Lecture 3 Elbow Complex
Lecture 3 Elbow Complex
Lecture 3 Elbow Complex
• Four Articulations within the Elbow and Forearm Complex:
‐ Humero‐ulnar joint and Humero‐radial joint (forming the elbow joint)
‐ Elbow joint together with proximal radio‐ulnar joint and distal radio‐ulnar joint
for elbow and forearm complex
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(A) The elbow’s axis of rotation extends slightly obliquely in a medial‐ateral
direction through the capitulum and the trochlea. Normal cubitus valgus of
the elbow is shown in degrees from the longitudinal axis of the humerus. (B)
Excessive cubitus valgus deformity is shown with the forearm deviated
laterally 30 degrees. (C) & (D) Cubitus varus deformity is depicted with the
forearm deviated medially.
• Valgus is defined as a lateral deviation of a distal segment with respect to the
segment proximal to it. Varus is the opposite, that is, a medial deviation of a
limb segment with respect to the proximal segment.
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• The ulnar nerve is at risk of serious injuries as it wraps around the medial
epicondyle at the elbow (travelling through the restricted space of the cubital
tunnel). Preliminary studies suggest that the cubital tunnel narrows during
elbow flexion, as a result of a stretch to the fascial covering. This narrowing
apparently is accompanied by a stretch to the nerve itself.
• The combination of cubital tunnel narrowing and nerve stretch may contribute
to some ulnar nerve neuropathies at the elbow.
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Humero‐ulnar dislocation
Dislocations of the humeroulnar articulations can occur posteriorly where there
is little bony limitation to the trochlear notch being pushed off the trochlea.
More frequently, dislocations occur in a combination of lateral and posterior
movement of the forearm resulting from a force directed laterally on the distal
forearm.
Attempts at catching oneself from a fall may create a severe valgus‐producing
force to the elbow, causing rupture of the medial collateral ligament and a
potentially damaging compression force across the humeroradial joint,
potentially fracturing the radial head.
• The three primary components of this complex and severe injury are elbow
joint dislocation (with extensive ligamentous injury), fracture of the radial
head, and fracture of the coronoid process. The extreme compression,
hyperextension, and valgus‐producing force generated at ground contact can
injure the MCL as well as fracture the bones
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Joint swelling and elbow flexion contractures
Patients with inflammation of the elbow joint frequently find that the position of
comfort is significant elbow flexion. This clinical finding is consistent with the
evidence suggesting that the tension in the joint capsule is minimized with the
elbow flexed to 80°. It is likely that patients seek a position that minimizes the
tension on the joint capsule, thus relieving pain associated with a stretch of the
capsular ligament. However, prolonged positioning in flexion in the presence of
inflammation may result in adaptive changes in the surrounding musculature as
well as structural changes in the capsule itself, resulting in a flexion contracture.
Clinical Bottom Line: Treatment to reduce elbow joint inflammation is critical to
maintaining joint function. As long as the joint inflammation continues, the
patient must be instructed to avoid prolonged flexion positions to prevent a
flexion contracture.
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• The MCL and LCL reinforce the capsule medially and laterally, respectively.
• The MCL is the larger of the two collateral ligaments. It consists of distinct
anterior and posterior parts and a smaller transverse portion (Fig. 6). The MCL
is attached proximally to the distal surface of the medial epicondyle. The
anterior portion of the MCL (AMCL) attaches distally to the coronoid process,
and the posterior portion (PMCL) attaches to the olecranon process. The
transverse portion actually spans the medial aspect of the trochlear notch,
with no attachment on the humerus. The MCL as a whole resists valgus forces
that tend to deviate the forearm laterally
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• The normal valgus alignment of the elbow predisposes it to valgus stress.
Overhead and throwing activities increase the valgus stresses even more
Picher’s elbow
The throwing motion puts a significant valgus stress on the elbow and
consequently on the MCL. The repetitive stresses sustained by baseball pitchers
can and frequently do lead to injuries to the MCL. When the injury includes tears
of the MCL, surgical repair may be indicated. The most common, known as
Tommy John surgery, reconstructs the torn MCL with a tendon, usually from the
palmaris longus or the plantaris muscles, small muscles from the forearm or leg,
respectively. Although the etiology of tears of the MCL is not fully understood,
the mechanics of the throwing motion appears relevant.
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• The radial head is reported to be an important limit to valgus excursion at the
elbow.
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• Elbow instability after radial head resection may indicate more extensive soft
tissue damage.
• Removal of the radial head, or radial head excision, is a surgical procedure
considered in the presence of a radial head fracture or severe arthritic
changes
• Clinical Bottom Line: Injuries involving both the radial head and MCL ligament
frequently require extensive surgical intervention, and the functional
consequences are more severe
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“Pulled elbow injuries”
• Inferior dislocations of the superior radioulnar joint most frequently occur in
preschool children but are also reported in babies 6 to 12 months of age. The
mechanism of injury is a tensile force directed distally on the forearm. Such a
force occurs when swinging a child by the hands in play or when stopping a
child from running into the street.
• The injury is known as the “pulled elbow” or “nursemaid’s elbow.”
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• The motion of the distal radius and ulna during pronation. (A). Pronation
produced by motion of the radius about a fixed ulna causes the hand to move
in space. (B). Pronation with the hand fixed in space requires movement of the
ulna posteriorly, laterally, and then anteriorly.
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• Active insufficiency of the biceps brachii, A. Elbow flexion with shoulder
flexion can produce active insufficiency in biceps.
• Lengthening the biceps brachii to increase its contraction force, B. Active
shoulder hyperextension of shoulder during biceps contraction lengthens
muscle and increases contractile force (i.e. length‐tension relationship: a
muscle’s ability to produce force improves as the muscle is lengthened and
diminishes as the muscle is shortened.
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The pull of the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii is almost parallel to
the pull of the supraspinatus, allowing the biceps brachii to contribute to the
stability of the glenohumeral joint.
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Effects of weakness
Elbow flexion weakness
May contribute to weakness in pronation and supination
Effects of tightness
Decreased elbow extension ROM
Hypothetically may contribute to decreased ROM in pronation and supination
• An individual with tightness of the brachialis and elbow joint capsule.
Shoulder and forearm positions have no effect on the elbow flexion
contracture.
Elbow extension ROM is the same with (A) the shoulder in neutral and the
forearm supinated, (B) the shoulder hyperextended and the forearm supinated,
(C) the shoulder flexed and the forearm supinated, and (D) the shoulder in
neutral and the forearm pronated.
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Effects of weakness
Weakness of elbow flexion and pronation
Effects of tightness
Limited ROM in elbow extension and supination
Must consider both humeroulnar and superior radioulnar joint positions when
testing for pronator teres tightnes
• Standard manual muscle testing procedures to assess the strength of forearm
pronation. (A) With the elbow slightly flexed, both the pronator teres and
pronator quadratus contribute to the strength of pronation. (B) With the
elbow maximally flexed, the pronator teres is in such a shortened position that
it cannot exert an effective pronation force.
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• The moment arms of the primary flexor muscles of the elbow. A muscle’s
moment arm is measured as the perpendicular distance from the point of
rotation to the muscle pull. In order of longest to shortest moment arms, the
muscles are: 1, brachioradialis; 2, biceps brachii; 3, brachialis; and 4, pronator
teres.
Comparisons between elbow flexors activity during elbow motion using EMG data
‐ The brachialis is active during active elbow flexion under any and all
circumstances. This finding is consistent with the muscle’s large PCSA and short
moment arm that facilitates flexion through the full available range.
‐ The bicep is most active in combined flexion and supination and is inhibited
during elbow flexion with pronation or during supination with elbow extension.
‐ The brachioradialis contributes to elbow flexion when the elbow is pronated or
supinated if resistance is added. It also is active during rapid elbow flexion.
Pronator teres contributes to flexion and pronation against resistance
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Effects of weakness
Elbow extension weakness
Functional significance in upper extremity weight‐bearing activities
The presence of a flexion contracture prevents the individual with C6 tetraplegia
from supporting the elbow passively by locking the elbow and may compromise
function
Effects of tightness
Limits elbow flexion ROM
Figure: Locking the elbow allows stable elbow extension during weight bearing on
the upper extremity, even in the absence of elbow extension strength. The
prevention of elbow flexion contractures is an essential element in the goal of
independent function for individuals with C6 tetraplegia.
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Effects of weakness
Decreased supination strength
Decreased ability to supinate with elbow extended
Use elbow flexion and extension to identify biceps’ and supinator’s contributions
to supination
Effects of tightness
Isolated tightness unlikely
Use shoulder position to distinguish between biceps brachii and supinator
tightness.
Figure: A. Resisted supination with the elbow extended inhibits the biceps
brachii. B. Although the biceps brachii muscle is active during resisted supination
with the elbow maximally flexed, the muscle is so short that it is unable to
generate significant supination strength.
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