Cohesive writing

Conjunction
WHAT IS COHESION?
Cohesion is a quality of effective writing. Cohesive writing helps readers understand how the details relate to
the overall argument of a text and to follow it easily. The quality of cohesion in a written text is achieved by
various means, which make different elements of the text hold together well: logical conjunction, grammatical
referencing, lexical choice and paragraphing. This resource focuses on conjunction.

CREATING LOGIC IN A TEXT

In academic writing, ideas need to be connected according to some kind of logic (Eggins, 1994, p 105). The
connections may have to do with cause & effect (because, so, as a result), or time (first, next, then), or simple
addition (and, in addition, further, moreover) or comparison & contrast (however, on the other hand). These
sorts of connecting words join different parts of a text together in a way that creates a relationship of logic.
Logical relationships can be expressed in various ways: through specific words called ‘conjunctions’ (eg and,
or, because, so), or through prepositional phrases (eg after that, in contrast) or through adverbs (eg thus,
alternatively). Whatever we call such expressions in descriptive grammar, they function to help readers see
relationships between sentences and paragraphs, and connect different parts of the text logically.
In the following example sentence, the second clause (beginning with ‘and’) simply adds extra information to
the first clause in the sentence:

Justice implies a sense of equality for all, and it implies an acceptance of a standard that
applies to the whole community.

In the next example, the new information in the second clause contrasts the information in the first clause.

Legal aid may not provide for total but equality due to means testing, lack of funding and
the nature of differing court hearings, it remains a well established feature of Australia’s
legal system.

In these examples, logical cohesion is created by a single word, called a conjunction, that join clauses together.
In other cases, logical cohesion can be created between separate sentences or paragraphs, by using words or
phrases called discourse markers or logical connectives (eg in other words, however, consequently). These
come in various forms:
 prepositional phrases (on the contrary, in spite of )
 prepositions introducing a noun phrase (besides the suitable conditions) or a non-finite verb (besides finding
suitable conditions)
 adverbs (alternatively).

IDENTIFYING LOGICAL RELATIONS

The following text is from the conclusion to a nursing essay. The connective words, which create logical
relationships between parts of the text, are indicated in bold:

ACADEMIC LITERACY
Learning, Teaching & Curriculum – Learning Development
 Example: logical relations

In conclusion, the physical health of the mother will greatly influence the development of the foetus.
In the majority of cases, the factors influencing the mother’s health, such as smoking, malnutrition,
drugs and diseases, are closely related, so that it becomes difficult for researchers to determine which
factor, and to what extent that factor is responsible for the adverse effects on the development of the
foetus. However, a great deal of the research associated with prenatal development does indicate that
the main influences on the environment and development of the foetus are from controllable causes.

COMPARING LOGICAL RELATIONS

In the following two texts, connectives are in bold, and the logical function of relations they express are
identified in the right column.

Example: logical relationships (text A) Function

All children in Australia have the right to be educated in their mother tongue.
Many children in the past have spent months or years in school without
understanding lessons. In fact, many migrant children are failing in our clarifying
education system due to the lack of bilingual education programmes. causative
Furthermore, the UN report on language and education states that children additive
who become literate in their own language have the best chance of
educational success. Additionally, recent discussion concerning the latest additive
figures on university entrance indicate that migrant students perform more
poorly than native English speakers at present. State governments should
therefore address this issue by setting up bilingual education programmes concluding
for all NESB migrant children. An example of the success of such programmes exemplifying
is the 'two-way' system currently in place in parts of the Northern Territory.2

Example: logical relationships (text B) function

The gradual migration of life from the ocean to the land was another major
step that made many advances possible. Eventually, plants and animals
divided into males and females and possibilities increased for developing sequencing in
new and varied species. To date, more than 400 000 species of plants and 1 chronological order
200 000 species of animals have developed. Gradually, the senses of sight and
hearing improved in animals and brains grew and developed. Finally,
intelligence progressed, leading to the development of human beings.

The connective words in these texts create different logical relationships. Text example A is from the beginning
of an essay, where an argument is being developed, so it is providing supportive evidence for an initial claim.
To make the point, it is suggesting that one thing caused another, by drawing on various logical connectors.
Text B is from a scientific report, and is concerned with describing how a process unfolds over time, so it is
organised around a temporal logic.

CONJUNCTION AS EXPRESSION OF REASONING

Any text, written or spoken, uses connective words to establish logical relations of some kind. In spoken
language we tend to use conjunctions to connect clauses. In academic writing, the logical relations tend to be
established between sentences. In the case of writing that expresses cause and effect, it is also common for
logical relations to be expressed within a clause.
A logical relationship can be expressed through verbs (eg this caused that) or phrases (eg as a result). The
grammatical choice can affect the level of abstraction in writing. Compare the following sentences which all
express causation:
The British decided to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay because they needed to
dispose of convicts. There were also other reasons.

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Here, two events are represented: the British decided and they needed. These events are connected by the
conjunction because. Compare this with the next example:

The British decided to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay as a result of the need to
dispose of convicts, among other reasons.

In this example, there is only one clause. The second event is turned into a ‘thing’ or noun (the need to dispose
of convicts). In the next example, the first event is turned into an abstract noun (decision).

The decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay was due to more factors than the
need to dispose of convicts.

In this case, the thinking going on at the time is represented through two abstract nouns (decision and need),
which are connected logically by a conjuctive adjective (due to), and the people doing the thinking are left out,
making it seem almost as though no one is responsible for the thinking and actions. Such grammatical choices
are common in academic writing, where events and perceptions of cause and effect frequently seem to exist
independently of human agency.
Logical connections can be expressed in various ways, from the simple use of conjunctions to join clauses, to
more subtle and complex expressions of logic through choice of verbs, adjectives and prepositions, and use of
abstract nouns.

CONJUNCTION AND THE STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENTS

Conjunctions and discourse markers not only establish connections between different bits of information in a
text, they are also useful to signal a text’s overall structure and rhetorical organisation. To recognise the
difference, look at the use of the same connectives in the following two examples:
Diana was kept very busy. First, she had to donate blood. Next, she caught the plane to
Geneva. Finally, she attended the conference.

Diana is a very generous person. First, she donates blood regularly. Next, she’s involved
in charity work. Finally, she keeps an open house.

In the first example, the connectives first, next and finally refer to a temporal sequence of events. In the second
example, the same connectives are used to organise the information rhetorically, adding evidence in stages to
strengthen an initial claim and persuade the reader of the point.

CREATING CONNECTIONS IN VARIOUS WAYS

In each of the following pairs of sentences, see how logical connections are created, by either using a simple
conjunction (version a – in italics and bold), or by using some other grammatical choice, such as a verb that
itself expresses a logical connection, or a verb phrase or a preposition (version b – in bold):

1a. Students misbehave because they have problems with life at school.
1b. Student misbehaviour is caused by the students’ problems with life at school.

2a. CSIRO will plan comprehensively and thereby identify training needs.
2b. CSIRO’s comprehensive planning will result in the identification of training needs.

3a. CSIRO will plan comprehensively and thereby identify training needs.
3b. CSIRO will identify training needs through comprehensive planning

Published by Learning Development – University of Wollongong. Adapted from materials by Learning Assistance Centre, the University
of Sydney; Halliday, M A K & Hasan, R (2014) Cohesion in English, Routledge, London & New York; Eggins, S (2004) An Introduction
to Systemic Functional Linguistics (2nd edn), A&C Black, London; Martin, J R (1986) “Intervening in the Process of Writing
Development” in C Painter & J R Martin (eds), Writing to Mean: Teaching Genres Across the Curriculum, Occasional Paper, No 9,
Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney; and Martin, J R (1993) “Life as a Noun: Arresting the Universe in Science and
Humanities” un Halliday, M A K & Martin, J R (eds), Writing Science, Falmer Press, London.

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TABLE 1: CONNECTIVE WORDS

Function Between Between Between Others

sentences independent dependent
clauses clauses

adding also, too, besides, and another + Noun,

information in addition, an additional + N
moreover,
furthermore

contrasting in contrast, but, yet although, in spite of + Noun,

information nevertheless, even though, despite + Noun
nonetheless, whereas, while
however

exemplifying for example, an example of + N,

information, for instance, such as + N, that is
explaining, indeed, in fact
clarifying

concluding in conclusion

summarising to summarise

ordering first, second ..., before, after, until the first + N,

information next, last, the second + N,
chronologically meanwhile, before the + N,
after that, since the +N
since then

prioritising more importantly, the most

information above all important + N

alternating otherwise or, for if, unless

causation
(reasoning)

showing cause accordingly, because, since because of, as a

(effect) as a result, result, due to, as a
consequently, consequence of,
hence the result of, the
effect of X on Y,
the consequence
of, the cause of,
the reason for, to
result in, to cause,
to have an effect
on, to affect

comparing similarly, also, too and as, just as like, just like, not
information only … but also,
similar to,
the same as,
both ... and …,
to compare with

conceding however but, yet although, though, despite+ Noun,

even though in spite of + N

showing strong however, but different from,

contrast by comparison, to differ from,
on the other hand to compare to,
unlike

Adapted from Oshima, A & Hogue, A (1991) Writing Academic English (2nd edn), Addison & Wesley, Menlo Park (CA).

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