
effect required for freezing ice or lowering the Refrigerant
temperature of perishables placed in the cooling - CONDENSER -
compartment. Since it produces the cooling
effect it is also sometimes called as cooling coil Parts of a Refrigerator
or freezer coil. Fig. 3.8

2. Circulating System
The circulating system comprises of the mechanical devices such as compressors or pumps
necessary to circulate the refrigerant to undergo the refrigeration cycle. They increase the pressure
and therefore the temperature of the refrigerant. Generally these devices are driven by the electric
motors. The electrical energy input to the motor is the energy input to the refrigerators.
3. Condenser
I

' .A condenser is an appliance in which the heat from the refrigerant is rejected at higher
· t~mperature to another medium, usually the atmospheric air. In a condenser the refrigerant vapour
~ves off its latent heat to the air and consequently condenses into liquid so that it can be recirculated
m the refrigeration cycle. Toe latent heat of the refrigerant that is given off in the condenser mainly
comprises of the heat absorbed in the refrigerator cabinet and the heat developed due to
compression.
4· Expansion Device
An expansion valve serves as a device to reduce the pressure and temperature of the liquid
refrigerant before it passes to the evaporator. The liquid refrigerant from the condenser is passed
through an expansion valve where it reduces its pressure and temperature.
r 142
ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.24 Refrigerator and Refrigeration

A ;efrigerator is a machine by means of whi~h cold can be produced and the refrigeration
is a process of removal of heat from a substance at a temperature lower than the surroundings with
the aid of external work.
3.25 Types of Refrigeration Systems
The mechanical refrigerator systems are classified as : 1. Air Refrigerator, 2. Vapour
Compression Refrigerator, 3. Vapour Absorption Refrigerator. The air refrigerator is out of the scope
of this book, hence only the later two types of refrigerators are discussed here.
3.26 Vapour Compression Refrigerator
In a vapour compression refrigerator, vapour is used as the refrigerant. It is circulated through
the system in which it alternately evaporates and condenses thus undergoing a change of phase from
vapour to liquid and again liquid to vapour. During evaporation it absorbs the latent heat from the
refrigerated space and subsequently gives off heat while condensing. A vapour compression system
makes use of mechanical energy supplied to the compressor to run the refrigerator.
Fig. 3.9 shows a vapour compression refrigerator. It consists of an evaporator made of coiled
tubes installed in the freezing compartment of the refrigerator and connected to the suction side of the

EVAPORATOR COILED TUBES FREEZING COMPARTMENT.

LIQUID REFRIGERANT
PARTLY VAPOUR AT
FAIRLY DRY REFRIGERANT LOW TEMPERATURE
VAPOUR AT LOW PRESSURE AND PRESSURE

DRY REFRIGERANT VAPOUR

AT HIGH PRESSURE

HIGH PRESSURE UQUID

REFRIGERANT
APPROXIMATELY AT
ROOM TEMPERATURE
HERMffiCALLY SEALED
COMPRESSOR UNIT

COMPRESSOR DELIVERY REFRIGERANT

CONDENSER
COMPRESSOR sumoN Refrigerator

e
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 143

compressor and a throttle valve as shown. The delivery side of the compressor is connected to a
condenser which in turn is connected to a throttle valve.
The object of including a compressor in this system is to draw the vapours from the evaporator
and compress them to higher pressures so that the saturation temperature corresponding to these
press)Jfes is higher than that of the cooling medium flowing into the condenser, so that the high
pressure vapour can reject heat into the condenser and be ready to expand to the evaporator pressure
again. The compressor will be usually oversized so that if it runs continuously it would produce
pr.ogressively lower temperatures. In order to maintain the interior of the refrigerator within the
desired temperature range, the motor driving the compressor it controlled by a thermostat switch.
The refrigerant at low pressure and temperature passing in the evaporator coiled tubes absorbs
I'
the heat from the contents in the freezing compartment and evaporates. This in turn lowers the
temperature in the freezing compartment. The evaporated refrigerant at low pressure from the
evaporator is drawn by a compressor which compresses it to higher pressures so that the saturation
temperature of the refrigerant corresponding to the increased pressure is higher than the temperature
of the cooling medium (atmospheric air) in the condenser, so that the high pressure-high temperature
. vapours can reject heat in the condenser and be ready to expand in the throttle valve to the lower
evaporator pressures again. The high pressure-high-temperature refrigerant vapour from the
compressor flows to the condenser where it gives off its latent heat to the atmospheric air. As a
result of the loss of latent heat in the condenser, the refrigerant condenses. The high pressure
condensed liquid refrigerant approximately at room temperature now flows to the throttle valve in
which it expands to a low pressure and then passes to the evaporator coils for recirculation once
again. The throttling expansion of the refrigerant lowers, its pressure and temperature and at the same
time causes it to partly evaporate. Hence the refrigerant coming out of the expansion valve will be a
very wet vapour and at a very low temperature which will be around -10°C. This wet vapour now
passes to the evaporator coils where it absorbs its latent heat and then recirculated to repeat the cycle
continuously. Thus, heat is continuously extracted by the contents of the refrigerator in the
evaporator and rejected in the condenser to the atmospheric air. This will keep the contents of the
refrigerator at the required lower temperature. The required low temperature is maintained in the
refrigerator by a thermostat switch which switches on and off the compressor motor by a relay as
and when the temperature either falls below or rises above the required temperature. One of the most
commonly used refrigerants in the vapour compression refrigerator is dichlorodifluoromethane,
popularly known as Freon 12, or R12. This refrigerant vapourises at - 6.7°C in the evaporator under
a pressure of 246.2 kPa and after compression to 909.2 kPa would condense at 37.8° C in the
condenser.
3.27 Vapour Absorption Refrigerator
A vapour absorption system makes use of the ability of a substance, called absorbent to absorb
large volumes of the vapour of a refrigerant even when cold and reduce it to a liquid, and subsequently
give off its vapours when heated. Water which has this ability is the mostly used absorbent, and since
ammonia readily dissolves in water and vapourises w?en it~ solution is heated ~s ~e ~ommonl~ us~d
refrigerant in the vapour absorption refrigerator. In this refri~erator, the ammoma liqm~ va~ounses m
the evaporator coils absorbing the latent heat from the freezmg compartment thus keepmg it cool and
subsequently gives off heat when it condenses in a condenser. Then ammonia liquid from the condenser
is heated in a heater to vapourise it. Thus the absorption system makes use of heat ene_rgy to change the
state of the refrigerant required in the cycle. A pump is used to circulate the refrigerant m the cycle.

L
r
144 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This type of refrigerator is shown in Fig. 3. JO. It consists of an absorber, a circulation pump,
heat exchanger, heater cum separator, condenser, expansion valve and evaporating coiled tubes.
FREEZING
COMPARTMENT EVAPORATOR COILED TUBES

UQUIO AMMONIA AT LOW

PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

EXPANSION VALVE

DRY AMMONIA VAPOUR

AT LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE
AMMONIA UQIJID
ABSORBER

CONDENSER

HEATER-SEPARATOR

WEAK AMMONIA SOLUTION HEATING COIL

CTRCULATION PUMP WARM STRONG AMMONIA

SOLUTION AT HIGH PRESURE
STRONG AMMONIA SOLUTION
AT HIGH PRESSURE HEAT EXCHANGER
Vapour Absorption Refrigerator
Fig. 3.10

Dry ammonia vapour is dissolved in the cold water contained in the absorber, which will
produce a strong ammonia solution. A circulation pump, draws the strong ammonia solution from the
absorber and pumps it to the heat exchanger, where it is warmed by the warm weak ammonia
solution which is flowing back from the heater-separator. From the heat exchanger, the warm high
pressure strong ammonia solution is passed to the heater-cum-separator provided with the heating
coils. The heating coils in the heater-separator heats the strong ammonia solution. Heating of the high
pressure strong ammonia solution will drive out the ammonia vapour from it and consequently the
solution in the heater-separator becomes weak which in turn flows back to the heat exchanger where
it warms up the strong ammonia solution passing through it. The high pressure ammonia vapour
from the heater-separator now passes to a condenser, where it is condensed. The high pressure
ammonia liquid is now expanded to a low pressure and low temperature in the throttle valve. The low
pressure condensed ammonia liquid at low temperature is passed onto the evaporator coils provided in
the freezing compartment, where it absorbs the heat and evaporates. The low pressure ammonia
vapour from the freezing compartment is passed again to the absorber where it is reabsorbed by
 •'"L COMBUSTION ENGINES, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
JNTERIV'1 145

d" solving in water. The strong low pressure ammonia solution from the absorber is again
r;:irculated to repeat the cycle continuously.

3.28 Comparison between Vapour Compression and Absorption Systems

SI. Principle Vapour Compression System Vapour Absorption System
No.

1. Working Method Refrigerant vapour IS Refrigerant vapour is absorbed

compressed. and heated.
2. Type of the Works solely on Mechanical Works solely on Heat Energy.
Energy Supplied Energy.
3. Work or Mechanical energy required is Mechanical energy required to
Mechanical Energy more because refrigerant run the pump is less since the
Supplied vapours are compressed to pump is required only to
higher pressures. circulate the refrigerant.
4. COP Although the coefficient Although the coefficient of
performance is relatively performance is relatively lower,
higher, it reduces at part loads. it will be more or less same at
part and full loads.
5. Capacity The design capacity is limited The absorption systems can be
since a single compressor unit designed to capacities well
can produce upto 1000 tons of above 1000 tons.
refrigeration.
6. Noise Noise is more due to the Almost quiet in operation as there
presence of the compressor. IS no compressor.
7. Refrigerant Freon -12. Ammonia.
8. Leakage Due to high pressures, the Almost there is no leakage of the
of Refrigerant chances of leakage of the refrigerant.
refrigerant is more and is a
major problem.
9. Maintenance The maintenance is high The maintenance is less.
i
because of the compressor.
IO. Operating Cost The operating cost is high The operating cost Is less
since the electrical energy is because the thermal energy can
expensive. be supplied from sources other
than the electrical energy and
also the electrical energy
required to run the pump is
relatively less.
146 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.29 Refrigerants Commonly Used in Practice

The most commonly used refrigerants are :
1. Ammonia - in vapour absorption refrigerator.
2. Carbon dioxide - in marine refrigerators.
3. Sulphur dioxide - in household refrigerators.
4. Methyl chloride - in small scale refrigeration and domestic refrigerators.
5. Freon - 12 - in domestic vapour compression refrigerators.
6. Freon-22 - in Air Conditioners.

1. Ammonia
Ammonia as a refrigerant is employed in refrigerators operating on the absorption
principles. Because of its high latent heat (1300 kJ/kg at -15°C) and low specific .volume
(0.509m3/kg at -15°C) it produces high refrigeration effects even in small refrigerators. Since
ammonia will not harm the ozone, it is environmental friendly. It is widely used in cold storage, ice
making plants, etc. Its toxic, flammable, irritating and food destroying properties makes it unsuitable
for domestic refrigerators.

2. Carbon dioxide
The efficiency of the refrigerators using carbon dioxide refrigerant is low. Therefore it is
seldom used in domestic refrigerators, but is used in dry ice making plants. It is colourless,
odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable and non-corrosive.

3. Sulphur dioxide
Earlier sulphur dioxide was one of the most commonly used refrigerants in domestic
refrigerators. Although it has better thermodynamic properties, it has low refrigerating effect and
high specific volume, therefore large capacity high speed compressors are required. Since it
combines with water and forms sulfurous and sulfuric acids which are corrosive to metals, the
refrigerators using sulphur dioxide as refrigerant are seldom used.

4. Methyl Chloride
Methyl chloride was used earlier in domestic and small scale industrial refrigerators. Since it will
burn under some conditions and slightly toxic, is not generally used.

5. Freon
Freon group of refrigerants is used almost universally in domestic refrigerators. These
refrigerants are colourless, almost odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable, non-explosive and non-
corrosive, Freon-12 and Freon-22 are the two freon refrigerants commonly used in domeS tic
refrigerators and air conditioners. Although these refrigerants are now being used extensively in ~e
refrigerators and the air conditioners, it has been found that these refrigerants are posing a maJor
threat to the global environment through their role in the destruction of the ozone layer.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 147

3.30 Properties of a Good Refrigerant

The desirable properties of an ideal refrigerant are classified into the following four main
groups.
Properties of a
Good Refrigerant

Thermodynamic Physical Safe Working

Properties Other
Properties Properties. Properties

t
1. Boiling Point
i
1. Specific Volume 1. Toxity 1. COP
2. Freezing Point 2. Specific Heat 2. Flammability 2. Odour
3. Evaporator 3. Viscosity 3. Corrosiveness 3. Leak
and Condenser
Pressure 4. Chemical 4. Action with
Stability Lubricating Oil
4. Latent Heat of
Evaporation

1. Boiling Point
An ideal refrigerant must have low boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure.
2. Freezing Point
An ideal refrigerant must have a very low freezing point because the refrigerant should not
freeze at low evaporator temperatures.
3. Evaporator and Condenser Pressure
In order to avoid the leakage of the atmospheric air and also to enable the detection of the
leakage of the refrigerant, both the evaporator and condenser pressures should be slightly above the
atmospheric pressure.
4. Latent Heat of Evaporation
The latent heat of evaporation must be very high so that a minimum amount of refrigerant will
accomplish the desired result; in other words, it increases the refrigeration effect.
5. Specific Volume
The specific volume of the refrigerant must be very low. The lower specific volume of the
refrigerant at the suction of the compressor reduces the size of the compressor.
148 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

6. Specific heat of liquid and vapour

A good refrigerant must have low specific heat when it is in liquid state and high specific hear
when it is vapourised. The low specific heat of the refrigerant helps in sub-cooling of the liquid and
high specific heat of the vapour helps in decreasing the superheating of the vapour. Both these
desirable properties increase the refrigerating effect.
7. Viscosity
The viscosity of a refrigeranJ at both the liquid and vapour states must be very low as it
improves the heat transfer and reduces the pumping pressure.
8. Non-toxicity refrigerant
A good refrigerant should be non-toxic, because any leakage of the toxic refrigerant increases
suffocation and poisons the atmosphere.
9. Co"osiveness
A good refrigerant should be non-corrosive to prevent the corrosion of the metallic parts of the
refrigerators.
10. Chemical Stability
An ideal refrigerant must not decompose under operating conditions.
11. Coefficient of Performance
The coefficient of pe,formance of a refrigerant must be high so that the energy spent in
refrigeration will be less.
12. Odour
A good refrigerant must be odourless, otherwise some foodstuff such as meat, butter, etc. loses
their taste.
13. Leakage Tests
The refrigerant must be such that any leakage can be detected by simple tests.
14. Action with Lubricating Oil
A good refrigerant must not react with the lubricating oil used in lubricating the parts of the
compressor.

3.31 Air Conditioning

Providing a cool congenial indoor atmosphere at all times regardless of weather conditions
needed either for human comfort or industrial purposes by artificially cooling, humidifying or
dehumidifying, cleaning and recirculating the surrounding air is called air conditioning. The artificial
cooling of air and conditioning it to provide maximum comfort to human beings is called comfort air
conditioning. Similarly, providing a controlled atmosphere required in some engineering
manufacturing and processing is called industrial air conditioning.
Although the cooling and conditioning of the air required for comfort air conditioning is m~re or
less same in any part of the globe, the industrial air conditioning needs to be designed to swt th e
specific individual application. .
Many a ~es the_ term air conditioning is u~ed imp~operly _to a~ cool~g. Some~es
conditioning umts consists merely of a blower equipped with refrigeratmg units that proVtde
!:iY
flow of cool filtered air.
 INTERN",AL COMBUSTION ENGINES, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
149

3.32 Room Air Conditioner and Principles of Air Conditioning/windows Split Air
Conditioning
An air conditioner continuously draws the air from an indoor space to be cooled, cools it by the
refrigeration principles and discharges back into the same indoor space that needs to be cooled. This
continuous cyclic processes of drawing, cooling and recirculation of the cooled air keeps the indoor
space cool at the required lower temperature needed for comfort cooling or industrial cooling
purposes.

Since both the comfort and industrial air conditioners work almost on the same basic principle,
the working principle of an air conditioner is explained taking a comfort room air conditioner shown
in Fig. 3.11 as an example.

WALL

LOW PRESSURE VAPOUR

REFRIGERANT TO COMPRESSOR INSIDE -C: REFRIGERANT VAPOUR AT HIGH
OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE FROM COMPRESSOR

AIR

CONDillONED

SPACE

FILTER

CONDENSER
EVAPORATOR CONDENSER • FAN

\ HERMffiCALLY CAPILLARY TUBE

UQUID REFRIGERANT EXPANDS WHILE SEALED COMPRESSOR
PASSING THROUGH CAPILJ.ARY nJBE

Air Conditioner
Fig. 3.11

d ser. compressor, two fans one each for the evaporator

It mainly consists of an evaporator, con_ e~ ' otor capillary etc It is generally mounted on a
and condenser units usually driven by the smg e m ' · ' ·
 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
150

• • • ·d the room and the condenser part projecting outside

window sill such that the evaporator umt 1s ms1 e
the building.
The high-pressure, low-temperature liquid refrigerant from the cond~nser is passed to the
evaporator cot•r s th rough the capi"llary tube where it undergoes expans10n. . The low-pressure,
. •d ,I-", ·gerant passes through the evaporator coils. The evaporator-fan
low-temperature l1qu1 reJ ri . .
continuously draws the air from the interior space with in the r~om through an arr filter ~y ~orcing it
to pass over the evaporator coils. The air from the interior pas smg over th e evaporator c?tls IS cooled
by the refrigerant which consequently evaporates by absorbing the heat fr~m the arr. The high-
temperature evaporated refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn by the suction of the compressor
which compresses it and delivers it to the condenser. The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant
vapour now flows through the condenser coils. The condenser-fan draws the atmospheric air from
the exposed side-portions of the air conditioner which is projecting outside the building into the space
behind it and discharges to pass through the centre section of the condenser unit over the condenser
coils. The high-pressure, high-temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser coils condenses
by giving off the heat to the atmospheric air. The cooled high-pressure refrigerant from the condenser
passes through the capillary tube where it undergoes expansion and is again re circulated to repeat
the cycle continuously.

1. Humidity and its control in Air Conditioning

Humidity is defined as the moisture content present in the atmosphere. The atmosphere always
contains some moisture in the form of water vapour ; the maximum amount depends on the
atmospheric conditions. The amount of vapour that will saturate the air increases with a rise in
temperature. For example, at 4°C, 1000 kg of moist air contains a maximum of 4.4 kg of water
vapour ; at 38°C, the same amount of moist air contains a maximum of 18 kg of water vapour. As is
evident that when the atmosphere is saturated with water, the level of discomfort is high because of
the evaporation of perspiration.
Humidity can be specified in three different ways. The absolute humidity is defined as the
weight of water vapour contained in a given volume of air. It is expressed in grams of water vapour
per cubic metre of air. The specific humidity is defined as the ratio of weight of water vapour to the
total weight of air. It is expressed in grams of water vapour per kilogram of air. The relative humidity
is defmed as the ratio of the act~al vapour content of the air to the vapour content of air at the same
temperature when saturated with water vapour.
The temperature-humidity index (THI), also called discomfort index, expresses in numerical
values the relationship between comfort or discomfort temperature and humidity. It provides an
apparent temperature, or how hot the air feels. For example, an air temperature of 38°C and relative
humidity of 60 percent produces an apparent very hot temperature or THI, or 54°c. It is felt that
THI index of 20°C provides a comfortable atmosphere.
When a controlled atmosphere is required in air conditioning, the humidity of the air is varied.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITION/NG
151

When dry air is required, it is usually dehumidified by cooling or by dehydration. In the latter process
the air is passed through adsorptive chemicals such as silica gel. Air is humidified by circulation
through water baths or sprays.

2. Air cleaning in Air Conditioning

When the air must be free of dust, as it is necessary in the manufacture of drugs and medical
devices and instruments, the air conditioning system is designed to include some type of filter. The
air is passed through water sprays or in some filters through labyrinth of oil-covered plates, in
others, dust is removed electrostatically by means of precipitators. In the ordinary room air
conditioners, the filter provided in front of the evaporator as shown in Fig. 9.4, cleans up the air by
filtering.

3.34 Central Air Conditioning

Centralised air conditioning systems, widely employed in theatres, offices, stores, restaurants,
public buildings, etc, provide the controlled atmosphere by heating, cooling and ventilation. The
centralised air conditioning systems include refrigerating units, blowers, air ducts and a plenum
chamber in which the air from the interior of the building is mixed with outside air. In such
installations, cooling and dehumidifying are done during summer months and regular heating systems
are used during winter.