AC Power Analysis

 Instantaneous power,
 Average power,
 Reactive power,
 Apparent power
 Complex power
 Conservation of AC power
 Maximum power transfer
 Power Factor
 Power Factor Correction

2
 Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical
energy is transferred by an electric circuit. It is the rate of
doing work.

 Eg: It is found that when a current flows through a resistor,

electrical energy is converted into heat. In this instance the
heat generated represents the amount of electrical power being
dissipated.

 The SI unit of power is the watt (W), one joule per second.
 Power is the most important quantity in electric utilities,
electronic and communication systems, because such systems
involve transmission of power from one point to another.

 Every industry and household electrical device – every fan,

motor, lamp, pressing iron, TV, personal computer has a power
rating that indicates how much power the equipment requires.

 Exceeding the power rating can do permanent damage to an

appliance.

 The choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage power

transmission from the power generating plant to the consumer.
 Let v(t) be the voltage across a circuit and i(t) be the current
through the circuit from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal [as shown in Figure 11.1].

 The instantaneous power of a circuit

is defined as the product of the voltage and current;
that is, p(t) = v(t)i(t)

 Let
v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + θv)
i(t) = Im sin(ωt + θi)
where θv is the phase of v(t) and θI is the phase of the current.

The difference in phases is defined as θ = θv – θi

 If we take the general case, as depicted in the figure

v(t)

i(t)

p =v(t) i(t)
 Further derivation reveals as

p(t)

 Note that the second term is a cosine wave

with an amplitude of VmIm/2 and with a
frequency twice of that voltage or current.

 The average value of this second term is zero

over one cycle, producing no net transfer of
energy.

 The first term, has a constant magnitude (no

time dependent) and therefore provides some
net transfer of energy.
 This term is referred as AVERAGE POWER.
 Average Power or Real Power, P is the power delivered to and
dissipated by the load.
 It correspond to the power calculation performed for DC
network.
 The angle (θv – θi) is the phase angle between v and i.

 Since cos (-α) = cos α ,

the magnitude of average power delivered is independent of whether v leads i or
i leads v
Eg: cos (36º-25º) = cos (25º-36º)
 Defining θ = (θv – θi), we have

Vm I m P = Average power in watts (W)

P= cos θ
2

 This equation can also be written as

P = Veff I eff cos θ

 In a purely resistive circuit, since v and i are in phase,
| θv – θi | = θ = 0º, and cos θ = cos 0º = 1,

Vm I m
P= = Veff I eff Unit : watts (W)
2

Veff
since I eff =
R

V 2 eff
P= = I 2 eff R Unit : watts (W)
R
 In a purely inductive circuit, since v leads i by 90º,
| θv – θi | = θ = 90º,

The average power or power dissipated by the ideal inductor is 0 watts

 In a purely capacitive circuit, since i leads v by 90º,
| θv – θi | = θ = | -90º| = 90º,

The average power or power dissipated by the ideal capacitor is 0 watts

A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load ( L or C)
absorbs zero average power.
EXAMPLE:
Find the average power dissipated in a network whose input
current and voltage are following

i = 5 sin(ωt + 40 )
v = 10 sin(ωt + 40 )
Exercise:
Find the average power absorbed by the passive linear network.
Given that
v(t ) = 120 cos(377t + 45 )
i (t ) = 10 cos(377t − 10 )

Solution:

P=
Vm I m
2
1
[
cos(θ v − θ i ) = (120 )(10 ) cos 45 − (−10 )
2
]
= 600 cos 55 = 344.2W
Exercise:
For the circuit shown, find the average power supplied by the
source and the average power absorbed by the resistor.

Solution:
Exercise:
Determine the average power generated by each source and the
average power absorbed by each passive element in the circuit

Solution:

Apply mesh analysis as shown

Following the passive sign conversion, this power is absorbed by the source
+ Power Absorb = - Power Supplied
Power Absorb = - Power Supplied
 In DC circuit, we proved that the maximum power would be
delivered to the load if the load resistance is equal to the
Thevenin resistance RL = RTH.

 Consider the figure, where a AC circuit is connected to a load ZL

and is represented by its Thevenin equivalent
 In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedances ZTH and the load
impedances ZL are

 The current through the load is

 The average power delivered to the load is

 Our objective is to adjust the load parameter RL and XL so that
P is maximum.
 To do this, we set ∂P and ∂P = 0
=0
∂RL ∂X L

which gives
 Combining eqn. 11.17 and 11.18 leads to

For maximum power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the
complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTH.

 Setting RL=RTH and XL = -XTH, gives us the maximum power

EXAMPLE:
Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the
power drawn from the circuit. What is the maximum power?

Solution:
1st obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load terminal.
To find VTH,
By voltage division,

Load impedance draws the maximum power from the circuit when

Thus, the maximum average power

EXERCISE:
In the circuit, find the value of RL that will absorb the maximum
average power. Calculate that power.

Solution:
Thevenin equivalent at the load terminal RL.
 Power engineers have coined the term complex power, which
they use to find the total effect of parallel loads.

 Complex power is important in power analysis because it

contains all the information pertaining to the power absorbed
by a given load。
 Consider the AC load in the figure.

 Given the phasor form V=Vm∠θv° and I=Im∠θi° of voltage v(t)

and i(t).
 The complex power , S is:

Or
where

 Complex power (in VA) is the product of rms voltage phasor

and the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor.
 Introducing the complex power enables us to obtain the real
(average) powers and reactive powers directly from voltage
and current phasors.

Complex Number : S = P + jQ
 The real part of S is the real power, P (W)
 Its imaginary part is the reactive power, Q (VAr).
 The magnitude of S is the apparent power, s (VA)
 The cosine of its phase angle ϕ is the power factor.

|S|
REAL POWER, P
 Unit : watt
 The average power in watts delivered to a load.
 It is the only useful power. It is the actual power dissipated
by the load.

REACTIVE POWER, Q
 Unit: volt-ampere (to distinguish from real power)
 Reactive power exists in an AC circuit when the current and
voltage are not in phase.
 Reactive power does not do any real work.
 It is the power exchanged between the reactive load and the source.
 As the power is exchanged between the source and the load, current flows on the
transmission lines connecting the source and the load.
 The current introduces loss on the transmission lines.
 It |S|, P, and Q in the form of a triangle, known as the
POWER TRIANGLE, as in Figure (a)

Power triangle has 4 items:

 Complex power, S
 Apparent power, |S|
|S|  Real Power, P
 Reactive power, Q
 Power factor angle.

 This is similar to the impedance triangle

showing the relationship between Z, R,
and X, illustrated in Figure (b).
EXERCISE:
The voltage across a load is v (t ) = 60 cos(ω t − 10 
) V and the
current through the element in the direction of the voltage drop is
i (t ) = 1.5 cos(ωt + 50  ) A. Find
(a) The complex power
(b) The real and reactive power
(c) Power factor and load impedance

Solution:
(a)
(b) Complex power in rectangular form

(c) Power factor ( its is leading, because the reactive power is negative)

Load impedance
 The principle of conservation of power applies to AC circuit
as well.
+POWER ABSORBED = -POWER SUPPLIED

 This law must be obeyed in any electric circuit.

 Considering parallel circuit as follow:

KCL gives
 The complex power supplied by the source is :
(all values of voltages and currents assumed to be rms values)

where S1 and S2 denotes the complex power delivers to loads Z1 and Z2

 If the load is connected in series

KVL gives

 The complex power supplied by the source is :

 From Eqn. (11.53) and (11.55), we noted that for both parallel
and series connection, total power supplied by the source is
equals to the total power delivered to the load.

 In general, for a source connected to N loads,

Total complex power in a network is the sum of the complex powers

of the individuals components.
EXERCISE:
Figure shows a load being fed by a voltage source through a
transmission line. The impedance of the line is represented by the
(4+j2) Ω impedance and a return path. Find the real power and
reactive power absorbed by: (a) the source, (b) the line, and (c) the
load.
Solution:

real power = 2163.5W and reactive power =910.8VAR

 real power = 455.4W and reactive power =227.76VAR

real power = 1708W and reactive power =1139VAR

Note that
 Power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the
ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the
circuit.
 The power factor is said to be lagging if the power factor angle θ
= θv – θi is positive.
 It is called lagging because the phase of the current θi is smaller
than the phase of the voltage θv, making θ = θv – θi > 0.
 If the power factor angle is negative, it is called leading. If θ < 0,
Q < 0 as show.
 A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the
load will “consume” reactive power, and therefore the reactive
component Q is positive as reactive power travels through the
circuit and is “consumed” by the inductive load.

 A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, as the

load “supplies” reactive power, and therefore the reactive
component Q is negative as reactive power is being supplied to
the circuit.
The power factor can be used to differentiate between different nature of loads
 As the power factor (i.e. cos θ) increases, the ratio of real power to
apparent power (which = cos θ), increases and approaches unity (1).

 While the angle θ decreases and the reactive power decreases. Refer to
the power triangle.

 As cos θ → 1, its maximum possible value, θ → 0 and so Q → 0, as the

load becomes less reactive and more purely resistive.
 As the power factor decreases, the ratio of real power to apparent
power also decreases.

 As the angle θ increases, the reactive power increases.

 At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be
transferred to get the same real power.

|S|

 In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor

draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the
same amount of useful power transferred.

 The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution

system, and require larger wires and other equipment.

 Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy,

electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or
commercial customers where there is a low power factor.
 Most domestic loads (such as washing machines, air
conditioners, and refrigerators) and industrial loads (such as
induction motors) are inductive and operate at a low lagging
power factor.

 Although the inductive nature of the load cannot be changed,

we can increase its power factor.

 Power factor as close to 1 as possible to reduce the loss.

 The process of increasing the power factor without altering the

voltage or current of the original load is known as power
factor correction.
 Since most loads are inductive, as shown in Figure (a), a load’s
power factor can be improved by installing a capacitor in
parallel with the load, as in figure (b).
 Power factor correction brings the power factor of an
AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying or absorbing
reactive power, adding capacitors or inductors that act to
cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load,
respectively.
 The effect of adding the capacitor can be illustrated using the
phasor diagram of the currents involved.

 Fig.(a) has a power factor of cos θ1

 Fig. (b) has a power factor of cos θ2.

 Adding the capacitor has caused the

phase angle between the supplied voltage
and current to reduce from θ1 to θ2.

 Fig.(a) draws larger current IL than the

current I drawn by the circuit in Fig.(b). --
Power companies charge more for larger
currents
 Consider the Power Triangle.

 If the original inductive load has apparent

power S1, then

 If we desire to increase the power factor from cos θ1 to cos θ2

without altering the real power, then the new reactive power is
 The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the shunt
capacitor; that is

 The value of the required shunt capacitance C is determined

as

 Vrms here referring to the magnitude of theVrms across the load

or |Vload|
EXAMPLE:
Find C for the following figure to increase the power factor to
0.98. Find the average power absorbed by R1 before and after
adding C. Assume all the values are in rms.

Solution:
Vs = 330∠0o V
ZL = j2π60×0.25 = j94.2478 Ω,
Z = 210 + j94.2478 Ω,
ZLoad = 160 + j94.2478 Ω
I = Vs/Z = 1.308 – j0.587 A = 1.4337∠-24.17o
VLoad = 264.6012 + j29.3509 = 266.224∠6.33o

Average Power Absorb PR1(before) = |I|2R1 = 102.7695 W

SLoad = VLoad×I* = 328.8624 + j193.7159 = 381.6757∠30.500o VA

PLoad = 328.8624 W, QLoad = 193.7159 VAR

Pf1 = PLoad/|SLoad| = 0.8616

θ1 = cos -1 0.8616 = 30.50o
Q1 = P tan θ1 = 328.8624 tan 30.50o = 193.7148

PfF = 0.98
θF = cos -1 0.98 = 11.48o
QF = P tan θ1 = 328.8624 tan 11.48o = 66.7883
 Qc = Q1 - QF = 193.7148 – 66.7883 =126.9265

𝑄𝑄 126.9265
C = 𝜔𝜔 𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶 2 = = 4.7504 µH
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (266.224)2 (2)(𝜋𝜋)(60)

With the addition of C,

Zeq = (R2 + ZL)||ZC = 206.9821 + j42.0295 Ω
Zt = 256.9821 + j42.0295 Ω,
I = Vs/Zt = 1.2673∠ – 9.2885o

Average Power Absorb PR1(after) = |I|2R1 = 80.3024 W

EXERCISE:
When connected to a 120-V (rms), 60-Hz power line, a load
absorbs 4 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value of
capacitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.

Solution:

Phase difference between voltage

and current

Apparent power from the real power and pf as

The difference in the reactive power is due to the parallel addition
of the capacitor.

The reactive power due to the capacitor is

EXERCISE:
In the circuit shown, find the inductance value L to increase the
power factor to 0.99. All voltages and currents are in rms.
The value of the required inductor L is determined as
Solution:

Vs = 220∠0o V
ZLoad = 95 – j106.1033 Ω ; Z = 125 – j106.1033 Ω
I = Vs/Z = 1.023 + j0.8683 A
VLoad = 189.3114 – j26.0493 V = 191.1∠ 7.83o
SLoad = VLoad I* = 171.038 – j191.0284 = 256.4096∠ – 48.1602o VA
PLoad = 171.038 W, QLoad = – 191.0284 VAR, |SLoad| = 256.4096 VA

Pf1 = PLoad/|SLoad| = 0.6671

θ1 = cos -1 0.6671 = 48.156o
Q1 = P tan θ1 = 171.038 tan 48.156o = 191

PfF = 0.99
θF = cos -1 0.99 = 8.11o
QF = P tan θ1 = 171.038 tan 8.11o = 24.3727
Solution
QL = Q1 - QF = 191 – 24.3727 = 166.63

| 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 |2 |191.1|2
L= = = 0.58134 H
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 𝜔𝜔 (166.63)(2)(𝜋𝜋)(60)
= 581.34 mH