FEMA 307: Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings Technical Resources
FEMA 307: Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings Technical Resources
FEMA 307: Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings Technical Resources
Technical Resources
Prepared by:
Prepared for:
Funded by:
1998
Applied Technology Council
Notice
This report was prepared under Contract EMW-95-C-4685 between the Federal Emer-
gency Management Agency and the Partnership for Response and Recovery.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication
do not necessarily reflect the views of the Applied Technology Council (ATC), the
Partnership for Response and Recovery (PaRR), or the Federal Emergency Manage-
ment Agency (FEMA). Additionally, neither ATC, PaRR, FEMA, nor any of their em-
ployees makes any warranty, expressed or implied, nor assumes any legal liability or
responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, prod-
uct, or process included in this publication. Users of information from this publication
assume all liability arising from such use.
For further information concerning this document or the activities of the ATC, contact
the Executive Director, Applied Technolgy Council, 555 Twin Dolphin Drive, Suite
550, Redwood City, California 94065; phone 650-595-1542; fax 650-593-2320; e-mail
[email protected].
Preface
Following the two damaging California earthquakes in also provides guidance for the repair of damaged
1989 (Loma Prieta) and 1994 (Northridge), many components.
concrete wall and masonry wall buildings were repaired
using federal disaster assistance funding. The repairs The project also involved a workshop to provide an
were based on inconsistent criteria, giving rise to opportunity for the user community to review and
controversy regarding criteria for the repair of cracked comment on the proposed evaluation and repair criteria.
concrete and masonry wall buildings. To help resolve The workshop, open to the profession at large, was held
this controversy, the Federal Emergency Management in Los Angeles on June 13, 1997 and was attended by
Agency (FEMA) initiated a project on evaluation and 75 participants.
repair of earthquake damaged concrete and masonry
wall buildings in 1996. The project was conducted The project was conducted under the direction of ATC
through the Partnership for Response and Recovery Senior Consultant Craig Comartin, who served as Co-
(PaRR), a joint venture of Dewberry & Davis of Principal Investigator and Project Director. Technical
Fairfax, Virginia, and Woodward-Clyde Federal and management direction were provided by a
Services of Gaithersburg, Maryland. The Applied Technical Management Committee consisting of
Technology Council (ATC), under subcontract to PaRR, Christopher Rojahn (Chair), Craig Comartin (Co-
was responsible for developing technical criteria and Chair), Daniel Abrams, Mark Doroudian, James Hill,
procedures (the ATC-43 project). Jack Moehle, Andrew Merovich (ATC Board
Representative), and Tim McCormick. The Technical
The ATC-43 project addresses the investigation and Management Committee created two Issue Working
evaluation of earthquake damage and discusses policy Groups to pursue directed research to document the
issues related to the repair and upgrade of earthquake- state of the knowledge in selected key areas: (1) an
damaged buildings. The project deals with buildings Analysis Working Group, consisting of Mark Aschheim
whose primary lateral-force-resisting systems consist of (Group Leader) and Mete Sozen (Senior Consultant)
concrete or masonry bearing walls with flexible or rigid and (2) a Materials Working Group, consisting of Joe
diaphragms, or whose vertical-load-bearing systems Maffei (Group Leader and Reinforced Concrete
consist of concrete or steel frames with concrete or Consultant), Greg Kingsley (Reinforced Masonry
masonry infill panels. The intended audience is design Consultant), Bret Lizundia (Unreinforced Masonry
engineers, building owners, building regulatory Consultant), John Mander (Infilled Frame Consultant),
officials, and government agencies. Brian Kehoe and other consultants from Wiss, Janney,
Elstner and Associates (Tests, Investigations, and
The project results are reported in three documents. The Repairs Consultant). A Project Review Panel provided
FEMA 306 report, Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged technical overview and guidance. The Panel members
Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings, Basic were Gregg Borchelt, Gene Corley, Edwin Huston,
Procedures Manual, provides guidance on evaluating Richard Klingner, Vilas Mujumdar, Hassan Sassi, Carl
damage and analyzing future performance. Included in Schulze, Daniel Shapiro, James Wight, and Eugene
the document are component damage classification Zeller. Nancy Sauer and Peter Mork provided technical
guides, and test and inspection guides. FEMA 307, editing and report production services, respectively.
Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Affiliations are provided in the list of project
Masonry Wall Buildings, Technical Resources, contains participants.
supplemental information including results from a
theoretical analysis of the effects of prior damage on The Applied Technology Council and the Partnership
single-degree-of-freedom mathematical models, for Response and Recovery gratefully acknowledge the
additional background information on the component cooperation and insight provided by the FEMA
guides, and an example of the application of the basic Technical Monitor, Robert D. Hanson.
procedures. FEMA 308, The Repair of Earthquake
Damaged Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings, Tim McCormick
discusses the policy issues pertaining to the repair of PaRR Task Manager
earthquake damaged buildings and illustrates how the
procedures developed for the project can be used to Christopher Rojahn
provide a technically sound basis for policy decisions. It ATC-43 Principal Investigator
ATC Executive Director
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1. Introduction ................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose And Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Materials Working Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Tests and Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.2 Component Behavior and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.3 Repair Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Analysis Working Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Table 2-1 Ranges of Reinforced Concrete Component Displacement Ductility, µ∆, Associated
with Damage Severity Levels and λ Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Table 2-2 Key References on Reinforced Concrete Wall Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Table 3-1 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response for Reinforced Masonry Components . . . . . . . 40
Table 3-2 Ranges of Reinforced Masonry Component Displacement Ductility, µ∆, Associated
with Damage Severity Levels and λ Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 3-3 Annotated Bibliography for Reinforced Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Table 4-1 Summary of Significant Experimental Research or Research Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 5-1 Tabular Bibliography for Infilled Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Table 6-1 Recorded Ground Motions Used in the Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 7-1 Capacity of Potential Behavior Modes for Typical Solid Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Table 7-2 Capacity of Potential Behavior Modes for Typical Coupling Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Table 7-3 Shear Capacities for Potential Behavior Modes of Wall Pier (RC1) Components
in Coupled Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Table 7-4 Summary of Component Type, Behavior Mode, and Damage Severity for Wall
Components (North-South Direction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 7-5 Summary of Component Type, Behavior Mode, and Damage Severity for Wall
Components (East-West Direction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Table 7-6 Restoration Cost Estimate by the Direct Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Table 7-7 Performance Indices for Pre-event and Post-event Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Table 7-8 Restoration Cost Estimate by the Relative Performance Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
This document is one of three to result from the ATC-43 seismic performance. This approach models the
project funded by the Federal Emergency Management building as an assembly of its individual
Agency (FEMA). The goal of the project is to develop components. Force-deformation properties (e.g.,
technically sound procedures to evaluate the effects of elastic stiffness, yield point, ductility) control the
earthquake damage on buildings with primary lateral- behavior of wall panels, beams, columns, and other
force-resisting systems consisting of concrete or components. The component behavior, in turn,
masonry bearing walls or infilled frames. The governs the overall displacement of the building and
procedures are based on the knowledge derived from its seismic performance. Thus, the evaluation of the
research and experience in engineering practice effects of damage on building performance must
regarding the performance of these types of buildings concentrate on how component properties change as
and their components. The procedures require a result of damage.
thoughtful examination and review prior to
implementation. The ATC-43 project team strongly • Indicators of damage (e.g., cracking,
urges individual users to read all of the documents spalling) are meaningful only in light of the
carefully to form an overall understanding of the mode of component behavior.
damage evaluation procedures and repair techniques.
Damage affects the behavior of individual
Before this project, formalized procedures for the components differently. Some exhibit ductile modes
investigation and evaluation of earthquake-damaged of post-elastic behavior, maintaining strength even
buildings were limited to those intended for immediate with large displacements. Others are brittle and lose
use in the field to identify potentially hazardous strength abruptly after small inelastic
conditions. ATC-20, Procedures for Postearthquake displacements. The post-elastic behavior of a
Safety Evaluation of Buildings, and its addendum, ATC- structural component is a function of material
20-2 (ATC, 1989 and 1995) are the definitive properties, geometric proportions, details of
documents for this purpose. Both have proven to be construction, and the combination of demand
extremely useful in practical applications. ATC-20 actions (axial, flexural, shearing, torsional) imposed
recognizes and states that in many cases, detailed upon it. As earthquake shaking imposes these
structural engineering evaluations are required to actions on components, the components tend to
investigate the implications of earthquake damage and exhibit predominant modes of behavior as damage
the need for repairs. This project provides a framework occurs. For example, if earthquake shaking and its
and guidance for those engineering evaluations. associated inertial forces and frame distortions
cause a reinforced concrete wall panel to rotate at
each end, statics defines the relationship between
What have we learned? the associated bending moments and shear force.
The project team for ATC-43 began its work with a The behavior of the panel depends on its strength in
thorough review of available analysis techniques, field flexure relative to that in shear. Cracks and other
observations, test data, and emerging evaluation and signs of damage must be interpreted in the context
design methodologies. The first objective was to of the mode of component behavior. A one-eighth-
understand the effects of damage on future building inch crack in a wall panel on the verge of brittle
performance. The main points are summarized below. shear failure is a very serious condition. The same
size crack in a flexurally-controlled panel may be
• Component behavior controls global insignificant with regard to future seismic
performance. performance. This is, perhaps, the most important
finding of the ATC-43 project: the significance of
Recently developed guidelines for structural cracks and other signs of damage, with respect to
engineering seismic analysis and design techniques the future performance of a building, depends on the
focus on building displacement, rather than forces as mode of behavior of the components in which the
the primary parameter for the characterization of damage is observed.
• Damage may reveal component behavior smaller event would have occurred early in the
that differs from that predicted by evaluation subsequent, larger event anyway.
and design methodologies.
sense to implement unnecessary repairs to buildings seismic and structural design procedures. These will
that would perform relatively well even in a take some time to be assimilated in the engineering
damaged condition. Nor is it wise to neglect community. The same is true for building officials.
buildings in which the component behavior reveals Seminars, workshops, and training sessions are
serious hazards regardless of the extent of damage. required not only to introduce and explain the
procedures but also to gather feedback and to
• Engineering judgment and experience are improve the overall process. Additionally, future
essential to the successful application of materials-testing and analytical research will
the procedures. enhance the basic framework developed for this
project. Current project documents are initial
ATC-20 and its addendum, ATC-20-2, were editions to be revised and improved over the years.
developed to be used by individuals who might be
somewhat less knowledgeable about earthquake In addition to the project team, a Project Review Panel
building performance than practicing structural has reviewed the damage evaluation and repair
engineers. In contrast, the detailed investigation of procedures and each of the three project documents.
damage using the performance-based procedures of This group of experienced practitioners, researchers,
this document and the companion FEMA 306 report regulators, and materials industry representatives
(ATC, 1998a) and FEMA 308 report (ATC, 1998b) reached a unanimous consensus that the products are
must be implemented by an experienced engineer. technically sound and that they represent the state of
Although the documents include information in knowledge on the evaluation and repair of earthquake-
concise formats to facilitate field operations, they damaged concrete and masonry wall buildings. At the
must not be interpreted as a “match the pictures” same time, all who contributed to this project
exercise for unqualified observers. Use of these acknowledge that the recommendations depart from
guideline materials requires a thorough traditional practices. Owners, design professionals,
understanding of the underlying theory and building officials, researchers, and all others with an
empirical justifications contained in the documents. interest in the performance of buildings during
Similarly, the use of the simplified direct method to earthquakes are encouraged to review these documents
estimate losses has limitations. The decision to use and to contribute to their continued improvement and
this method and the interpretation of the results must enhancement. Use of the documents should provide
be made by an experienced engineer. realistic assessments of the effects of damage and
valuable insight into the behavior of structures during
• The new procedures are different from past earthquakes. In the long run, they hopefully will
damage evaluation techniques and will contribute to sensible private and public policy
continue to evolve in the future. regarding earthquake-damaged buildings.
Force, F
Backbone curve
Actual hysteretic from FEMA 273
behavior
Deformation, D
F F F
Backbone curve
C, D
B, C, D
Idealized
C component
B B
behavior
E
D
A
A E A E
D D D
Ductile Semi- ductile Brittle
(deformation controlled) (force contolled)
subject to cyclic lateral loads. The types of damage (Reinforced Masonry), 4 (Unreinforced Masonry), and
investigated included cracking and crushing of concrete 5 (Infilled Frames).
or masonry and yielding and fracture of reinforcing
steel. Components included a wide variety of 1.2.3 Repair Techniques
configurations for vertical-load-bearing and infilled-
frame elements. Materials included reinforced concrete, The Materials Group also reviewed experimental and
reinforced masonry, and unreinforced masonry. analytical research reports, technical papers, standards,
manufacturers' specifications, and practical example
Based on the review, practical guidelines for identifying applications relating to the repair of damage in concrete
and modeling the force-deformation characteristics of and masonry walls and infilled-frame walls. The
damaged components were developed and included in primary interest was the repair of earthquake damage to
FEMA 306. These consist of modifications (B', C', D', structural components. The review focused on materials
E') to the generalized force-deformation relationships and methods of installation and tests of the effectiveness
for undamaged components, as shown in Figure 1-2. of repair techniques for cracking, crushing, and
Supplemental information on these modifications is deterioration of concrete or masonry and yielding,
included in this volume in Chapters 2 (Concrete), 3 fracture, and deterioration of reinforcing steel.
F C
B Undamaged component
Damaged component
C'
B'
D E
D' E'
A'
A D
Based on the review, practical guidelines for damage so that the following question might be answered (see
repair were developed and are contained in FEMA 308: Figure 1-3): If a building has experienced damage in an
The Repair of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and earthquake (the damaging earthquake), and if that
Masonry Wall Buildings (ATC, 1998b). These intermediate damage state can be characterized in terms
guidelines consist of outline specifications for of its effect on the global force-displacement
equipment, materials, and procedures required to relationship, how will the damage influence global
execute the repairs, as well as criteria for quality control response to a subsequent earthquake (the Performance
and verification of field installations. Earthquake)?
dd
Performance
Earthquake
Pre-event Performance
State Damage State
Time
sensitivity of the predictions to variations in global Federal Emergency Management Agency, Report
load-deformation characteristics and to variations in No. FEMA 273, Washington, D.C.
ground motion characteristics. The results are reflected
ATC, 1997b, NEHRP Commentary on the Guidelines
in the procedures presented in FEMA 306.
for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings, pre-
pared by the Applied Technology Council (ATC-33
1.4 References project) for the Building Seismic Safety Council,
published by the Federal Emergency Management
ATC, 1996, The Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Agency, Report No. FEMA 274, Washington, D.C.
Concrete Buildings, Applied Technology Council,
ATC-40 Report, Redwood City, California. ATC, 1998a, Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Con-
crete and Masonry Wall Buildings, Basic Proce-
ATC, 1997a, NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic Reha- dures Manual, prepared by the Applied Technology
bilitation of Buildings, prepared by the Applied Council (ATC-43 project) for the Partnership for
Technology Council (ATC-33 project) for the Response and Recovery, published by the Federal
Building Seismic Safety Council, published by the
F F F F
d d d d
a.Bilinear
a. Bilinear b. Stiffness
b. Stiffness degraded
Degraded c. Stiffness
c. Stiffness Degraded
Degraded d.d.Stiffness
Stiffness
andand
Strength
(positive post-yield
(pos. post-yield stiffness) (negative post-yield
(neg. post-yield stiffness) strength degraded
Degraded
stiffness) stiffness)
Emergency Management Agency, Report No. the Partnership for Response and Recovery, pub-
FEMA 306, Washington D.C. lished by the Federal Emergency Management
Agency, Report No. FEMA 308, Washington D.C.
ATC, 1998b, Repair of Earthquake Damaged Concrete
and Masonry Wall Buildings, prepared by the
Applied Technology Council (ATC-43 project) for
Damage Indicators:
Spalling, Bar Buckling, Bar Fracture, Residual Drift,
Crack Type and Orientation, Crack Width.
Damage Severity:
Insignificant, Slight, Moderate, Heavy, Extreme.
Figure 2-1 Diagram of process used to develop component guides and component modification factors.
to establish λ factors. In cases of uncertainty, the wall performance under load reversals is a function of
recommended λ factors and severity classifications are load history. The previous level of maximum
designed to be conservative — that is, the factors and deformation is critical.”
classifications may overestimate the effect of damage
on future performance. For reinforced concrete columns, Mander et al. (1996)
have shown a correlation between strength degradation
Only limited research is available from which to infer and cumulative plastic drift. El-Bahy et al, (1997) have
specific λD values. However, a number of tests support shown similar results. This research generally supports
the general idea that ultimate displacement capacity can the λD values recommended for reinforced concrete,
be reduced because of previous damaging cycles. which are 0.9 at moderate damage and 0.7 to 0.8 at
Comparisons of monotonic to cyclic-static wall tests heavy damage.
show greater displacement capacities for monotonic
loading, and Oesterle et al. (1976) conclude, “structural
Table 2-1 Ranges of reinforced concrete component displacement ductility, µ∆, associated with damage
severity levels and λ factors
Component Damage Severity Remarks on Ductility Ranges
Guide Insignif. Slight Moderate Heavy
RC1A µ∆ ≤ 3 µ∆ ≈4 – 8 µ∆ ≈ 3– 10 Heavy not Slight category will only occur for low axial
used loads, where concrete does not spall until large
Ductile Flex- λK = 0.8 λK = 0.6 λK = 0.5 ductilities develop
ural
λQ = 1.0 λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.8
λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9
RC1B µ∆ ≤ 3 Slight not µ∆ ≈ 2 – 6 µ∆ ≈ 2 – 8 Ductility depends on ratio of flexural to shear
Flexure/ Diag- λK = 0.8 used λK = 0.5 λK = 0.2 strength. Lower ductility indicates behavior
onal Tension λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.8 λQ = 0.3 similar to preemptive diagonal tension. Higher
ductility indicates behavior similar to ductile
λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9 λD = 0.7
flexural.
RC1C µ∆ ≤ 3 Slight not µ∆ ≈ 2 – 6 µ∆ ≈ 3 – 8 Ductility depends on ratio of flexural to web
Flexure/ Web used crushing strength. Lower ductility indicates
See RC1B λK = 0.5 λK = 0.2
Crushing behavior similar to preemptive web crushing.
λQ = 0.8 λQ = 0.3 Higher ductility indicates behavior similar to
λD = 0.9 λD = 0.7 ductile flexural.
RC1D µ∆ ≤ 3 µ∆ ≈ 4 – 6 Moderate µ∆ ≈ 4 – 8 Ductility depends on ratio of flexural to sliding
Flexure/ Slid- not used shear strength.
See RC1A See RC1A λK = 0.4
ing Shear
λQ = 0.5
λD = 0.8
RC1E µ∆ ≤ 3 µ∆ ≈ 4 – 6 µ∆ ≈ 3 – 6 µ∆ ≈ 4 – 8 Slight category will only occur for lower axial
Flexure/ loads, where concrete does not spall until large
See RC1A See RC1A See RC1A λK = 0.4
Boundary ductilities develop. Lower ductility relates
Compression λQ = 0.6 poorer confinement conditions. Higher ductil-
λD = 0.7 ity indicates behavior similar to ductile flexural
RC2A µ∆ ≤ 3 µ∆ ≈ 4 – 6 µ∆ ≈ 3– 10 Heavy not See RC1A
Ductile Flex- used
See RC1A See RC1A λK = 0.5
ural
λQ = 0.8
λD = 0.9
RC2H µ∆ ≤ 1 Slight not µ∆ ≤ 1.5 µ∆ ≤ 2 Force controlled behavior associated with low
Preemptive used ductility levels.
λK = 0.9 λK = 0.5 λK = 0.2
Diagonal
Shear λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.8 λQ = 0.3
λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9 λD = 0.7
RC3B µ∆ ≤ 3 Slight not µ∆ ≈ 2 – 6 µ∆ ≈ 2 – 8 See RC1B
Flexure/ Diag- used
See RC1B See RC1B λK = 0.2
onal Tension
λQ = 0.3
λD = 0.7
RC3D µ∆ ≤ 3 µ∆ ≈ 4 – 6 Moderate µ∆ ≈ 3 – 8 Sliding shear may occur at lower ductility lev-
Flexure/ Slid- See RC1D See RC1D not used λK = 0.2 els that RC1D because of less axial load.
ing Shear λQ = 0.3
λD = 0.7
Diagonal cracking and buckling in the plastic hinge region of a structural wall (G1).
1200
Moment (kNm)
P = 0.163f'c Ag Mideal
1000
H
800
M
H
600
Wall
buckled
400
Nominal
displacement
200 ductility
-3 3
-6 -4 -2 4 4 2 4 6
-80 -60 -40 -20 20 40 60 80
Deflection (mm)
-200
P = 0.040f'c Ag
-400
H
-600
M
H
Mideal -800
-1000
bw = 100
lw = 1500
Envelope of response
Envelope of response
Envelope of response
Test specimen at ultimate load
∆ = 0.15 in ∆/hw = 0.008 λQ = 1.0
120
Load
Load (kips)
Radians x 10 -3 20 12
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 54 56 58 60 62
-20 Radians x 10 -3
4 10
-40
8
-60
-80
6
2 Beam after
-100
13th cycle
-120
Load
Pu* = 124.5k
-140
Theoretical:
(b) Uncracked sections
(a) Cracked sections
180 Pu* = 184.0k
Theoretical ultimate load
160
Extensive crushing at
5
Load (kips)
-160
Load
-180
Pu* = 184.0k
Beam 392 after being subjected to seismic-type Beam 392, Cycle 14.
loading: Cycle 13.
Wight (Editor) 7-story building, two bays by three bays with beam and slab floors, cyclic-static loading full RC1 •
(1985) scale. One wall acting parallel to moment frames. Parallel and perpendicular frames
increased the capacity of the structure.
Test structure repaired with epoxy injection and re-tested
Alexander, Heide- M/VL = 2.0, 1.33, 0.67 Cyclic-static loading. RC1 • •
brcht, and Tso (1973) 1/2 scale. Axial load varied.
(McMaster Univer-
sity)
Shiga, Shibata, and 8 test specimens, 6 cyclic-static loading, 2 monotonic. RC1 •
Takahashi (1973 Approx. 1/4 scale. Barbell section.Load history, web reinforcement, and axial load varied.
,1975) (Tohoku Uni- M/VL = 0.63.
versity)
Maier (1991) 10 test specimens, 2 cyclic-static loading, 8 monotonic. RC1 • •
7 flanged sections, 3 rectangular. Approx. 1/3 scale. Reinforcement and axial load varied.
M/VL = 1.12.
1
Behavior modes:
A Ductile Flexural Response F Flexure/Lap-Splice Slip K Preemptive Boundary Zone Compression Failure
B Flexure/Diagonal Tension G Flexure/Out-of-Plane Wall Buckling L Preemptive Lap-Splice Failure
C Flexure/Diagonal Compression (Web Crushing) H Preemptive Diagonal Tension M Global foundation rocking of wall
D Flexure/Sliding Shear I Preemptive Web Crushing N Foundation rocking of individual piers
E Flexure/Boundary-Zone Compression J Preemptive Sliding Shear
31
32
Lybas & Sozen 6 test specimens, 5 shake-table and 1 cyclic static. Approx. 1/12 scale. RC1 •
(1977) (University of 6-story coupled walls, rectangular pier and beam sections. RC3
Illinois)
Azizinamini et al. Out-of-plane tests on tilt-up walls. 6 test specimens. RC1
(1994) (Portland Approx. 3/5 scale. Monotonic out-of-plane loading.
Cement Association) Report shows typical crack patterns resulting from out-of-plane forces.
ACI-SEAOSC Out-of-plane tests on tilt-up walls, 12 reinforced concrete specimens (Also, 18 reinforced RC1
Task Force (1982) masonry specimens). Full scale monotonic out-of-plane loading and constant axial loading
h/t ratios of 30 to 60.
.
1
Behavior modes:
A Ductile Flexural Response F Flexure/Lap-Splice Slip K Preemptive Boundary Zone Compression Failure
B Flexure/Diagonal Tension G Flexure/Out-of-Plane Wall Buckling L Preemptive Lap-Splice Failure
C Flexure/Diagonal Compression (Web Crushing) H Preemptive Diagonal Tension M Global foundation rocking of wall
D Flexure/Sliding Shear I Preemptive Web Crushing N Foundation rocking of individual piers
E Flexure/Boundary-Zone Compression J Preemptive Sliding Shear
FEMA 307
Chapter 2: Reinforced Concrete Components
Vs = Nominal shear strength provided by shear rein- µ∆ = Displacement ductility demand for a compo-
forcement (per ACI) nent, used in FEMA 306, Section A2.3.4, as
discussed in Section 6.4.2.4 of FEMA-273.
Vu = Factored shear force at section (per ACI)
Equal to the component deformation corre-
Vwc = Web crushing shear strength per FEMA 306, sponding to the global target displacement,
Section A2.3.6.c divided by the effective yield displacement of
the component (which is defined in Section
α = Coefficient accounting for wall aspect ratio 6.4.1.2B of FEMA-273).
effect on Vc per FEMA 306, Section A2.3.6.b
ρg = Ratio of total reinforcement area to cross-sec-
β = Coefficient accounting for longitudinal rein- tional area of wall.
forcement effect on Vc per FEMA 306,
ρl = Local reinforcement ratio in boundary region of
Section A2.3.6.b
wall according to FEMA 306, Section A2.3.7
δ = Story drift ratio for a component, correspond-
ing to the global target displacement, used in ρn = Ratio of distributed shear reinforcement on a
the computation of Vwc, FEMA 306, plane perpendicular to plane of Acv (per ACI).
Section A2.3.6.c (For typical wall piers and isolated walls indi-
cates amount of horizontal reinforcement.)
µ = Coefficient of friction (per ACI)
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3. Reinforced Masonry
Table 3-1 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response for Reinforced Masonry Components
Component and Reference Crack / Damage Pattern Hysteretic Response
Behavior Mode
RM1 Shing et al.,
1991
Flexure Specimen 12
Table 3-1 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response for Reinforced Masonry Components (continued)
RM1 Shing et al.,
1991
Flexure / Shear Specimen 7
Table 3-1 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response for Reinforced Masonry Components (continued)
RM1 Shing et al.,
1991
Flexure / Sliding Specimen 8
Shear
Table 3-1 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response for Reinforced Masonry Components (continued)
RM1 Shing et al.,
1991
Flexure /lap splice Specimen 19
slip
1991
Preemptive Shear Specimen 9
Table 3-1 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response for Reinforced Masonry Components (continued)
RM1 or RM2 Shing et al.,
1991
Preemptive Shear Specimen 14
Table 3-1 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response for Reinforced Masonry Components (continued)
RM1 or RM2 with Priestley and
flange. He, 1990
Flexure / Shear
Research has been conducted to evaluate the been determined empirically, using crack widths
relationship between crack width, crack spacing, and reported in the literature and photographs of damaged
reinforcing bar strain. A partial review of the literature specimens. Consideration has been given to the
on crack width is provided by Noakowski, (1985). theoretical crack width required to achieve yield of
Research indicates that the width of a crack crossing a reinforcement under a variety of conditions. A
reinforcing bar at first yield of the reinforcement fundamental presumption is that the width of shear
depends on the bar diameter, the reinforcement yield cracks is related to damage severity, while flexural
stress, the reinforcement ratio, the reinforcement elastic crack widths are not closely related to damage severity.
modulus, and on the characteristics of the bond stress-
slip relationship. However, most research in this area 3.1.3 Interpretation of Tests
has focused on nearly elastic systems (prior to yield in
reinforcement), and flexural cracking in beams and Interpretation of test results for reinforced masonry was
uniaxial tension specimens. It is difficult to extrapolate similar to that for reinforced concrete as described in
quantitative expressions for crack width and spacing Section 2.1.1.2. The ranges of component ductility and
prior to yield to reinforced masonry specimens with l-factors are presented in Table 3-2.
sufficient damage to reduce strength or deformation
capacity. 3.2 Tabular Bibliography for
Sassi and Ranous (1996) have suggested criteria to Reinforced Masonry
relate crack width to damage, but they have not Table 3-3 contains a brief description of the key
provided sufficient information to associate crack technical reports which address specific reinforced
patterns with specific behavior modes, which is masonry component behavior. The component types
essential when determining damage severity. and their behavior modes are indicated. The full
references can be found in Section 3.4.
In the guides for reinforced masonry components, the
crack width limits for each damage severity level have
Table 3-2 Ranges of reinforced masonry component displacement ductility, µ∆, associated with
damage severity levels and λ factors
Damage Damage Severity
Guide Insignificant Slight Moderate Heavy
RM1A µ∆ ≤ 3 µ∆ ≈2 – 4 µ∆ ≈ 3– 8 Heavy not used
Ductile Flexural λK = 0.8 λK = 0.6 λK = 0.4
λQ = 1.0 λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.9
λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0
RM1B µ∆ ≤ 2 µ∆ ≈ 2 – 3 µ∆ ≈ 3 – 5
Flexure/Shear λK = 0.8 λK = 0.6 λK = 0.4
λQ = 1.0 λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.8
λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9
RM1C See RM1A µ∆ ≈ 2 – 4 µ∆ ≈ 3 – 8
Flexure/ Sliding Shear λK = 0.5 λK = 0.2
λQ = 0.9 λQ = 0.8
λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9
RM1D See RM1A See RM1A See RM1A µ∆ ≈ 8 – 10
Flexure/ Out-of-Plane λK = 0.4
Instability λQ = 0.5
λD = 0.5
RM1E See RM1A See RM1A µ∆ ≈ 3 – 4
Flexure/ Lap Splice Slip or RM1B or RM1B λK = 0.4
λQ = 0.5
λD = 0.8
RM2B µ∆ ≤ 2 µ∆ ≈ 2 – 3 µ∆ ≈ 3– 5 Heavy not used
Flexure/Shear
λK = 0.8 λK = 0.6 λK = 0.4
λQ = 1.0 λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.8
λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9
RM2G µ∆ ≤ 1 µ∆ ≈ 1 – 2 µ∆ ≈ 1 – 2 µ∆ ≈ 2 – 3
Preemptive Shear
λK = 0.9 λK = 0.8 λK = 0.5 λK = 0.3
λQ = 1.0 λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.8 λQ = 0.4
λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9 λD = 0.5
RM3A µ∆ ≤ 2 µ∆ ≤ 3 µ∆ ≈ 6
Flexure
λK = 0.9 λK = 0.8 λK = 0.6
λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.9 λQ = 0.8
λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0
RM3G λK = 0.9 λK = 0.8 λK = 0.3
Preemptive Shear λQ = 1.0 λQ = 0.8 λQ = 0.5
(No µ values for RM3G) λD = 1.0 λD = 1.0 λD = 0.9
ment.
FEMA 307
Okada and Concrete block beams Similar to concrete. Damage for lap splices limited to RM4 • •
Kumazawa (1987) 32”x90” Rotation capacity of 1/100 splice zone. More distributed
without laps.
Priestley and Elder RM1 • •
(1982)
Schultz, (1996) 6 partially-grouted specimens Minimum vertical reinf Drift = 0.3%-1% at 75% of max RM2 •
concrete masonry ρh = .05% - .12% strength.
ρh = 0.11% - 0.44%
Shing et al. (1990a) 24 fully-grouted test specimens: Full-scale walls, 6-ft square, 2 specimens with lap splices at RM1 • • • •
Shing et al. (1990b) 6 6-inch hollow clay brick loaded in single curvature. base, others with continuous RM2
Shing et al. (1991) 18 6-inch hollow concrete block M/VL = 1 reinforcement.
fye = Expected yield strength of reinforcement Vse = Expected sliding shear strength of a masonry
wall
he = Effective height of the wall (height to the
xi = Location of reinforcing bar i
resultant of the lateral force) = M/V
ld = Lap splice development length
∆p = Maximum inelastic displacement capacity
lp = Effective plastic hinge length
∆y = Displacement at first yield
lw = Length of the wall
φm = Maximum inelastic curvature of a masonry
M/V = Ratio of moment to shear (shear span) at a
section section
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Beams,” Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the
4.1.1.1 Rocking
Reference: Epperson and Abrams (1989) Reference: Epperson and Abrams (1989)
Specimen: E3 Specimen: E5
Material: Brick Material: Brick
Loading: Monotonic Loading: Monotonic
Provided Information: Provided Information:
Prism f ’m= 1740 psi, brick f ’m=8280 psi Prism f’m= 1740 psi, brick f ’m=8280 psi
L/heff= 9.5ft /6ft = 1.58 L/heff= 11.42ft /6ft = 1.90
Nominal fa= 141 psi Nominal fa= 81 psi
Cantilever conditions Cantilever conditions
Assumed Values: Assumed Values:
vme1=(0.75/1.5)*(0.75*186+fa) psi vme1=(0.75/1.5)*(0.75*186+fa) psi
vme2=(0.75/1.5)*(fa) psi vme2=(0.75/1.5)*(fa) psi
Calculated Values (kips): Calculated Values (kips):
Vr=190 Vtc=186 Vr=150 Vtc=156
Vbjs1=307 Vbjs2=133 Vbjs1=289 Vbjs2=88
Vdt1= 420 Vdt2= 635 Vdt1= 367 Vdt2= 680
FEMA 273 Predicted Behavior: Toe crushing at 186 FEMA 273 Predicted Behavior: Rocking at 150 kips
kips with “d” drift of 0.2%
ATC-43 Predicted Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe ATC-43 Predicted Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe
crushing at 186 kips crushing at 156 kips
Actual Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe crushing, Actual Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe crushing, with a
with a maximum capacity of 164 kips and final drift of maximum capacity of 154 kips and final drift of 0.4%
0.4%
Reference: Epperson and Abrams (1989) Reference: Epperson and Abrams (1989)
Specimen: E6 Specimen: E7
Material: Brick Material: Brick
Loading: Monotonic Loading: Monotonic
Provided Information: Provided Information:
Prism f ’m= 1740 psi, brick f ’m=8280 psi Prism f’m= 1740 psi, brick f ’m=8280 psi
L/heff= 11.42ft /6ft = 1.90 L/heff= 11.42ft /6ft = 1.90
Nominal fa= 76 psi Nominal fa= 93 psi
Cantilever conditions Cantilever conditions
Assumed Values: Assumed Values:
vme1=(0.75/1.5)*(0.75*186+fa) psi vme1=(0.75/1.5)*(0.75*186+fa) psi
vme2=(0.75/1.5)*(fa) psi vme2=(0.75/1.5)*(fa) psi
Calculated Values (kips): Calculated Values (kips):
Vr=141 Vtc=147 Vr=173 Vtc=177
Vbjs1=284 Vbjs2=82 Vbjs1=302 Vbjs2=101
Vdt1= 357 Vdt2= 675 Vdt1= 390 Vdt2= 692
FEMA 273 Predicted Behavior: Rocking at 141 kips FEMA 273 Predicted Behavior: Rocking at 173 kips
with “d” drift of 0.2% with “d” drift of 0.2%
ATC-43 Predicted Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe ATC-43 Predicted Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe
crushing at 147 kips crushing at 177 kips
Actual Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe crushing, Actual Behavior: Flexural cracking/toe crushing, with a
with a maximum capacity of 150 kips and final drift of maximum capacity of 157 kips and final drift of 0.4%
0.2%
4.1.2 Comments on FEMA 273 data (Abrams, 1997), but aside from Specimen W3,
Component Force/Displacement higher “c” values are probably likely.
Relationships
• There are few pure bed-joint sliding tests. Specimen
4.1.2.1 Conclusions from Review of the W1 of Abrams and Shah (1992) is one example, and
Research and Their Impact on the Specimens MI2 and MI4 of Magenes and Calvi
Evaluation Methodology (1992) appear to be examples as well. The drop in
lateral strength appears to occur at about 0.3-0.4%
As the previous sections indicate, the FEMA 273 drift in W1 and MI4, so the proposed “d” value of
methodology leads to successful predictions in certain 0.4 seems reasonable. The “c” of 0.6 also seems
cases. In other cases, the predictions did not match the reasonable. The capacity for bed-joint sliding is
observed behavior. To help address this issue, some based on the bond-plus-friction strength. After
modifications were made in the Section 7.3 cracking, the bond capacity will be eroded, and the
methodology in FEMA 306. Some of these issues and strength is likely to be based simply on the friction
their resolution include: portion of the equation. Cyclic in-place push tests
show this behavior; so does Specimen W1 of
• Rocking and toe crushing equations often yield very Abrams and Shah (1992). One could argue that the
similar values; when they do differ, the lower value second cycle backbone curve of FEMA 273 (which,
does not necessarily predict the governing mode. by definition, goes into the nonlinear, post-cracking
Section 7.3 in FEMA 306 thus identifies which range) should be limited only to the frictional
mode will occur on the basis of aspect ratio, unless capacity. But in many cases, other modes will be
the axial stress is very high, since there have been no reached before the full bed-joint sliding capacity is
reported instances of rocking in stocky piers. The reached. In some of these cases, interestingly, bed-
L/heff > 1.25 is a somewhat arbitrary threshold based joint sliding occurs after another mode has occurred.
simply on a review of test results. Manzouri et al. (1995), for example, show sequences
such as initial toe crushing that progresses to bed-
• Stable rocking generally exceeds the proposed “d” joint sliding at higher drift values. One explanation
drift value of 0.4heff/L. Thus, this value is is that toe crushing degenerated into bed-joint
conservative (see Costley and Abrams, 1996 and sliding because the toe crushing and initial bed-joint
Anthoine et al., 1995). sliding values were quite close. See Section 4.1.2.2
for further explanation.
• Rocking does not appear to exhibit the FEMA 273
drop to the “c” capacity value in the above two tests • Mixed modes or, more accurately, sequences of
nor, apparently, in the Magenes and Calvi (1995) different behavior modes are common in the
tests. The only exception is Specimen W3 of experiments.
Abrams and Shah (1992), which, after rocking for
ten cycles at drifts of up to 0.5% (0.5heff /L), was 4.1.2.2 The Bed-Joint Sliding and Flexural
Cracking/Toe Crushing/Bed-Joint
then pushed to 0.8% drift (0.8heff /L) where it
Sliding Modes
experienced toe crushing. The test was stopped at
that point. Given the limited number of specimens, The model of bed-joint sliding used in this document is
it is difficult to determine if this represents the drop shown in Figure 4-1. For estimating the strength and
from initial load to the “c” level, or a special, deformation capacity of the undamaged bed-joint
sequential mode. For simplicity, this case was sliding mode, FEMA 273 was used. The idealized
combined with the rocking cases, and the “d” drift relationship has a plateau at the bed-joint capacity Vbjs1,
level was set to account for this level of toe crushing. which includes the bond and friction components.
In most cases, though, rocking capacities will not After bond is lost, the residual strength is limited to
drop off significantly. The “d” drift value of 0.4heff/L 60% of Vbjs1. The actual backbone curve is likely to be
was set based on Costley and Abrams (1996), with smoother than the idealized model, since the loss of
some conservatism (Abrams, 1997) to account for bond does not occur all at once in the entire masonry
Specimen W3. The “c” drift value was section. Instead, more heavily stressed portions crack,
conservatively set at 0.6, because of the limited test and shear demand is redistributed to the remaining
A B C D
Actual undamaged
backbone curve
V
FEMA 273 Idealized
Vbjs1
force-displacement
relation
Loss of bond
0.6Vbjs1
Vbjs2
Insignificant damage curve
Moderate damage curve
Heavy damage curve
sections. The actual residual strength could be higher is likely to lead to a small reduction in capacity below
or lower than 0.6Vbjs1. One measure of the residual the Vbjs2 level.
capacity is Vbjs2.
The varying level of bed-joint sliding strength is
Figure 4-1 also shows the assumed changes to the force/ assumed in this document to be a possible explanation
displacement relationship following the damaging for some of the observed testing results in stocky walls,
event. Insignificant damage is characterized by in particular results such as (1) Specimen W1 of
displacement during the damaging event that is between Abrams and Shah (1992), in which bed-joint sliding
points A and B. Loss of bond is limited. Following the was the only mode observed; (2) Manzouri et al. (1995),
damaging event, the dashed “Insignificant Damage in which toe crushing behavior was followed by bed-
Curve” represents the force/displacement relationship. joint sliding; and (3) Epperson and Abrams (1989), in
For damaging events that reach levels of initial which toe crushing was not followed by sliding.
displacement beyond point B, greater loss of bond Figure 4-2 helps to explain the hypothesis.
occurs, and the subsequent damage curve achieves a
lower strength. Eventually, with initial displacements In the top set of curves, toe-crushing strength
beyond point C, the entire bond is lost and only friction substantially exceeds the Vbjs1 level. As displacement
remains. Thus, future cycles will no longer be able to occurs, the bed-joint sliding capacity is reached first,
achieve the original Vbjs1 level, reaching only the Vbjs2 and it becomes the limit state. If displacement is such
level. With significant cyclic displacements, some that heavy damage occurs, then in subsequent cycles,
erosion of the crack plane and deterioration of the wall the strength will be limited to the Vbjs2 level.
Toe crushing
Vtc
Vbjs1
Bed-joint sliding Bed-joint sliding
Vbjs2
Toe crushing
Toe crushing
Vbjs1
Bed-joint sliding Toe crushing
Vbjs2
Composite curve
In the second set of curves, toe-crushing and initial bed- will be limited to the Vbjs2 level. This is one possible
joint sliding strengths are similar. As displacement explanation for the Manzouri et al. (1995) tests.
occurs, the toe-crushing strength is reached first,
cracking and movement occur within the wall, some of In the third set of curves, toe-crushing strength is
the bond is lost, and the wall begins to slide. The initial substantially lower than initial bed-joint sliding strength
force/displacement curve is thus similar to that for bed- and the ductile mechanism of sliding is not achieved.
joint sliding, except that the peak is limited by the toe- This is one possible explanation for the Epperson and
crushing strength. If displacement is such that Heavy Abrams (1989) results, in which mortar shear strength
damage occurs, then in subsequent cycles, the strength was much higher and ductility was lower.
Section 7.3.2 in FEMA 306 makes use of the above contained in the Component Guides in FEMA 306.
hypotheses; cutoff values for the middle set of curves Unfortunately, as noted in Section 4.1.1 there have been
were based in part on review of the results shown in almost no experimental tests done on damaged URM
Section 4.1.1. Results are promising, but additional walls; typically, tests were done on undamaged walls
testing and verification of other tests should be done. and either stopped or continued only after the damaged
wall was repaired.
4.1.2.3 Out-of-Plane Flexural Response
In the absence of test results on damaged walls,
The most comprehensive set of testing done to date on hysteresis curves of initially undamaged walls were
the out-of-plane response of URM walls was part of the reviewed. In reviewing these tests, the goal was to
ABK program in the 1980s, and it is documented in characterize how force/displacement relationships
ABK (1981c). Input motions used in the ABK (1981c) changed from cycle to cycle as displacement was
were based on the following earthquake records: Taft increased. Early cycles were considered to represent
1954 N21E, Castaic 1971 N69E, Olympia 1949 S04E, “damaging” events, and subsequent cycles represented
and El Centro 1940 S00E. They were scaled in the behavior of an initially-damaged component.
amplitude and were processed to represent the changes Particular attention was given to tests in which multiple
caused by diaphragms of varying stiffness to produce runs on a specimen were performed. In these cases,
the final series of 22 input motion sets. Each set has a initial runs (representing not just a damaging cycle, but
motion for the top of the wall and the bottom of the a damaging earthquake record) were compared with
wall. Peak velocities range up to 39.8 in/sec; subsequent runs to determine the extent of strength and
accelerations, up to 1.42g; and displacements, up to stiffness deterioration.
9.72 inches. In ABK (1984), the mean ground input
velocity for UBC Seismic Zone 4 was assumed to be 12 Using these tests, the following general approaches
in/sec. For buildings with crosswalls, diaphragm were used to estimate λ-factors for this project. The
amplification would increase this about 1.75-fold, to 21 reloading stiffnesses (i.e., the stiffness observed moving
in/sec. For buildings without crosswalls, wood roofs from the fourth quadrant to the first) at different cycles
were assumed to have a velocity of about 24 in/sec and or different runs were compared to the intial stiffness to
floors about 27 in/sec. determine λK. This variable is estimated to be the ratio
of stiffness at higher cycles to the initial stiffness. The
Since 1981, a significant number of ground motion assumption made is that if testing had been stopped and
records have been obtained, including a number of near- the displacement reset to zero and then restarted, the
field records. In several instances, recent recordings stiffness of the damaged component would have been
substantially exceed the 12 in/sec value and even exceed similar to the reloading stiffness. See Figure 4-3 for an
the maximum values used by ABK (1981c). Of example.
particular concern are near-field pulse effects and
whether they were adequately captured by the original For determining λQ, the approach shown in Figure 4-1
testing. When site-specific spectra and time histories
that incorporate these effects are available, it may be and discussed in the previous section is applied where
possible to address this issue using the original appropriate to determine λQ, the ratio of strength at
research. higher cycles to initial strength. The loss of strength is
roughly equal to the capacity at high drift levels divided
4.1.3 Development of λ-factors by the peak capacity. FEMA 273 describes both
deformation-controlled and force-controlled modes. In
One of the central goals of this document is to develop a a purely force-controlled mode, there is, by definition,
method for quantitatively characterizing the effect of little or no ductility. Deformation progresses until a
damage on the force/displacement relationship of wall brittle failure results. Thus, there are few, if any,
components. Ideally, the most accurate approach would damage states between Insignificant and Extreme, and
be to have two sets of cyclic tests for a component. One there would be little, if any, post-cracking strength.
test would be of an initially undamaged wall displaced Further, until a brittle mode occurs, the component
to failure. The second set would include walls initially would be expected to be minimally affected by previous
displaced to various levels of damage (to represent the displacement. Review of available hysteresis curves
“damaging event”) and then retested to failure. This shows, though, that even modes defined as force-
would allow for direct determination of the λ-factors
1
Initial backbone
2 3 curve
Negative Qexp 4
5
residual
set on
cycle 4
de dl
Qexp 4 4 Shifted
Shift cycle 4
over so it
intersects Shift equals
zero drift negative set
on cycle 4
de dshift
Size of initial Shift for Residual Set
reduction depends
on de
Beyond dshift
curves assumed Initial
to match Q
Qexp Qexp
Damaged
controlled by FEMA 273 (such as diagonal tension) do hysteretic energy has been dissipated in part by the
have some residual strength. damaging earthquake, and there is less available in the
subsequent event. The result is the final displacement
There is little available information for determining λ∆, that can be achieved is reduced.
because retesting of damaged components to failure has
not been done. Values were estimated using Values for λK*, λQ*, and λ∆* are based, where possible,
engineering judgment. In most cases, less-ductile on tests of repaired walls. The values in URM1F, for
modes are assumed to have higher λ∆ values, even at example, are set at 1.0 because the hysteresis curves of
higher damage levels. The basis of this assumption is repaired walls were equal to or better than those of the
the idea that in more-ductile modes, λ∆ is assumed to be original walls. In most other cases, repairs typically
somewhat more dependent on cumulative inelastic involve injection of cracks, but since microcracking can
deformation. In more-ductile modes, the available never be fully injected, it may not be possible to restore
complete initial stiffness. In the bed-joint sliding modes t, remains unchanged. At higher levels of damage,
without tests, it was assumed that the strength could not deterioration, crushing, and spalling of the corners of
be fully restored by injection, because the horizontal the masonry at crack locations reduces the effective
crack planes are closed and bond cannot be restored in thickness and the ability of the wall to resist movements
these locations. It is important to recognize that imparted by the diaphragm.
injection of walls with many cracks or unfilled collar
joints and cavities, may enhance strength, but it may
also lead to less ductile behavior, because other modes 4.2 Tabular Bibliography for
may then occur prior to bed-joint sliding. Unreinforced Masonry
Values for λh/t are based on a review of the ABK Table 4-1 contains a brief description of the key
technical reports that address specific reinforced
(1981c) document, the model proposed in Priestley
masonry component behavior. The component types
(1985), and engineering judgment. At low levels of
and their behavior modes are indicated. The full
damage, the portions of wall between the crack planes
references can be found in Section 4.4.
are essentially undamaged, and the effective thickness,
0.5 161 • •
Manzourzi et. al. 4 virgin brick piers with 1.7 150 Sophisti- Repair techniques URM1 •
(1995) reversed static-cyclic 1.7 55 cated finite- include grout injec- URM1 •
loading, 3 cantileved and 1.7 85 element tion, pinning, and URM1 •
1 pair of piers with span- 1.27 70 modelling addition of rebar- URM2 •
drels filled chases
Rutherford & Chek- Contains extensive set of na na Uses Grout and epoxy
ene (1997) research summaries of FEMA 273 injection, surface
URM enhancement and pro- coatings, adhered
vides equa- fabrics, shotcrete,
tions for reinforced and post-
enhanced tensioned cores,
walls infilled openings,
enlarged openings,
and steel bracing
Tomasevic and 4 1/4-scale brick build- na na None Compares effective- •
Weiss (1996) ings on shake table ness of various wall-
diaphragm ties
1Behavior Mode:
a Wall-pier rocking f Flexural cracking/toe crushing/bed-joint sliding k Preemptive diagonal tension
b Bed-joint sliding g Flexural cracking/diagonal tension l Preemptive toe crushing
c Bed-joint sliding at wall base h Flexural cracking/toe crushing m Out-of-plane flexural response
d Spandrel joint sliding i Spandrel unit cracking n Other: Includes complex modes and those reported as having
e Rocking/toe crushing j Corner damage “diagonal cracking”
79
Chapter 4: Unreinforced Masonry
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Masonry Building,” Proceedings of Fifth U.S. ence, Melbourne, Australia.
National Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Kariotis, J.C., Ewing, R.D., and Johnson, A.W., 1985b,
Chicago, Illinois, July 1994, pp.127-136.
“Strength Determination and Shear Failure Modes
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Diaphragms,” Worldwide Advances in Structural Masonry Conference, Melbourne, Australia.
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of Brick Masonry Walls,” Proceedings of the Tenth
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Advances in Structural Concrete and Masonry, Pro- and Atkinson, R., 1995, Repair and Retrofit of
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of Masonry Structures with Elastic/Viscoplastic
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(1996). ogy and Practice in Evaluating, Strengthening, and
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Rutherford & Chekene, 1990, Seismic Retrofitting
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Xu, W., and Abrams, D.P., 1992, Evaluation of Lateral
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Zsutty, T.C., 1990, “Applying Special Procedures”,
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Masonry Buildings, 1990 Fall Seminar, Structural
Tena-Colunga, A., and Abrams, D.P., 1992, Response of Engineers Association of Northern California, San
an Unreinforced Masonry Building During the Francisco, California.
Most experimental results on infilled-frame systems Dealing with infill panels with openings is difficult due
show a mixture of behavior modes that take place at to the many potential types of openings that may occur
various stages of loading. At low interstory drift levels in practice. Evidently, when openings are present, the
(0.2% - 0.4%), corner crushing and some diagonal strength capacity is bounded by that of bare frame
cracking in the panel tend to occur first. This is (lower bound) and that of a system with solid infill
followed by frame yielding (0.5% - 1.0% interstory panels (upper bound). Although these results are
drift) and possible bed-joint sliding. As the drift derived from monotonic tests, they suggest that the
amplitude increases beyond about 1%, cracking in the deformation capacity is not impaired if openings exist.
infill panel becomes more extensive, along with further
frame damage. The frame damage takes the form of 5.1.1 Development of λ-Factors for
cracking, crushing, and spalling of concrete in the case Component Guides
of reinforced concrete frames or prying damage to
bolted semi-rigid connections in steel frames. The The Component Damage Classification Guides and
coexistence of several behavior modes makes it difficult component modification factors (λ-factors) for infilled
to determine what λ-factors should be used for frames were based on an extensive review of research in
quantitative strength and deformation analysis. the area of both nonductile reinforced concrete frames,
Therefore, it is necessary to resort to individual as well as masonry structures. The principal references
component tests to assess λ-values. The results of used in this work are listed in the tabular bibliography
experiments conducted by Aycardi et al. (1994) are presented in Section 5.2. For each component behavior
illustrative of the performance of nonductile reinforced mode, three types of λ-factors are used: stiffness
concrete frames. These tests give results for each of the reduction factors (λK), strength reduction factor (λQ)
failure modes (except column shear). and a displacement reduction factor (λD). Description
of how each of these λ-factors were derived from
In the experimental studies on infilled frames by experimental evidence and theoretical considerations is
Mander et al. (1993a,b), steel frames were used and presented in what follows.
were instrumented with numerous strain gauges so the
behavior of the frame could be uncoupled from the 5.1.2 Development of Stiffness
behavior of the infill panel. It was, therefore, possible Deterioration λK
to plot the net lateral load-drift capacity of the brick
masonry infill panel. These results were helpful in As the displacement ductility of a member
identifying the λ-factors for corner crushing, diagonal progressively increases, the member also softens. Even
cracking and general shear-failure behavior modes for though the strength may be largely maintained at a
masonry. The bed-joint sliding behavior mode tends to nominal yield level, softening is manifest in the form of
occur mostly in steel frames with ungrouted/ stiffness reduction. The degree of softening is generally
unreinforced masonry infill with low panel height-to- related to the maximum displacement ductility the
length aspect ratios. The experimental results of member has previously achieved.
Gergely et al. (1994) were useful for identifying λ-
factors for this behavior mode.
There are several analytical models that can be used to shown that the reduced strength Fi = λQFn can be
give guidance on how one can assess the degree of evaluated through
softening in an element. For example, Chang and
Mander (1994) describe several computational Fi Mc M c Σθ pi
λQ = = 1− ΣDci = 1 − (5-2)
hysteretic models calibrated for reinforced concrete Fn Mn M n Σθ PC
components. Utilizing their information obtained from
a calibrated modified Takeda model, the λK-factor for in which ΣDci = accumulated damage, Σθci =
stiffness reduction can be related by the following cumulative plastic drift, Mn = nominal moment
relationship: capacity, Mc = the moment generated by the eccentric
−α concrete stress block and ΣθPC = cumulative plastic
λK
F ∆ I = aµ f
=G
−α
(5-1) rotation capacity considering concrete fatigue alone.
H ∆ JK
max
∆ Using energy concepts where it is assumed that the
y finite energy reserve of an unconfined concrete section
where ∆max = maximum displacement in the is gradually consumed to resist the concrete
displacement history, ∆y = yield displacement, compression force, a work expression can be
formulated as
µ∆ = displacement ductility factor, and α = an
experimentally calibrated factor that is material- or EWD = IWD (5-3)
specimen-dependent. where EWD = external work done on the section by the
concrete compression force defined by the left hand
Strictly, α should be established on a component-by- side of the equation below, and IWD = internal work or
component basis. However, for reinforced concrete energy absorption capacity of the section defined by the
components there is a range of values from α = 0.25 to right hand side of the following equation
α = 1 that may be applicable, α = 0.5 being typical for ε cu
most specimens. Well detailed members tend to have
low α values, whereas higher α values are common for Cc × φ pFH c IK × 2 N c = Ag z fc d ε (5-4)
2
poorly detailed members. Although specific research on 0
infill panels is not developed to the same extent, it in which Cc = concrete compression force, φp = plastic
seems reasonable that similar trends would be found for curvature, c = neutral axis depth, 2Nc = total number of
these components. reversals and Ag = gross area of the concrete section.
The integral in the above expression actually denotes
5.1.3 The Determination of λQ for the finite energy capacity of an unconfined concrete
Strength Deterioration section which in lieu of a more precise analysis, can be
In structural elements not specifically designed for approximated as 0.008 fc′ . Note also that the term in
seismic resistance, there is generally a lack of adequate brackets in the above equation denotes the plastic strain
transverse reinforcement necessary to provide adequate at the location of the concrete compression force.
confinement and shear resistance. As a result, under
reversed cyclic loading the strength of such elements Assuming that in a cantilever column the plastic
deteriorates progressively. Furthermore, if the non- rotation is entirely confined to the plastic hinge zone (of
seismically designed frame elements have inadequate length Lp), using the moment-area theorem and
anchorage for the reinforcing steel, there can be a rearranging terms in the above equation, it is possible to
gradual loss in strength and then a sudden drop in solve for the cumulative plastic drift capacity as
strength when the anchorage zone or lap splice zone
fails. An energy approach can be used to assess the loss
of strength in a reinforced concrete column or beam
FH IK
0.016
Lp
D
element where inadequate transverse reinforcement is Σθ PC = (5-5)
found. The energy-based approach advanced by FG IJ F I
Cc c
Mander and Dutta (1997) has been used in developing
this process. A summary of the underlying theoretical H KH K
fc ′Ag D
concepts is given below. where ΣθP = 2Ncθp is the cumulative plastic drift
defined as the sum of all positive and negative drift
Assuming the moment capacity contributed by the amplitudes up to a given stage of loading; and D =
concrete is gradually consumed by the propagating level overall depth/diameter of the column.
of damage, then at the end of the i-th cycle it can be
The concrete damage model described so far is previous loading history—that is, the amount of energy
generally applicable to beam and/or column elements absorbed with respect to the total energy absorption
with adequate bonding between the longitudinal capacity. Strictly this cannot be ascertained without
reinforcement and the surrounding concrete. Thus resorting to fatigue type of testing.
following Equation 5-2, the concrete strength continues
to decay until the moment capacity of the eccentric Mander et al. (1994, 1995) and Mander and Dutta
concrete block is fully exhausted. At this point the (1997) have shown that the displacement capability of
residual moment capacity entirely consists of the steel structural concrete and steel elements follows a well-
contribution. This is schematically portrayed in known Manson-Coffin fatigue relationship that can be
Figure 5-1a. However, more often than not, older written in displacement ductility terms as follows:
buildings possess lap splice zones at their column bases.
Such splices are not always equipped with adequate lap µ ∆ = µ m N cf (5-6)
length to ensure proper development of bond strength.
The lap splice thus becomes the weak point in the where Nf = number of equi-amplitude cycles required to
column which shows a drastic reduction in the strength produce failure at ductility amplitude µ∆; µm =
almost immediately following the lap splice failure. monotonic ductility capacity; and c = fatigue exponent.
This is depicted in Figure 5-1b where the bond failure Typical values of the latter are c = -1/3 for steel failure
in the lap splice is assumed to occur over one complete and c = -1/2 for nonductile reinforced concrete.
cycle. The residual strength immediately after Fi is
determined by the extent of confinement around the lap The above equation can be written in terms of a
splice, if any. Subsequently the lateral strength is “damage fraction” (D = nd / Nf ) that can be sustained
entirely dependent on the performance of pure concrete for nd cycles of loading in the damaging earthquake:
which continues to decay following the same
Equation 5-2 until the residual rocking strength Fr is 1
−
obtained. D=
nd F µ IJ
=n G
d
∆
c
(5-7)
as shown in Figures 5-1c and 5-1d. In Figure 5-1c, the The remaining fatigue life then is (1 - D). The
lateral strength envelope is compared with test results displacement-based λD-factor can thus be defined as
with instances of unconfined concrete failure only. In
1 −c
Figure 5-1d, the strength envelope is plotted for column
µ r
−c
LM 1 F µ I d −
c
OP
= a1 − Df =
specimen with a clear indication of lap splice failure.
MMn − GH µ JK
∆ ∆ (5-8)
λD =
Satisfactory agreement between theory and experiment µm PP
is observed. N d m
Q
Therefore, with the mechanism of failure and the In the above two equations superscripts d and r refer to
progression of strength deterioration clearly identified the damaging earthquake and remaining life,
and quantified, it is possible to assess, analytically, λQ respectively.
factors for reinforced concrete elements with specific Thus for nonductile reinforced concrete failure taking
detailing. The research has not been developed to the c = -1/2 gives
same extent for infill panels, although an examination
of test results indicates that similar trends are present.
λD =
1 µ
− ∆
FG IJ 2
(5-9)
5.1.4 Development of λDReduction nd µm H K
in Displacement Capability
For frictional or sliding behavior modes such as lap-
The reduction in displacement capability is more splice failure of masonry infill panels, there is no limit
difficult to ascertain from traditional, quasi-static, to the displacement capability. Therefore, for these two
reversed-cyclic-loading, laboratory tests on members. behavior modes, λD = 1 at all times.
Generally such tests are conducted using two cycles at
each ductility factor (or drift angle percentages) of ±1,
±2, ±6... until failure occurs. The reduction in Although specific research on infill components is less
displacement capacity depends on the severity of the developed, it is reasonable to assume that similar trends
would be observed.
Abrams, 1994 ✓
Al-Chaar et al., 1994 ✓
Aycardi et al., 1992 ✓ Nonductile concrete frame performance
Benjamin and Williams, 1958 ✓ ✓ ✓ Classic brick infilled steel frame experiments
Liauw and Kwan, 1983a ✓ ✓ Steel frame-concrete infill plastic failure modes
Sachanski, 1960 ✓
Saneinejad and Hobbs, 1995 ✓ ✓ ✓ Most up-to-date reference on analysis methods
Stafford-Smith and Carter, 1969 ✓ Pioneering work on analysis using strut methods
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and the Q model, as well as some lesser-known models. bilinear systems having the same initial stiffness and
For the nonlinear models used in these studies, the post- yield strength. For one-second oscillators having
yield stiffness of the primary curve ranged between 0 different system parameters and subjected to different
and 10% of the initial stiffness. It is generally found that earthquake records, the ratio of mean degrading-system
for long-period structures with positive post-yield peak displacement response to bilinear system response
stiffness, peak displacement response tends to be was 1.06, with standard deviation of 0.14. Iwan noted
independent of the hysteresis model, and it is that for periods appreciably less than one second, the
approximately equal to the peak displacement of linear- response of degrading systems was significantly greater
elastic oscillators having the same initial stiffness. For than that for the corresponding bilinear system, but
shorter-period structures, however, peak displacement these effects were not quantified.
response tends to exceed the response of linear-elastic
oscillators having the same initial stiffness. The Iwan (1977) reported on the effects of a reduction in
difference in displacement response is exacerbated in stiffness caused by cracking. Modeling the uncracked
lower-strength oscillators. Fajfar and Fischinger (1984), stiffness caused a reduction in peak displacement
found that for shorter-period oscillators, the peak response for shorter-period oscillators with
displacements of elastic-perfectly-plastic models tend displacement ductility values less than four, when
to exceed those of degrading-stiffness models (the Q- compared with the response of systems having initial
model), and these peak displacements tend to exceed stiffness equal to the yield-point secant stiffness.
those of the bilinear model. Riddell (1980), reported
that the response of stiffness-degrading systems tends to Humar (1980) compared the displacement ductility
“go below the peaks and above the troughs” of the demand calculated for the bilinear and Takeda models
spectra obtained for elastoplastic systems. for SDOF and multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF)
systems. For the shorter-period SDOF oscillators, the
The dynamic response of reinforced concrete structures displacement ductility demands exceeded the strength-
tested on laboratory shake tables has been compared reduction factor, particularly for the Takeda model.
with the response computed using different hysteretic Five- and ten-story frames were designed with girder
models. The Takeda model was shown to give good strengths set equal to 25% of the demands computed in
agreement with measured response characteristics an elastic analysis, and column strengths were set
(Takeda et al., 1970). In a subsequent study, the Takeda higher than the values computed in an elastic analysis.
model was shown to match closely the recorded The Takeda model, which included stiffness
response; acceptable results were obtained with the degradation, generally led to larger interstory drifts and
less-complicated Q-Hyst model (Saiidi, 1980). Time girder ductility demands than were computed with the
histories computed by these models were far more bilinear model.
accurate than those obtained with the bilinear model.
The studies described above considered hysteretic
Studies of a seven-story reinforced concrete moment- models for which the slope of the post-yield portion of
resisting frame building damaged in the 1994 the primary curve was greater than or equal to zero.
Northridge earthquake yield similar conclusions. Where negative post-yield slopes are present, peak
Moehle et al. (1997) reported that the response displacement response is heightened (Mahin, 1980).
computed for plane-frame representations of the The change in peak displacement response tends to be
structure most nearly matched the recorded response significantly larger for decreases in the post-yield slope
when the frame members were modeled using stiffness- below zero than for similar increases above zero. Even
degrading models and strength- and stiffness-degrading post-yield stiffness values equal to negative 1% of the
force/displacement relationships; dynamic analysis yield stiffness were sufficient to cause collapse. These
results obtained using bilinear force/displacement effects were found to be more pronounced in shorter-
relationships were not sufficiently accurate. period systems and in relatively weak systems.
Iwan (1973) examined the effect of pinching and Rahnama and Krawinkler (1995) reported findings for
yielding on the response of SDOF oscillators to four SDOF structures subjected to 15 records obtained on
records. It was found that the maximum displacement rock sites. They found that higher lateral strength is
response of oscillators having an initial period equal to required, relative to elastic demands to obtain target
one second was very nearly equal to that computed for displacement ductility demands, for oscillators with
Figure 6-1 Effect of Hysteretic Properties on Response to 1940 NS El Centro Record (from Nakamura, 1988)
amount of slip, C controls the degraded loading duration on inelastic response is contained within
stiffness, and as and ac control the unloading stiffness representations of elastic response quantities.
for the slip and degrading components of the model. It
is clear that peak displacement response tends to 6.2.3 Residual Displacement
increase as slip becomes more prominent, as post-yield Kawashima et al. (1994) studied the response of bilinear
stiffness decreases or even becomes negative, and as systems with periods between 0.1 and 3 seconds that
loading stiffness decreases. were subjected to Japanese ground-motion records.
According to this study, residual displacement values
Rahnama and Krawinkler (1995) modeled strength are strongly dependent on the post-yield stiffness of the
degradation for SDOF systems as a function of bilinear system; that is, systems with larger post-yield
dissipated hysteretic energy. Strength degradation may stiffness tend to have significantly smaller residual
greatly affect the response of SDOF systems, and the displacements, and systems with zero or negative post-
response is sensitive to the choice of parameters by yield stiffness tend to have residual displacements that
which the strength degradation is modeled. Results of approach the peak response displacement. They also
such studies need to be tied to realistic degradation found that the magnitude of residual displacement,
relationships to understand the practical significance of normalized by peak displacement, tends to be
computed results. independent of displacement ductility demand, based
on displacement ductility demands of two, four, and six.
6.2.2 Effect of Ground Motion The results also indicated that the magnitude of residual
Duration displacement is not strongly dependent on the
As described previously, Xie and Zhang (1988) characteristic period of the ground motion, the
subjected a number of SDOF oscillators to 40 synthetic magnitude of the earthquake, or the distance from the
ground motions, which lasted from 6 to 30 seconds. For epicenter.
stiffness-degrading and negative post-yield stiffness
models, the number of collapses increased, as ground In shake-table tests of reinforced concrete wall and
motion duration increased. The incidence of collapse frame/wall structures, Araki et al. (1990) reported that
tended to be higher for shorter-period structures than residual drifts for all tests were less than 0.2% of
longer-period structures. Shorter-duration ground structure height. These tests included wall structures
motions that were just sufficient to trigger the collapse exhibiting displacement ductility demands up to about
of short-period structures did not trigger the collapse of 12 and frame/wall structures exhibiting displacement
any longer-period structures. ductility demands up to about 14. The small residual
drifts in this study were attributed to the presence of
Mahin (1980) reported on the evolution of ductility restoring forces (acting on the mass of the structure),
demand with time for SDOF oscillators subjected to which are generated as the wall lengthens when
five synthetic records, each having a 60-second displaced laterally. Typical response analyses do not
duration. Peak evolutionary ductility demands were model these restoring forces. These results appear to be
plotted at 10-second intervals for bilinear oscillators; applicable to systems dominated by flexural response.
ductility demand was found to increase asymptotically However, larger residual displacements have been
toward the peak values obtained at 60 seconds. This observed in postearthquake reconnaissance.
implies that increases in the duration of ground motion
may cause relatively smaller increases in ductility 6.2.4 Repeated Loading
demand. In the shake-table tests, Araki et al. (1990) also
subjected reinforced concrete wall and frame-wall
Sewell (1992) studied the effect of ground-motion structures to single and repeated motions. It appears that
duration on elastic demand, constant-ductility strength- a synthetic ground motion was used. It was found that
reduction factors, and inelastic response intensity, using the low-rise structures subjected to repeated shake-table
a set of 262 ground-motion records. He found that the tests displaced to approximately twice as much as they
spectral acceleration of elastic and inelastic systems is did in a single test. For the mid-rise and high-rise
not correlated with duration, and that strength-reduction structures, repeated testing caused peak displacements
factors can be estimated using elastic response that were approximately 0 to 10% larger than those
ordinates. These findings suggest that the effect of obtained in single tests.
Wolschlag (1993) tested three-story reinforced concrete taken: the first simulates the damaging earthquake, and
walls on a shake table. In one test series, an undamaged the second simulates the damage caused by the
structure was subjected to repeated ground motions of damaging earthquake.
the same intensity. In the repeat tests, the peak
displacement response at each floor of the damaged To simulate the damaging earthquake, oscillators can be
specimen hardly differed from the response measured subjected to an acceleration record that is composed of
for the initially undamaged structure. an initial, damaging ground motion record, a quiescent
period, and a final ground motion record specified as
Cecen (1979) tested two identical ten-story, three-bay, the performance-level event. This approach appears to
reinforced concrete frame models on a shake table. The simulate reality well, but it is difficult to determine a
two models were subjected to sequences of base priori how to specify the intensity of the damaging
motions of differing intensity, followed by a final test ground motion. One rationale would be to impose
using identical base motions. When the structures were damaging earthquakes that cause specified degrees of
subjected to the repeated base motion, the peak ductility demand. This would result in oscillators
displacement response at each story was only slightly having experienced prior ductility demand and residual
affected by the previous shaking of the same intensity. displacement at the start of the performance-level
When the two structures were subjected to the same ground motion.
final motion, peak displacement response over the
height of the two structures was only slightly affected In the second approach, taken in this study, the force-
by the different prior sequences. Floor acceleration displacement curve of the oscillator is modified
response, however, was prone to more variation. prescriptively to simulate prior ductility demand, and
these analytically “damaged” oscillators are subjected
Mahin (1980) investigated the analytical response of to only the performance-level ground motion. To
SDOF oscillators to repeated ground motions. He identify the effects of damage (through changes in
reported minor-to-moderate increases in displacement stiffness and strength of the oscillator force/
ductility demand across all periods, and weaker displacement response), the possibility of significant
structures were prone to the largest increases. For residual displacements resulting from the damaging
bilinear models with negative post-yield stiffness, earthquake was neglected. Thus, the damaging
increased duration or repeated ground motions tended earthquake is considered to have imposed prior ductility
to cause significant increases in displacement ductility demands (PDD), possibly in conjunction with strength
demand (Mahin and Boroschek, 1991). reduction or strength degradation, on an initially-
undamaged oscillator. Initial stiffness, initial unloading
stiffness, and strength of the oscillators at the start of the
6.3 Dynamic Analysis performance-level ground motion may be affected.
Framework Response of the initially-damaged structure is
compared with the response of the undamaged structure
6.3.1 Overview under the performance-level motion. This approach
presumes that an engineer will be able to assess changes
This section describes the dynamic analyses deter- in lateral stiffness and strength of a real structure based
mining the effects of damage from prior earthquakes on on the nature of damage observed after the damaging
the response to a subsequent performance-level earthquake.
earthquake. In particular, this section describes the
ground motion and hysteresis models, the properties of While a number of indices may be used to compare
the undamaged oscillators, and the assumptions and response intensity, peak displacement response is
constructions used to establish the initially-damaged preferred here because of its relative simplicity, its
oscillators. Results of the dynamic analyses are immediate physical significance, and its use as the basic
presented in Section 6.4. parameter in the nonlinear static procedures (described
in Section 6.5). The utility of the nonlinear static
6.3.2 Dynamic Analysis Approach procedures is assessed vis-a-vis their ability to estimate
The aim of dynamic analysis was to quantify the effects accurately the peak displacement response.
of a damaging earthquake on the response of a SDOF
oscillator to a subsequent, hypothetical, performance- It should be recognized that predicting the capacity of
event earthquake. Two obvious approaches may be wall and infill elements may be difficult and prone to
uncertainty, whether indexed by displacement, energy,
or other measures. When various modes of response The physical rupture process tends to correlate ground-
may contribute significantly to an element’s behavior, motion duration and earthquake magnitude. It can be
existing models may not reliably identify which mode observed that earthquakes with magnitudes less than 7
will dominate. Uncertainty in the dominant mode tended to produce records that were categorized as
necessarily leads to uncertainty in estimates of the short-duration motions, while those with magnitudes
various capacity measures. greater than 7 tended to be categorized as long-duration
motions.
6.3.3 Ground Motions
Ground motions recorded near a rupturing fault may
Several issues were considered when identifying ground contain relatively large velocity pulses if the fault
motion records to be used in the analyses. First, the rupture progresses toward the recording station.
relative strength of the oscillators and the duration of Motions selected for the forward directivity category
ground motion are thought to be significant because were identified by others as containing near-field pulses
these parameters control the prominence of inelastic (Somerville et al., 1997). Recorded components aligned
response. Second, it is known that ground motions rich most nearly with the direction perpendicular to the fault
in frequencies just below the initial frequency of the trace were selected for this category.
structure tend to exacerbate damage, because the period
of the structure lengthens as yielding progresses. Third, The records shown in Table 6-1 are known to come
information is needed on the characteristics of structural from damaging earthquakes. The peak ground
response to near-field motions having forward- acceleration values shown in Table 6-1 are in units of
directivity effects. the acceleration of gravity. The actual value of peak
ground acceleration does not bear directly on the results
The analyses were intended to identify possible effects of this study, because oscillator strength is determined
of duration and forward directivity on the response of relative to the peak ground acceleration in order to
damaged structures. Therefore, three categories of obtain specified displacement ductility demands.
ground motions were established: short duration (SD),
long duration (LD), and Forward Directivity (FD). The Identifiers in Table 6-1 are formulated using two
characteristics of several hundred ground motions were characters to represent the earthquake, followed by two
considered in detail in order to select the records used in digits representing the year, followed by four characters
each category. Ground motions within a category were representing the recording station, followed by three
selected to represent a broad range of frequency digits representing the compass bearing of the ground-
content. In addition, it was desired to use some records motion component. Thus, IV40ELCN.180 identifies the
that were familiar to the research community, and to use South-North component recorded at El Centro in the
some records obtained from the Loma Prieta, 1940 Imperial Valley earthquake. Various magnitude
Northridge, and Kobe earthquakes. Within these measures are reported in the literature and repeated here
constraints, records were selected from a diverse for reference: ML represents the traditional local or
worldwide set of earthquakes in order to avoid
systematic biases that might otherwise occur. Six time Richter magnitude, MW represents moment magnitude,
series were used in each category to provide a statistical and MS represents the surface-wave magnitude.
base on which to interpret response trends and
variability. Table 6-1 identifies the ground motions that Detailed plots of the ground motions listed in Table 6-1
compose each category, sorted by characteristic period. are presented in Figures 6-2 through 6-19. The plots
present ground motion acceleration, velocity, and
Record duration was judged qualitatively in order to displacement time-series data, as well as spectral-
sort the records into the short duration and long duration response quantities. In all cases, ground acceleration
categories. The categorization is intended to data were used in the response computations, assuming
discriminate broadly between records for which the zero initial velocity and displacement. For most records,
duration of inelastic response is short or long. Because the ground velocity and displacement data presented in
the duration of inelastic response depends the figures were prepared by others. For the four records
fundamentally on the oscillator period, the relative identified with an asterisk (*) in Table 6-1, informal
strength, and the force/displacement model, a suitable integration procedures were used to obtain the ground
scalar index of record duration is not available. velocity and displacement values shown.
WN87MWLN.090
150
2
100 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec )
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
5
4 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.4
Ground Displacement (cm)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
60 1200
2% Damping 2% Damping
5% Damping 5% Damping
50 10% Damping 1000 10% Damping
20% Damping 20% Damping
40 800
30 600
20 400
10 200
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
BB92CICV.360
600
500 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
20
Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
10
-10
-20
-30
-40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
3
2 Ground Displacement (cm)
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
250 3000
2% Damping 2% Damping
5% Damping 5% Damping
10% Damping 2500 10% Damping
200 20% Damping 20% Damping
2000
150
1500
100
1000
50
500
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
Figure 6-3 Characteristics of the BB92CIVC.360 (Big Bear) Ground Motion
SP88GUKA.360
200
150 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
15
Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
3
Ground Displacement (cm)
2
-1
-2
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
90 900
2% Damping 2% Damping
80 5% Damping 800 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 20% Damping
70 700
60 600
50 500
40 400
30 300
20 200
10 100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
LP89CORR.090
500
400 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
40
30 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
15
Ground Displacement (cm)
10
-5
-10
-15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) 2
Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec )
400 2500
2% Damping 2% Damping
350 5% Damping 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 2000 20% Damping
300
250
1500
200
1000
150
100
500
50
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
NR94CENT.360
250
2
200 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec )
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
25
20 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
7
6 Ground Displacement (cm)
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
2
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec )
160 1000
2% Damping 2% Damping
5% Damping 900 5% Damping
140
10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 800 20% Damping
120
700
100
600
80 500
400
60
300
40
200
20
100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
IV79ARY7.140
400
Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
50
40 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
20
15 Ground Displacement (cm)
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
160 1000
2% Damping 2% Damping
140 5% Damping 900 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 20% Damping
800
120
700
100
600
80
500
60
400
40
300
20 200
0 100
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
Figure 6-7 Characteristics of the IV79ARY7.140 (Imperial Valley Array) Ground Motion
CH85LLEO.010
800
600 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
40
30 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
15
Ground Displacement (cm)
10
-5
-10
-15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
500 4000
2% Damping 2% Damping
450 5% Damping 5% Damping
3500
10% Damping 10% Damping
400 20% Damping 20% Damping
3000
350
2500
300
250 2000
200
1500
150
1000
100
500
50
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
CH85VALP.070
200
150 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
15
Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
10
-5
-10
-15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
4
Ground Displacement (cm)
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
120 1000
2% Damping 2% Damping
5% Damping 900 5% Damping
100 10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 800 20% Damping
700
80
600
60 500
400
40
300
200
20
100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
IV40ELCN.180
400
Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
40
Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
15
Ground Displacement (cm)
10
-5
-10
-15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
200 1400
2% Damping 2% Damping
180 5% Damping 5% Damping
10% Damping 1200 10% Damping
160 20% Damping 20% Damping
140 1000
120
800
100
600
80
60 400
40
200
20
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
TB78TABA.344
1000
800 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
150
Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
100
50
-50
-100
-150
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
80
60 Ground Displacement (cm)
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
450 5000
2% Damping 2% Damping
400 5% Damping 4500 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 4000 20% Damping
350
3500
300
3000
250
2500
200
2000
150
1500
100 1000
50 500
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
LN92JOSH.360
300
250 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
30
Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
20
10
-10
-20
-30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
8
6 Ground Displacement (cm)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
250 1200
2% Damping 2% Damping
5% Damping 5% Damping
10% Damping 1000 10% Damping
200 20% Damping 20% Damping
800
150
600
100
400
50
200
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
MX85SCT1.270
200
2
150 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec )
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
60
Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
25
20 Ground Displacement (cm)
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
1000 1800
2% Damping 2% Damping
900 5% Damping 1600 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
800 20% Damping 20% Damping
1400
700
1200
600
1000
500
800
400
600
300
200 400
100 200
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
LN92LUCN.250
800
600 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
80
60 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
40
20 Ground Displacement (cm)
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
180 4000
2% Damping 2% Damping
160 5% Damping 3500 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 20% Damping
140
3000
120
2500
100
2000
80
1500
60
1000
40
20 500
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
IV79BRWY.315
200
150 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
40
35 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
8
6 Ground Displacement (cm)
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) 2
Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec )
120 1000
2% Damping 2% Damping
5% Damping 900 5% Damping
100 10% Damping 10% Damping
20% Damping 800 20% Damping
700
80
600
60 500
400
40
300
200
20
100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
LP89SARA.360
300
200 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
30
20 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
20
Ground Displacement (cm)
15
10
-5
-10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
200 2000
2% Damping 2% Damping
180 5% Damping 1800 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
160 20% Damping 1600 20% Damping
140 1400
120 1200
100 1000
80 800
60 600
40 400
20 200
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
NR94NWHL.360
600
Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
400
200
-200
-400
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
60
40 Ground Velocity (cm/sec)
20
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
40
Ground Displacement (cm)
30
20
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec2)
450 3000
2% Damping 2% Damping
400 5% Damping 5% Damping
10% Damping 2500 10% Damping
20% Damping 20% Damping
350
300 2000
250
1500
200
150 1000
100
500
50
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
NR94SYLM.090
600
2
500 Ground Acceleration (cm/sec )
400
300
200
100
0
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
60
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20
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
15
Ground Displacement (cm)
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (sec)
2
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec )
250 2000
2% Damping 2% Damping
5% Damping 1800 5% Damping
10% Damping 10% Damping
200 20% Damping 1600 20% Damping
1400
150 1200
1000
100 800
600
50 400
200
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
KO95TTRI.360
800
Ground Acceleration (cm/sec2)
600
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60
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Time (sec)
Equivalent Velocity (cm/sec) 2
Pseudo Acceleration (cm/sec )
800 3000
2% Damping 2% Damping
700 5% Damping 5% Damping
10% Damping 2500 10% Damping
20% Damping 20% Damping
600
2000
500
400 1500
300
1000
200
500
100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Period, (sec) Period, (sec)
The characteristic period, Tg, of each ground motion and thus becomes a convenient reference point to
was established assuming equivalent-velocity spectra differentiate between short- and long-period systems.
and pseudo-acceleration spectra for linear elastic oscil-
lators having 5% damping. The equivalent velocity, Vm, 6.3.4 Force/Displacement Models
is related to input energy, Em, and ground acceleration The choice of force/displacement model influences the
and response parameters by the following expression: response time-history and associated peak response
quantities. Ideally, the force/displacement model should
1 represent behavior typical of wall buildings, including
mVm = Em = m ∫ &x&g x&dt
2
(6-1) strength degradation and stiffness degradation.
2
Actual response depends on the details of structural
where m= mass of the single-degree-of-freedom configuration and component response, which in turn,
oscillator, &x&g = the ground acceleration, and x& = the depend on the material properties, dimensions, and
relative velocity of the oscillator mass (Shimazaki and strength of the components, as well as the load
Sozen, 1984). The spectra present peak values environment and the evolving dynamic load history
calculated over the duration of the record. (which can influence the type and onset of failure). The
objective of the dynamic analyses is to identify basic
The characteristic periods were determined according to trends in how prior damage affects system response in
engineering judgment to correspond approximately to future earthquakes. Fulfilling this objective does not
the first (lowest-period) peak of the equivalent-velocity require the level of modeling precision that would be
spectrum, and, at the same time, the period at which the needed to understand the detailed response of a
transition occurs between the constant-acceleration and particular structure or component. For this reason, we
constant-velocity portions of a smooth design spectrum selected relatively simple models that represent a range
fitted to the 5% damped spectrum (Shimazaki and of behaviors that might be expected in wall buildings.
Sozen, 1984; Qi and Moehle, 1991; and Lepage, 1997). Three broad types of system response can be
Characteristic periods were established prior to the distinguished:
dynamic analyses.
Type A: Stiffness-degrading systems with positive
Other criteria are available to establish characteristic post-yield stiffness (Figure 6-20a).
periods. For example, properties of the site, Type B: Stiffness-degrading systems with nega-
characterized by variation of shear-wave velocity with tive post-yield stiffness (Figure 6-20b).
depth, may be used to establish Tg. Alternatively, the Type C: Pinched systems exhibiting strength and
characteristic period may be defined as the lowest stiffness degradation Figure 6-20c).
period for which the equal-displacement rule applies,
F F F
∆ ∆ ∆
(a) Stiffness Degrading (b) Stiffness Degrading (c) Stiffness and Strength
(positive post-yield stiffness) (negative post-yield stiffness) Degrading (with pinching)
Figure 6-20 Force-Displacement Hysteretic Models
Type A behavior typically represents wall systems Type C behavior was represented in the analyses by a
dominated by flexural response. Type B behavior is modified version of the Takeda model (Figure 6-21c).
more typical of wall systems that exhibit some The behavior is the same as for Type A, except for
degradation in response with increasing displacement; modifications to account for pinching and cyclic
degradation may be due to relatively brittle response strength degradation. The pinching point is defined
modes. Type C behavior is more typical of wall systems independently in the first and third quadrants
that suffer degradation of strength and stiffness, (Figure 6-22). The pinching-point displacement is set
including those walls in which brittle modes of response equal to 30% of the current maximum displacement in
may predominate. the quadrant. The pinching-point force level is set equal
to 10% of the current maximum force level in the
Type A behavior was represented in the analyses using quadrant. Cyclic strength degradation incorporated in
the Takeda model (Takeda et al., 1970) with post-yield this model is described in Section 6.3.6. This model is
stiffness selected to be 5% of the secant stiffness at the subsequently referred to as “TakPinch”.
yield point (Figure 6-21a). Previous experience
(Section 6.2.1) indicates that this model represents Collectively, the Takeda5, Takeda10, and TakPinch
stiffness degradation in reinforced concrete members models are referred to as degrading models in the body
exceptionally well. In addition, it is widely known by of this section. For these models, dynamic analyses
researchers, and it uses displacement ductility to were used to identify the effects of prior damage on
parameterize stiffness degradation. The Takeda model response to future earthquakes. The analyses covered a
features a trilinear primary curve that is composed of number of relative strength values, initial periods of
uncracked, cracked, and yielding portions. After vibration, damage intensities, and performance-level
yielding, the unloading stiffness is reduced in earthquakes. For all dynamic analyses, damping was set
proportion to the square root of the peak displacement equal to 5% of critical damping, based on the period of
ductility. Additional rules are used to control other vibration that corresponds to the yield-point secant
aspects of this hysteretic model. This model is stiffness.
subsequently referred to as “Takeda5”.
In addition, a bilinear model (Figure 6-23) was selected
Type B behavior was represented in the analyses using to establish the strength of the degrading oscillators,
the Takeda model with post-yield stiffness selected to which were set equal to the strength required to achieve
be –10% of the yield-point secant stiffness bilinear displacement ductility demands of 1 (elastic), 2,
(Figure 6-21b). This model is subsequently referred to 4, and 8 for each reference period and for each of the 18
as “Takeda10”. ground motions. The bilinear model does not exhibit
stiffness or strength degradation. Besides establishing
k
F k 0.05k F Yield Point F k 0.05k
−0.10k
∆ ∆ ∆
(a) Takeda Model (+5%) (b) Takeda Model (-10%) (c) Takeda Pinching Model
(Takeda5) (Takeda10) (TakPinch)
Figure 6-21 Degrading Models Used in the Analyses
F k Yield Point
FF kk Yield Point
Yield Point
Fy 0.05k
FFy y 0.05k
0.05k
∆
∆∆
k Yield Point
F k Yield Point
F Pinching Point
Fmax Pinching Point
Fmax
the strength of the oscillators, this model serves two ductility demands (DDD) of 1 (elastic), 2, 4, and 8
additional purposes. First, results obtained in this study using the bilinear model. This is done at each period
with the bilinear model can be compared with those and for each ground motion. For any period and ground
obtained by other researchers to affirm previous motion considered, the yield strength of the initially-
findings and, at the same time, to develop confidence in undamaged models is the same, but only the bilinear
the methods and techniques used in this study. Second, model achieves the target displacement ductility
the bilinear model provides a convenient point of demand. Where the same target displacement ductility
departure from which the effects of stiffness and demand can be achieved for various strength values, the
strength degradation can be compared. largest strength value is used, as implemented in the
computer program PCNSPEC (Boroschek, 1991).
6.3.5 Undamaged Oscillator
Parameters The initial stiffness of the models is established to
achieve initial (reference) vibration periods of 0.1, 0.2,
To identify effects of damage on response, it is first 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, and 2.0 seconds.
necessary to establish the response of initially- These periods are determined using the yield-point
undamaged oscillators to the same ground motions. The secant stiffness for all the models considered.
response of the undamaged oscillators is determined
using the degrading models of Figure 6-21 for the For the undamaged Takeda models, the cracking
performance-level ground motions. strength is set equal to 50% of the yield strength, and
the uncracked stiffness is set equal to twice the yield-
The yield strength of all degrading models is set equal point secant stiffness (Figure 6-24).
to the strength required to achieve displacement
2k k Yield Point
F
k(∆y/∆max)
0.5
Fy
0.5Fy
Cracking Point
∆y ∆max ∆
Figure 6-24 Specification of the Uncracked Stiffness, Cracking Strength, and Unloading Stiffness for the Takeda
Models
Initially Undamaged
Initially Damaged
∆y (PDD)∆y ∆
Figure 6-25 Construction of Initial Force-Displacement Response for Prior Ductility Demand > 0 and Reduced
Strength Ratio = 1
Initially Undamaged
F
Initially Damaged
Fy
(RSR)Fy
∆y (PDD)∆y ∆
Figure 6-26 Construction of Initial Force-Displacement Response for PDD> 0 and RSR< 1 for Takeda5 and Takeda10
Models
of initially-uncracked oscillators to the response of should more closely approximate the response of
oscillators that are initially cracked; that is, Takeda the ideal model.
oscillators having a PDD of one. When larger PDD
2. TakPinch Oscillators: Rather than begin with a
values are considered, the reductions in initial loading
reduced strength, a form of cyclic strength degrada-
and unloading stiffness are determined in accordance
tion was explicitly modeled for the Takeda Pinching
with the Takeda model.
oscillators. A trilinear primary curve was estab-
lished (Figure 6-27), identical to the envelope curve
It is not obvious what degree of strength degradation is
used in the Takeda5 model. The curve exhibits
consistent with the PDDs, nor just how the degradation
cracking, a yield strength determined from the
of strength should be modeled to represent real
response of the bilinear models, and a post-yield
structures. We used two approaches to gauge the extent
stiffness equal to 5% of the yield-point secant stiff-
to which strength degradation might affect the response:
ness. A secondary curve is established, having the
1. Takeda5 and Takeda10 Oscillators: The initial same yield displacement and post-yield stiffness as
strength of the damaged models was reduced to try the primary curve, but having yield strength equal
to capture the gross effects of strength degradation to the reduced strength ratio (RSR) times the pri-
on response. The initial response of the damaged mary yield strength. For displacements less than the
oscillator was determined using the construction of current maximum displacement in the quadrant, a
Figure 6-26. The resulting curve may represent a reduced-strength point is defined at the maximum
backbone curve that is constructed to approximate displacement at 0.5n(1-RSR)Fy above the secondary
the response of a strength-degrading oscillator. For curve strength, where n is the number of cycles
example, a structure for which repeated cycling approaching the current maximum displacement.
causes a 20% degradation in strength relative to the The oscillator may continue beyond this displace-
primary curve may be modeled as having an initial ment, and once it loads along the primary curve, n
strength equal to 80% of the undegraded strength. is reset to one, to cause the next cycle to exhibit
If the backbone curve is established using the strength degradation. The term (1-RSR)Fy is simply
expected degraded-strength asymptotes, then the the strength difference between the primary and
modeled structure tends to have smaller initial secondary curves, and the function 0.5n represents
stiffness and larger displacement response relative an asymptotic approach toward the secondary curve
to the ideal degrading structure. Consequently, the with each cycle. In each cycle, the strength is
modeled response is expected to give an upper reduced by half the distance remaining between the
bound to the displacement response expected from current curve and the secondary curve. Pinching
the ideal model. If, instead, the backbone curve is and strength degradation are modeled indepen-
selected to represent an average degraded response, dently in the first and third quadrants.
using typical degraded-strength values rather than
the lower asymptotic values, the computed response
Primary Curve
Secondary Curve
F
Reduced Strength Point
Fy
0.5n(1-RSR)Fy
(RSR)Fy
Prior maximum
displacement cycle
Current cycle
∆y ∆max ∆
For the TakPinch models, strength degradation is 6.3.7 Summary of Dynamic Analysis
modeled with and without PDD. When PDD is Parameters
present, the oscillator begins with n equal to one.
This represents a single previous cycle to the PDD Nonlinear dynamic analyses were conducted for SDOF
displacement, and corresponds to initial loading systems using various force/displacement models,
towards a reduced-strength point halfway between various initial strength values, and for various degrees
the primary and secondary curves at the PDD of damage. The analyses were repeated for the 18
displacement (Figure 6-28). selected ground-motion records. The analysis
procedures are summarized below.
For the other degrading models, strength reduction is
considered possible only for PDDs greater than zero. 1. Initially-undamaged oscillators were established at
eleven initial periods of vibration, equal to 0.1, 0.2,
The parameter RSR is used to describe strength 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, and 2.0 seconds.
degradation in the context of the Takeda Pinching At these periods, the strength necessary to obtain
models and strength reduction in the context of the design displacement ductilities (DDDs) of 1 (elas-
other degrading models. For this study, values of RSR tic), 2, 4, and 8 were obtained using the bilinear
were arbitrarily set at 100%, 80%, and 60%. model for each earthquake. This procedure estab-
lishes 44 oscillators for each of 18 ground motions.
Oscillators were referenced by their initial, undamaged 2. The responses of the oscillators designed in step 1
vibration periods, determined using the yield-point were computed using the three degrading models
secant stiffness, regardless of strength loss and PDDs. (Takeda5, Takeda10, and TakPinch). The yield
Note that changes in strength further affect the initial strength of the degrading oscillators in this step is
stiffness of the damaged oscillators. identical to that determined in the previous step for
the bilinear model. The period of vibration of the
While the values of the parameters used to model Type degrading oscillators, when based on the yield-
A, B, and C behaviors, as well as the hysteresis rules point secant stiffness, matches that determined in
themselves, were chosen somewhat arbitrarily, they the previous step for the bilinear model.
were believed to be sufficiently representative to allow
meaningful conclusions to be made regarding the 3. Damage is accounted for by assuming that the
effects of prior damage on response characteristics of force/displacement curves of the oscillators are
various wall structures. Values of RSR and PDD were altered as a result of previous inelastic response.
selected to identify trends in response characteristics, The extent of prior damage is parameterized by
not to represent specific structures. PDD. For some cases, the strength of the oscillators
is reduced as well. Each of the initially-undamaged,
degrading oscillators was considered to have expe-
rienced a PDD equal to 1, 2, 4, or 8, but not in
excess of the ductility demand for which the oscilla-
Primary Curve
Secondary Curve
F Pinching Point
Reduced Strength Point
Fy, PDD
Fy
0.5(1-RSR)Fy
(RSR)Fy
Initial Damaged Response
0.1Fy
∆y 0.3(PDD)∆ (PDD)∆y ∆
Figure 6-28 Construction of Initial Force-Displacement Response for PDD> 0 and RSR< 1 for Takeda Pinching Model
6.3.8 Implementation of Analyses Several identifiers are used in the plots, as follows:
previous earthquakes. Values range from 1 T/Tg < 4 in order to reveal sufficient detail in the range
to 8, but not in excess of DDD. T/Tg < 1.
RSR: Reduced Strength Ratio. This represents a
reduction or degradation of strength and The trends shown in Figures 6-29 through 6-31
associated changes in stiffness. Values resemble those reported by other researchers, for
ranges from 100% to 60%, as detailed in example, Shimazaki and Sozen (1984), Miranda (1991),
Figures 6-26, 6-27, and 6-28. and Nassar and Krawinkler (1991). However, it can be
Displacements: observed that the longer-period structures subjected to
dd = Peak displacement response of ground motions with forward-directivity effects show a
undamaged oscillator peak displacement response in the range of
approximately 0.5 to 2 times the elastic structure
d'd =Peak displacement response of dam- response, somewhat in excess of values typical of the
aged oscillator other classes of ground motion. Additionally, strength-
de = Peak displacement response of elastic reduction factors, R, tend to be somewhat lower for the
oscillator having stiffness equal to the FD motions, representing the need to supply a greater
yield-point secant stiffness of the cor- proportion of the elastic strength demand in order to
responding Takeda oscillator maintain prespecified DDDs.
Space constraints limit the number of included figures. 6.4.3 Response of Takeda Models
Selected results for oscillators designed for a The Takeda models were provided with lateral strength
displacement ductility of 8 are presented below. Elastic equal to that determined to achieve specified DDDs of
response characteristics are presented as part of the 1, 2, 4, and 8 for the corresponding bilinear models,
ground motion plots in Figures 6-2 to 6-19. based on the yield-point secant stiffness.
6.4.2 Response of Bilinear Models Prior damage was parameterized by prior ductility
Figures 6-29 to 6-31 present the response of bilinear demand (PDD), possibly in conjunction with strength
models to the SD, LD, and FD ground motions, reduction or strength degradation, which is
respectively. The ratio of peak displacement of the parameterized by RSR. PDD greater than zero (damage
inelastic model to the peak displacement response of an present) and RSR less than one (strength reduced or
elastic oscillator having the same initial period, degrading) both cause the initial period of the oscillator
dd/de, is presented in the upper plot of each figure. The to increase. When previous damage has caused
lower plot presents the ratio of elastic strength demand displacements in excess of the yield displacement
to the yield strength provided in order to attain the (PDD>1), even small displacements cause energy
specified DDD, which in this case equals 8. dissipation through hysteretic response. No further
attention is given to those oscillators for which the
When the strength reduction factor, R, has a value of 8, imposed PDD exceeds the response of the undamaged
the inelastic design strength is 1/8 of the elastic oscillator, and these data points are not represented on
strength. For DDD = 8, an R = 8 means that the reduced subsequent plots.
inelastic design strength and the resulting oscillator
6.4.3.1 Response of the Takeda5 Model
ductility are equal. If R is greater than 8, say 12, for
DDD = 8, then the reduced inelastic design strength of It is of interest to observe how structures proportioned
the structure can be 1/12 of the expected elastic strength based on the bilinear model respond if their force/
to achieve an oscillator ductility of 8. That is, for any R, displacement response is represented more accurately
the structure can be designed for 1/R times the elastic by a Takeda model. This interest is based in part on the
needed strength to achieve a ductility of DDD. widespread use of the bilinear model in developing
current displacement-based design approaches.
Response to each ground motion is indicated by the
plotted symbols, which are ordered by increasing Figures 6-32 through 6-34 present the response of
characteristic period, Tg. It was found that the Takeda5 models in which the oscillator strength was set
displacement and strength data are better organized to achieve a bilinear displacement ductility demand of
when plotted against the ratio T/Tg instead of the 8. The upper plot of each figure shows the ratio of peak
reference period, T. The plots present data only for displacement response to the peak response of an elastic
(Text continued on page 134)
IV79ARY7.140
4
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
LP89CORR.090
20 NR94CENT.360
IV79ARY7.140
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
MX85SCT1.270
4
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
20 LN92JOSH.360
MX85SCT1.270
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
KO95TTRI.360
4
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
NR94NWHL.360
20 NR94SYLH.090
KO95TTRI.360
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
6 IV79ARY7.140
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
NR94CENT.360
IV79ARY7.140
4
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-32 Displacement Response of Takeda Models Compared with Elastic Response and Bilinear Response, for
Short-Duration Records (DDD= 8 and RSR= 1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
6 MX85SCT1.270
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
LN92JOSH.360
MX85SCT1.270
4
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-33 Displacement Response of Takeda Models Compared with Elastic Response and Bilinear Response for
Long-Duration Records (DDD= 8 and RSR= 1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
6 KO95TTRI.360
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
NR94SYLH.090
KO95TTRI.360
4
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-34 Displacement Response of Takeda Models Compared with Elastic Response and Bilinear Response for
Forward Directive Records (DDD= 8 and RSR= 1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
analog, dd/de. The upper plots of Figures 6-32 through reduction in stiffness, and both effects contribute to the
6-34 are analogous to those presented in Figures 6-29 tendency for displacements to increase.
through 6-31.
To understand the effects of prior damage on the
The lower plots of Figures 6-32 through 6-34 show the response of the Takeda5 models, it is helpful to consider
ratio of the Takeda5 and bilinear ultimate displace- several oscillators exposed to the IV40ELCN.180 (El
ments, dd,Takeda5/dd,Bilinear. It is clear that peak dis- Centro) record. Figures 6-41 to 6-45 plot the response
placements of the Takeda model may be several times of oscillators having initial (reference) periods of 0.2,
larger or smaller than those obtained with the corre- 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 sec, respectively, to this ground
sponding bilinear model. motion. The oscillators have yield strength equal to that
required to obtain displacement ductility demands of 8
The effect of damage on the Takeda5 model is shown in for the bilinear model. Oscillators having PDD of 0
Figures 6-35 through 6-40, for Takeda5 oscillators that (undamaged), 1, 4, and 8 are considered. Displacement
were initially designed for a bilinear DDD of 8. The time-histories (40 sec) of the oscillators are plotted at
upper plot of each figure shows the response without the top of each figure. Details of the first 10 seconds of
strength reduction (RSR = 1); the lower plot shows response are shown below these. The solid lines
response for RSR = 0.6. represent the response of the initially-undamaged
oscillators, and the dashed and dotted lines represent
Figures 6-35 through 6-37 show the effect of cracking oscillators with PDD > 0. Force/displacement plots for
on response. The displacement response, d'd, of the first 10 sec of response of each oscillator are
provided in the lower part of the figure, using the same
Takeda5 oscillators subjected to a PDD of one is
PDD legend. It can be observed that even though the
compared with the response of the corresponding
undamaged oscillators initially have greater stiffness,
undamaged Takeda5 oscillators, dd. Where no strength
their displacement response tends to converge upon the
degradation occurs (RSR = 1), cracking rarely causes an response of the initially-damaged oscillators within a
increase in displacement demand; for the vast majority few seconds. The displacement response of the
of oscillators, cracking is observed to cause a slight damaged oscillators tends to be in phase with that of the
decrease in the peak displacement response. Reductions initially-undamaged oscillators, and maximum values
in strength typically cause a noticeable increase in tend to be similar to and to occur at approximately the
displacement response, particularly for low T/Tg. same time as the undamaged oscillator peaks. Thus, it
appears that prior ductility demands have only a small
Figures 6-38 through 6-40 show the effect of a PDD of effect on oscillator response characteristics and do not
8 on peak displacement, d'd, relative to the response of cause a fundamentally different response to develop.
the corresponding undamaged oscillators. Prior damage
is observed to cause modest changes in displacement 6.4.3.2 Response of the TakPinch Model
response where the strength is maintained (RSR = 1); Figures 6-46 to 6-48 plot the ratio, d'd/dd, of damaged
displacements may increase or decrease. Where
displacements increase, they rarely increase more than and undamaged displacement response for the TakPinch
about 10% above the displacement of the undamaged models having DDD = 8 and PDD = 8, for RSR = 1 and
oscillator for the short-duration and long-duration 0.6. Figure 6-49 plots the displacement time-history of
motions. For the forward directivity motions, they TakPinch oscillators subjected to the NS component of
rarely increase more than about 30% above the the 1940 El Centro record, and Figure 6-50 plots results
displacement of the undamaged oscillator. The largest for oscillators having cyclic strength degradation given
displacements tend to occur more frequently for T<Tg. by RSR = 0.6. These oscillators have a reference period
of one second, DDD = 8, and various PDDs.
The above discussion concerned oscillators for which By comparison with the analogous figures for the
the strength is maintained. When strength is reduced Takeda5 model (Figures 6-38 to 6-40 and 6-43), it can
(RSR = 0.6), prior ductility demand may cause be observed that: (1) for RSR = 1 (no strength
displacements to increase or decrease, but the tendency degradation), the effect of PDD on displacement
for displacements to increase is more prominent than response is typically small for the Takeda5 and
for RSR = 1. Furthermore, the increase in displacement TakPinch oscillators, and (2) the effect of cyclic
tends to be larger than for RSR = 1. Reduction in strength degradation, as implemented here, is also
strength, as represented in Figure 6-26, also causes relatively small. Thus, the observation that prior
(Text continued on page 151)
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-35 Effect of Cracking Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement Response of Takeda5 Models,
for Short-Duration Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-36 Effect of Cracking Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement Response of Takeda5 Models,
for Long-Duration Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-37 Effect of Cracking Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement Response of Takeda5 Models,
for Forward Directive Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-38 Effect of Large Prior Ductility Demand Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement
Response of Takeda5 Models, for Short Duration Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-39 Effect of Large Prior Ductility Demand Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement
Response of Takeda5 Models, for Long Duration Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-40 Effect of Large Prior Ductility Demand Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement
Response of Takeda5 Models, for Forward Directive Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
Figure 6-41 Effect of Damage on Response to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for Takeda5, T=0.2 sec (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
Displacement (cm)
8
pdd0
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 6-42 Effect of Damage on Response to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for Takeda5, T=0.5 sec (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
Figure 6-43 Effect of Damage on Response to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for Takeda5, T=1.0 sec (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
Figure 6-44 Effect of Damage on Response to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for Takeda5, T=1.5 sec (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
-5
-10
-15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 6-45 Effect of Damage on Response to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for Takeda5, T=2.0 sec (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-46 Effect of Large Prior Ductility Demand Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement
Response of TakPinch Models, for Short Duration Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-47 Effect of Large Prior Ductility Demand Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement
Response of TakPinch Models, for Long Duration Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
0
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-48 Effect of Large Prior Ductility Demand Without and With Strength Reduction on Displacement
Response of TakPinch, for Forward Directive Records (DDD= 8 and PDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
-5
-10
-15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 6-49 Effect of Damage on Response of TakPinch Model to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for
T=1.0 sec and RSR= 1 (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
-5
-10
-15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 6-50 Effect of Damage on Response of TakPinch Model to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for
T=1.0 sec and RSR = 0.6 (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
ductility demand has, in general, only a small effect on Takeda10 oscillators having DDD = 2. Collapse of the
displacement demand applies equally to the standard damaged oscillators (whether the corresponding
Takeda oscillator and to Takeda oscillators that exhibit undamaged oscillator collapsed or not) is indicated by a
pinching. The Takeda5 oscillators with initially reduced ratio equal to six, and collapse of the undamaged
strength, given by RSR = 0.6, tended to have a response oscillators is indicated by a ratio equal to zero.
amplified to a much greater extent than is observed for Approximately 10% of the oscillators having DDD = 2
the TakPinch model, reflecting the more dramatic form collapsed with no prior damage. This indicates that
of strength degradation that was implemented in the structures characterized by negative post-yield
Takeda5 model. stiffnesses must remain nearly elastic if collapse is to be
avoided. Prior ductility demand may cause
6.4.3.3 Response of Takeda10 Model displacement response to either increase or decrease for
those oscillators that do not collapse.
The Takeda10 model is a Takeda model having post-
yield stiffness equal to –10% of the yield-point secant
Figure 6-54 plots the displacement time-history of a
stiffness. As has been found previously by others, mod-
one-second oscillator having DDD = 8 and PDD
els with negative post-yield stiffness are prone to col-
ranging from 0 (undamaged) to 8, subjected to the NS
lapse, where collapse is defined as the point at which
component of the 1940 El Centro record. It can be
the displacement is large enough that the force resisted
observed that prior ductility demand helps to avoid
by the oscillator decreases to zero. Comparisons of peak
collapse in some cases, and may cause collapse in
displacement response are of limited value when col-
others.
lapse occurs. Instead, the likelihood of collapse is used
to assess the impact of prior damage on response for the
Takeda10 models. 6.4.4 Response Statistics
Summary response statistics were prepared to identify
Figures 6-51 to 6-53 plot the ratio, d'd/dd, of damaged general trends in the data.
and undamaged peak displacement response for the
IV79ARY7.140
3
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-51 Effect of Cracking on Displacement Response of Takeda10 Model for Short Duration Records (DDD= 8
and PDD=1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
MX85SCT1.270
3
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-52 Effect of Cracking on Displacement Response of Takeda10 Model for Long-Duration Records (DDD= 8
and PDD=1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
KO95TTRI.360
3
0 1 2 3 4
Period Ratio, T/Tg
Figure 6-53 Effect of Cracking on Displacement Response of Takeda10 Model for Forward Directive Records (DDD=
8 and PDD=1)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
-5
-10
-15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 6-54 Effect of Damage on Response of Takeda10 Model to El Centro (IV40ELCN.180) for
T=1.0 sec and RSR= 1 (DDD= 8)
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility
The left side of Figure 6-55 plots mean values of the strength degradation during the performance-level
ratio of damaged and undamaged oscillator peak event. Thus, the comparison of d'd with dd does not
displacement response, d'd/dd, as a function of DDD provide a sufficient basis to determine the effect of
and PDD, for RSR = 1, 0.8, and 0.6, for the Takeda5 strength degradation on response. Comparing response
model. The right side of this figure plots mean-plus-one of structures having reduced strength, both with and
standard deviation values of d'd/dd. Figure 6-56 plots without prior ductility demands would provide more
similar data, but for the TakPinch model. Mean meaningful information. Comparing data for RSR = 0.6
displacement ratios d'd/dd for the Takeda5 and TakPinch or 0.8, one can see in Figure 6-55 that the effect of PDD
models are only slightly affected by PDD and DDD, for is to reduce the mean displacement ratio for Takeda5
RSR = 1. Mean displacement ratios of the TakPinch oscillators. The capacity curve developed for a structure
oscillators increase slightly as RSR decreases. should incorporate strength degradation when it is
anticipated.
In Figure 6-55 it can be seen that strength reduction can
have a significant effect on the mean displacement ratio The above discussion has focused on mean ratios of
d'd/dd for the Takeda5 oscillators. However, if the d'd/dd. Variability of this ratio, plotted as mean plus one
damaging earthquake reduces oscillator strength, then standard deviation values on the right sides of
surely the undamaged structure would experience Figures 6-55 and 6-56, indicates that response of a
8 1.00 8 1.15
6 6
8 1.09 8 1.31
6 6
8 1.23 8 1.60
6 6
Figure 6-55 Mean and Standard Deviation Values of d'd /dd for Takeda5 Model.
6 6
6 6
8 1.02 8 1.24
6 6
Figure 6-56 Mean and Standard Deviation Values of d'd /dd for TakPinch Model.
damaged structure to a given earthquake varies relative reduction tends to increase the tendency of the
to the response in the initially-undamaged state. oscillators to collapse. No clear trend emerges as to the
However, this variability is insignificant in the context effect of PDD on the tendency of these oscillators to
of variability arising from other sources. For example, collapse.
the hysteresis model and earthquake ground motion
have a greater effect on response displacements than the
variability arising due to prior damage. Figures 6-32 to 6.5 Nonlinear Static
6-34 indicate how different the peak displacement Procedures
response of undamaged Takeda and bilinear models can
be to a given earthquake. 6.5.1 Introduction
Figure 6-57 shows the percentage of Takeda10 Nonlinear static analysis is used to estimate inelastic
oscillators that reached their collapse displacement. It response quantities without undertaking the effort
can be observed that 10% or more of those structures required for inelastic dynamic analyses. Several
designed to achieve a displacement ductility of two methods are presently in use. No consensus has
collapsed. This indicates the need to ensure that emerged as to the applicability and relative accuracy of
structures having negative post-yield stiffnesses remain the methods, which are collectively known as nonlinear
nearly elastic if collapse is to be avoided. Strength static procedures (NSP). These procedures each focus
4 65% 86%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Design Displacement Ductility (DDD)
Collapse Percentage for RSR=0.8
Prior Ducitility Demand (PDD)
8 83%
4 73% 92%
8 NA
4 82% 96%
on different parameters for determining estimates of NSP are compared with values computed from dynamic
peak displacement response. Consequently, NSP analyses in Section 6.6.
displacement estimates may be affected to different
degrees by differences in hysteretic model, initial 6.5.2 Description of Nonlinear Static
stiffness, lateral strength, and post-yield stiffness. Procedures
Section 6.5.2 describes three nonlinear static methods; The methods are briefly described in this section for
displacement coefficient, secant, and capacity spectrum cases assumed to correspond most closely to the
methods. Differences among the methods and the dynamic analysis framework of Section 6.3.3,
implications for estimating displacements are discussed representing wall buildings at the collapse prevention
in Section 6.5.3. Assumptions made to extend the performance level. The reader is referred to FEMA 273
methods to cases with prior damage are discussed in for greater detail on the displacement coefficient
Section 6.5.4. Displacement estimates obtained using method, and to ATC-40 for greater detail on the secant
and capacity spectrum methods. The displacement
coefficient method described here is the same as in yield strength, Fye, illustrated in Figure 6-58. An
FEMA 273. optional limit of 2 on C1 was not applied in the analyses
described here.
6.5.2.1 Displacement Coefficient Method
The displacement coefficient method estimates peak The coefficient C2 accounts for the type of hysteretic
inelastic displacement response as the product of a response. At the collapse prevention performance level,
series of coefficients and the elastic spectral C2 varies linearly between 1.5 at 0.1 sec and 1.2 at Tg,
displacement. The peak displacement estimate, dd, is and remains at 1.2 for Te greater than Tg.
given by
The coefficient C3 accounts for increases in
T
2
displacements that arise when P-∆ effects are sig-
d d = C 0 C1C 2 C 3 S a e (6-2)
nificant. Because the dynamic analyses did not include
2π second-order effects, C3 was assigned a value of 1.
However, the Takeda 10 models had a negative post-
where coefficients C0 through C3 modify the spectral yield stiffness of 10 percent, which approximates P-∆
displacement, given by the product of the elastic effects
spectral acceleration, Sa, and (Te/2π)2, where Te is an
effective period based on the effective stiffness 6.5.2.2 Secant Method
determined using the construction of Figure 6-58. The secant method assumes that the peak displacement
In the above, C0 relates the spectral displacement and response of a nonlinear system can be estimated as the
the expected roof displacement, and is set at 1 for peak response of an elastic system having increased
SDOF systems. The coefficient C1 accounts for the period. An idealized lateral-force/displacement curve
amplification of peak displacement for short-period for the structure is developed using a static “pushover”
systems, is set at 1 for Te > Tg, and is computed as analysis. The elastic response of the structure is
follows for Te < Tg: computed using a response-spectrum analysis, using
initial component stiffness values. The resulting elastic
displacements are used to obtain revised stiffness values
1 1 Tg for the components, set equal to the secant stiffness
C1 = + 1 − (6-3)
defined at the intersections of the component force/
R R Te
displacement curves and the elastic displacements
obtained from the response-spectrum analysis. Using
where R = the strength-reduction factor, given by the
these revised stiffness values, another response-
ratio of the elastic base shear force and the effective
spectrum analysis is performed, and iterations continue
Undamaged Damaged
Force Force
ke
ke
Fy Fy
Fye
0.6Fye
Pushover Undamaged
Effective Effective
∆ye ∆y ∆y PDD∆y
Displacement Displacement
Figure 6-58 Construction of Effective Stiffness for use with the Displacement Coefficient Method
Undamaged Damaged
Force Force
ke
ke
Fy Fy
Undamaged
Pushover Effective
Effective
∆y ∆y PDD∆y
Displacement Displacement
Figure 6-59 Initial Effective Stiffness and Capacity Curves Used in the Secant and Capacity Spectrum Methods
Displacement or Spectral
Displacement
until the displacements converge. All response- stiffness. This stiffness may be used to obtain a revised
spectrum analyses are made for 5% damping in the estimate of peak displacement response. These
secant method, as described in ATC-40. iterations continue until satisfactory convergence
For SDOF structures, the secant method can be occurs. This is shown schematically in Figure 6-61.
implemented in spectral pseudo-acceleration–spectral
displacement space, much like the capacity spectrum 6.5.2.3 Capacity Spectrum Method
method. The force/displacement curve may be Like the secant method, the capacity spectrum method
determined using the constructions of Figure 6-59 for assumes that the peak displacement response of a
both the undamaged and damaged oscillators. This nonlinear system can be estimated by an elastic system
curve is plotted together with the elastic response having reduced stiffness. The difference is that the
spectrum for 5% damping in Figure 6-60. An estimate elastic spectral-response values are modified to reflect
of peak displacement is indicated in the figure. For the increases in damping associated with inelastic response.
undamaged oscillators, an initial estimate of peak A lateral force “pushover” curve is developed for the
displacement response is the peak response of an elastic structure and plotted on spectral pseudo-acceleration–
oscillator having stiffness equal to the initial stiffness of spectral displacement coordinates. The structure is
the oscillator. The intersection of the previous assumed to displace until it reaches an elastic demand
displacement estimate with the idealized force/ curve that has damping that corresponds to a value
displacement curve of the structure defines a new secant based on the current displacement estimate.
Force or Spectral
Iteration 1
Pseudo-Acceleration 2 5% Damped
Elastic Spectrum
3 Pushover Curve
4 Peak Displacement Estimate
5, 6
Displacement or Spectral
Displacement
Figure 6-61 Schematic Depiction of Successive Iterations to Estimate Displacement Response Using the Secant
Method for Single-Degree-of-Freedom Oscillators
Iteration 1
Spectral Pseudo- 5% Damped Elastic Spectrum
Acceleration 2
10, 15, and 20% Damped Spectra
Pushover Curve
3
4, 5
Peak Displacement Estimate
Displacement or Spectral
Displacement
Figure 6-62 Schematic Depiction of Successive Iterations to Estimate Displacement Response Using the Capacity
Spectrum Method
spectrum method, while it is invariant in the secant initial stiffness of the damaged oscillators therefore
method. In the form presented in ATC-40, secant reflected the previous damage.
method displacement estimates are independent of
hysteretic model. Through changes in coefficient C2, The capacity spectrum method was also applied
changes in the force/displacement model may be iteratively, beginning with the same initial oscillator
incorporated in the displacement coefficient method. stiffness used in the secant method. Effective damping
Differences in hysteresis model are accounted for in the was determined by using the yield point of the
capacity spectrum method adjusting effective damping undamaged oscillators. The capacity spectrum method
for three “structural behavior types.” was implemented for an intermediate “building
characteristic,” identified as Type B. This type is
6.5.4 Application of Procedures to considered to represent average existing buildings
Undamaged and Damaged subjected to short-duration motions and new buildings
Oscillators subjected to long-duration motions. For this type,
effective damping is limited to 29% of critical damping.
Each procedure presumes that a smoothed, elastic
design response spectrum is to be used in practice. To For both the capacity spectrum and the secant stiffness
avoid uncertainties in interpretation of results, the actual methods, 10 iterations were performed for each
pseudo-acceleration spectra were used in place of a structure. These iterations generally converged on a
smoothed approximation in this study. For the capacity single result, and differences in successive
spectrum method, the actual pseudo-acceleration approximations were typically less than 1%. On
spectra were computed for a range of damping levels, occasion, differences in successive approximations
and the spectral reduction factors that are prescribed for were large, suggesting a lack of convergence due to the
use with smoothed design spectra were not employed. jagged nature of the actual (not smoothed) spectra.
These modifications introduce some scatter in the Where these differences occurred, the displacement
resulting displacement estimates that would not occur if estimate at the tenth iteration was retained.
smoothed spectra had been used. Thus, some
“smoothing” of the data may be appropriate when
interpreting the results. 6.6 Comparison of NSP and
Dynamic Analysis Results
The NSPs were developed for use with undamaged
structures. In this study, the NSPs were applied to the 6.6.1 Introduction
initially-damaged structures using the assumptions
described below, representing one of many approaches In evaluating the utility of the NSPs, attention may be
that can be taken. Recommended procedures for directed at two estimates. The first is peak displacement
estimating displacements are described in Section 4.4 of response; it could be expected that an acceptable
FEMA 306. procedure would estimate the peak displacement
response, dd, of a nonlinear system within acceptable
For the displacement coefficient method, the capacity limits of accuracy. Second, it is possible that a
curve was obtained by the procedure described in procedure may be systematically biased, and hence may
FEMA 273. For the uncracked oscillators, a bilinear estimate displacement response poorly while providing
curve was fit, crossing at 60% of the bilinear curve yield reasonable estimates of displacement ratio; that is, the
strength. For the damaged oscillators, the effective ratio of damaged structure displacement to undamaged
period of vibration was set at the initial period of the structure displacement, d'd/dd. These response indices,
damaged oscillators. Displacements were amplified by dd and d'd/dd, are examined in detail in the following
the factor C1 without imposing the optional limit of 2 sections for Takeda oscillators designed for bilinear
specified in the provisions. DDDs of 8.
The secant method was applied iteratively. For 6.6.2 Displacement Estimation
undamaged oscillators, the initial stiffness was the
yield-point secant stiffness. For damaged oscillators, it Peak displacement response of the undamaged Takeda
was set at the secant stiffness obtained at the oscillators was estimated for each earthquake record.
displacement imposed by prior ductility demands. The The ratio of the peak displacement estimate from NSP
and the value computed for each Takeda5 oscillator, at tended to overestimate displacement and exhibited more
each period and for each ground motion record, is scatter in values of dd,NSP/dd.
plotted in Figure 6-63 for DDD = 8 and RSR = 1. The
log scale plots the ratio of estimated and computed 6.6.3 Displacement Ratio Estimation
displacement, dd,NSP/dd. Plots are presented for each
ground motion category and for each NSP. The ratio of damaged oscillator displacement, d'd, and
the displacement of the corresponding Takeda oscillator
In Figure 6-63, it can be observed that the ratio of the having no initial damage, dd, was estimated using the
estimated and computed displacements, dd,NSP/dd, can NSP methods for each Takeda oscillator/earthquake
vary significantly, ranging from less than 0.3 to more pair, as described in Section 6.5.4. This estimated
than 100. At any period ratio, the ratio dd,NSP/dd may displacement ratio is compared with the ratio computed
approach or exceed an order of magnitude. Because the from the dynamic analyses in Figures 6-65 through
trends tend to be consistent for each ground motion 6-73.
record, the jaggedness of the actual spectra does not It can be observed that simple application of the
appear to be the source of most of the variability. displacement coefficient method using the initial
stiffness of the undamaged oscillator to calculate dd and
Figure 6-64 plots mean values of ratios dd, NSP/dd using the reduced stiffness of the damaged oscillator to
determined for each NSP, for all ground motions and all calculate d'd almost always overestimates the effects of
DDD values. Results for short- and long-period damage for the cases considered.
Takeda5 oscillators are plotted separately. In Application of the secant and capacity spectrum
Figure 6-64, it can be observed that the NSP procedures methods, using the initial and reduced stiffness values,
tend to overestimate, in a mean sense, the displacements typically led to nearly identical displacement estimates:
computed for the short-period Takeda5 oscillators for estimates of d'd/dd were often approximately equal to
all DDD. Takeda oscillators having DDD = 1 often one. Figures 6-68 through 6-73, which might appear to
displaced less than their bilinear counterparts because testify to the success of the methods, instead tend more
the Takeda oscillators had initial stiffness equal to twice to represent the inverse of the d'd/dd as computed for the
that of their bilinear counterparts. The difference in Takeda models. Figures 6-38 through 6-40 indicate that
initial stiffness explains the tendency of the NSP computed values of dd/d'd should tend to be around one,
methods to overestimate displacements for low DDD. decreasing slightly for small periods.
This is particularly true for the secant method estimates
of short-period oscillators, for which mean ratios The preceding plots examine the effectiveness of the
exceeded six for DDD greater than 1. The period ratio, methods, as implemented here, for estimating the
Te/Tg, marking the boundary of the elevated estimates consequences of prior ductility demand. It is also of
tends to be less than one, possibly reflecting the interest to examine the effectiveness of the methods in
effective increase in period of Takeda5 oscillators as accounting for strength loss. To do this, the ratio of the
their stiffness reduces (Figure 6-63). displacement obtained with RSR = 0.6 to that with
RSR = 1.0 was evaluated for the nonlinear Takeda5
Figure 6-64 indicates that each NSP tends to oscillators having DDD = 8 and PDD = 1, in order to
overestimate the displacement response of short-period compare the NSP estimates of the displacement ratio
oscillators and that the capacity spectrum method is with the displacement ratio computed for the nonlinear
most accurate for long-period Takeda5 oscillators, in a Takeda5 oscillators. The upper plots in Figures 6-74
mean sense. Nevertheless, Figure 6-63 indicates the through 6-82 show the estimated displacement ratio for
substantial variability in displacement estimates and the one of the three NSPs, and the lower plots of these
potential to overestimate or underestimate figures normalize this displacement ratio by the
displacements with all methods. A single estimate displacement ratio computed for the Takeda5
cannot capture the breadth of response variability that oscillators. It can be observed that the NSP methods
may occur at a given site. tend to account correctly for the effect of strength
reduction on displacement response, in a mean sense.
Based on Figures 6-63 and 6-64, the coefficient and
capacity spectrum methods appear to be reasonably
accurate and to have the least scatter. The secant method
(Text continued on page 177)
Figure 6-63
Coefficient Method
BB92CIVC.360 CH85VALP.070 IV79BRWY.315
SP88GUKA.360 IV40ELCN.180 LP89SARA.360
10 LP89CORR.090 10 TB78TABS.344 10 NR94NWHL.360
NR94CENT.360 LN92JOSH.360 NR94SYLH.090
IV79ARY7.140 MX85SCT1.270 KO95TTRI.360
1 1 1
10 10 10
1 1 1
Secant Method
10 10 10
1 1 1
Figure 6-64 Mean values of dd,NSP /dd for all ground motions for each NSP method, for short and long-period
Takeda5 Models. See text in Section 6.6.2.
4 SP88GUKA.360
LP89CORR.090
NR94CENT.360
3 IV79ARY7.140
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-65 Coefficient Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement
Normalized by Computed Ratio, for Short-Duration Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
4 IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
LN92JOSH.360
3 MX85SCT1.270
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-66 Coefficient Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement
Normalized by Computed Ratio, for Long-Duration Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
4 LP89SARA.360
NR94NWHL.360
NR94SYLH.090
KO95TTRI.360
3
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-67 Coefficient Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement
Normalized by Computed Ratio, for Forward Directive Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
BB92CIVC.360
4 SP88GUKA.360
LP89CORR.090
NR94CENT.360
3 IV79ARY7.140
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-68 Secant Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement Normalized by
Computed Ratio, for Short-Duration Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
CH85VALP.070
4 IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
LN92JOSH.360
3 MX85SCT1.270
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-69 Secant Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement Normalized by
Computed Ratio, for Long-Duration Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
IV79BRWY.315
4 LP89SARA.360
NR94NWHL.360
NR94SYLH.090
KO95TTRI.360
3
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-70 Secant Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement Normalized by
Computed Ratio, for Forward Directive Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
BB92CIVC.360
4 SP88GUKA.360
LP89CORR.090
NR94CENT.360
3 IV79ARY7.140
Mean CapSpec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-71 Capacity Spectrum Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement
Normalized by Computed Ratio, for Short-Duration Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
CH85VALP.070
4 IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
LN92JOSH.360
3 MX85SCT1.270
Mean CapSpec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-72 Capacity Spectrum Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement
Normalized by Computed Ratio, for Long-Duration Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
IV79BRWY.315
4 LP89SARA.360
NR94NWHL.360
NR94SYLH.090
3 KO95TTRI.360
Mean CapSpec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-73 Capacity Spectrum Method Estimates of Ratio of Damaged and Undamaged Oscillator Displacement
Normalized by Computed Ratio, for Forward Directive Records
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
SP88GUKA.360
LP89CORR.090
2 NR94CENT.360
IV79ARY7.140
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
WN87MWLN.090
BB92CIVC.360
4 SP88GUKA.360
LP89CORR.090
NR94CENT.360
3 IV79ARY7.140
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-74 Coefficient Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5 Oscillators
having DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
2 LN92JOSH.360
MX85SCT1.270
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
CH85LLEO.010
CH85VALP.070
4 IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
LN92JOSH.360
3 MX85SCT1.270
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-75 Coefficient Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5 Oscillators
having DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
LP89SARA.360
3 NR94NWHL.360
NR94SYLH.090
KO95TTRI.360
Mean Coef
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
LN92LUCN.250
IV79BRWY.315
4 LP89SARA.360
NR94NWHL.360
NR94SYLH.090
3 KO95TTRI.360
Mean Coef
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-76 Coefficient Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5 Oscillators
having DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
SP88GUKA.360
LP89CORR.090
2 NR94CENT.360
IV79ARY7.140
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-77 Secant Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5 Oscillators having
DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
2 LN92JOSH.360
MX85SCT1.270
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
CH85LLEO.010
CH85VALP.070
4 IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
LN92JOSH.360
3 MX85SCT1.270
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-78 Secant Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5 Oscillators having
DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
LP89SARA.360
NR94NWHL.360
2 NR94SYLH.090
KO95TTRI.360
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
IV79BRWY.315
4 LP89SARA.360
NR94NWHL.360
NR94SYLH.090
3 KO95TTRI.360
Mean Sec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-79 Secant Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5 Oscillators having
DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
SP88GUKA.360
LP89CORR.090
2 NR94CENT.360
IV79ARY7.140
Mean CapSpec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-80 Capacity Spectrum Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5
Oscillators having DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
CH85VALP.070
IV40ELCN.180
TB78TABS.344
2 LN92JOSH.360
MX85SCT1.270
Mean CapSpec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-81 Capacity Spectrum Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5
Oscillators having DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
IV79BRWY.315
LP89SARA.360
NR94NWHL.360
2 NR94SYLH.090
KO95TTRI.360
Mean CapSpec
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Period, T (sec)
Figure 6-82 Capacity Spectrum Method Estimates of Displacement Ratio of RSR=0.6 and RSR=1.0 Takeda5
Oscillators having DDD= 8 and PDD= 1
DDD = Design Displacement Ductility; PDD = Prior Ductility Demand; RSR = Reduced Strength Ratio
6.7 Conclusions and While prior damage causes relatively small changes in
mean displacement response relative to undamaged
Implications structures, it also introduces some variability in
The analyses presented indicate that the displacement displacement response. Variability in response is
response characteristics of the ground motions gener- inherent in earthquake-resistant design, and the
ally conform to expectations based on previous studies. variability introduced by prior damage should be
Forward-directivity motions may have larger displace- considered in the context of variability arising from
ment response in the long-period range than would be different ground motions, choice of hysteretic models,
predicted by the equal-displacement rule. The strength- modeling assumptions, and other sources. For example,
reduction factor, R, appropriate for forward-directivity Figures 6-32 to 6-34 illustrate the degree to which
motions may need to be reduced somewhat relative to different earthquakes can cause bilinear and Takeda
other classes of motion if ductility demands are to be oscillators of equal strength to have substantially
held constant. different peak displacement response. Thus, the
variability in response introduced by prior damage is
The displacements of the Takeda oscillators were not considered significant.
sometimes several-fold greater or less than those of the
bilinear oscillators. Although it is fundamentally Three NSPs for estimating peak displacement response
important to consider displacements in seismic were applied to the Takeda oscillators. Significant
response, variability of the response estimates as variability in the estimated displacements, when
affected by ground motions and hysteresis model must compared with the values calculated from nonlinear
also be considered. dynamic analysis, underscores the difficulty in
accurately estimating response of a SDOF system to a
Previous damage, modeled as prior ductility demand, known ground motion. The accuracy of the NSP
did not generally cause large increases in displacement estimates is compared in Figure 6-63. In Figure 6-64 it
response when the Takeda models with positive post- can be observed that the capacity spectrum and
yield stiffness were exposed to performance-level coefficient methods are more accurate, in a mean sense,
earthquakes associated with life safety or collapse pre- than the secant method, and that all methods tend to
vention. Prior ductility demands were found to cause overestimate the displacement response of short-period
mean changes in displacement response ranging from Takeda5 oscillators.
–3% to +10% for the Takeda5 and TakPinch oscillators
having no strength degradation (Figures 6-55 and 6-56). The NSPs were also used to estimate the change in
PDDs of 8 often caused a slight decrease in the displacement caused by a prior earthquake. Given the
displacement response computed using the Takeda5 and relatively small effect of damage on peak displacement
TakPinch models; response infrequently was 20% to response, it appears that damaged structures should be
30% or more higher than that for the undamaged modeled similar to their undamaged counterparts, in
oscillator. order to obtain identical displacement estimates for
performance events that are stronger than the damaging
For oscillators having cyclic strength degradation, event. This results in damage having no effect on the
represented by the TakPinch oscillators, the effect of displacement response, which closely approximates the
strength degradation was generally to increase the mean analytical results.
displacement response, but only by a few percent. The
mean increase was larger for the structures having lower The accuracy with which an NSP accounts for strength
DDD, reaching as much as 21% for oscillators having reduction was explored. It was found that each NSP was
RSR = 0.6. This result merely indicates that strength reasonably able to capture the effect of strength
degradation tends to cause displacement response to reduction.
increase relative to undamaged or nondegrading sys-
tems. Further examination revealed that increasing PDD The above findings pertain to systems characterized by
increases or decreases the mean response of TakPinch ductile flexural response having degrading stiffness,
systems with strength degradation by only a few percent with and without pinching. Systems with negative post-
(Figure 6-56). The weaker oscillators, represented by yield stiffness were prone to collapse, even with DDD
larger DDD, are more likely to exhibit damage in a real of 2. Such systems should remain nearly elastic if their
earthquake, and to have smaller increases in collapse is to be avoided.
displacement due to prior ductility demands.
Newmark, N.M., and Riddell, R., 1979, “A Statistical Proceedings of the Seventh World Conference on
Study of Inelastic Response Spectra,” Proceedings Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 4, pp. 427-433.
of the Second U.S. National Conference on Earth-
Saiidi, M., 1980, “Influence of Hysteresis Models on
quake Engineering, pp. 495-504.
Calculated Seismic Response of R/C Frames,” Pro-
Otani, S., 1981, “Hysteresis Models of Reinforced Con- ceedings of the Seventh World Conference on
crete for Earthquake Response Analysis,” Journal Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 5, pp. 423-430.
(B), Faculty of Engineering, University of Tokyo,
Sewell, R.T., 1992, “Effects of Duration on Structural
Vol. XXXVI, No. 2, pp. 125 - 159.
Response Factors and on Ground Motion Damage-
Palazzo, B., and DeLuca, A., 1984, “Inelastic Spectra ability,” Proceedings of the SMIP92 Seminar on
for Geometrical and Mechanical Deteriorating Seismological and Engineering Implications of
Oscillator,” Proceedings of the Eighth World Con- Recent Strong Motion Data, pp. 7-1 to 7-15.
ference on Earthquake Engineering, Volume IV, pp.
Shimazaki, K., and M.A. Sozen, M.A., 1984, Seismic
91-98.
Drift of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Research
Parducci, A., and Mezzi, M., 1984, “Elasto-Plastic Reports, Hasama-Gumi Ltd., Tokyo (in Japanese),
Response Spectra of Italian Earthquakes Taking and draft research report (in English).
into Account the Structural Decay,” Proceedings of
Somerville, P.G., Smith, N.F. , Graves, R.W. and Abra-
the Eighth World Conference on Earthquake Engi-
hamson, N.A., 1997, “Modification of Empirical
neering, Volume IV, pp. 115-122.
Strong Ground Motion Attenuation Relations to
Paulay, T, and Priestley, M.J.N., 1992, Reinforced Con- Include the Amplitude and Duration Effects of Rup-
crete and Masonry Buildings: Design for Seismic ture Directivity,” Seismological Research Letters,
Resistance, Wiley & Sons, New York. Vol. 68, No. 1.
Qi, X., and Moehle, J.P., 1991, Displacement Design Takeda, T., Sozen, M.A., and Nielsen, N.N., 1970,
Approach for Reinforced Concrete Structures Sub- “Reinforced Concrete Response to Simulated
jected to Earthquakes, Earthquake Engineering Earthquakes,” Journal of the Structural Division,
Research Center, Report No. UCB/EERC 91/02, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 96, No.
University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, Cali- ST12, pp. 2557-2573.
fornia.
Wolschlag, C., 1993, Experimental Investigation of the
Rahnama, M., and Krawinkler, H., 1995, “Effects of P- Response of R/C Structural Walls Subjected to
Delta and Strength Deterioration on SDOF Strength Static and Dynamic Loading, Doctoral Thesis,
Demands”, Proceedings of the 10th European Con- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illi-
ference on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. nois at Urbana.
1265-1270. Xie, L.-L., and Zhang, X., 1988, “Engineering Duration
Riddell, R., 1980, “Effect of Damping and Type of of Strong Motion and its Effects on Seismic Dam-
Material Nonlinearity on Earthquake Response,” age,” Proceedings of the Ninth World Conference
on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 2, Paper 3-2-7.
1 Introduction
2 Investigation
2.1 Building Description
2.2 Damage Observations
2.3 Preliminary Classification (by Observation)
of Component Types, Behavior Modes, and
Damage Severity.
2.4 Final Classification (by Analysis) of
Component Types, Behavior Modes, and
Damage Severity
2.5 Summary of Component Classifications
illustrated, and a relative performance analysis is car- In the lower level there are several reinforced concrete
ried out. It is emphasized that the direct method pro- masonry (CMU) walls that are framed between the
vides only loss estimation information, and that a ground and the first floor slab (basement level) in the
relative performance analysis is required in order to three-story section of the building. The CMU walls are
make performance-based design decisions. attached to the first floor slab. However, these walls
were not designed as shear-resisting elements. Because
Damage records for all of the structural walls of the the first floor slab is anchored to the foundation in the
building are included. The damage records for two of two-story portion of the building, the contribution of the
the walls are discussed in detail. Damage records for the CMU walls to the lateral force resistance, particularly in
remaining walls are given at the end of the example. the east-west direction, is minimal.
6 7 8 9 10 11
6'
N
3 2 '-4 "
M
26'
Edge of
L
F lo o r S la b 26'
K
26'
B u ild in g J
Facade 26'
H
1 2 3 4 13 14 15 16
6 ' (T y p )
F
2 1 '-6 "
E
T y p ic a l S o lid R e in fo rc e d 26'
D
C o n c re te W a ll
26'
C
T y p ic a l C o u p le d 26'
B
R e in fo rc e d C o n c re te W a ll
2 1 '-6 "
A
3 2 '-4 " 26' 26' 26' 26' 26' 26' 26' 26' 26' 26' 26' 3 2 '-4 "
6 7 8 9 10 11
6' (Typ)
N
Reinforced Concrete Wall 32'-4"
M
26'
L
26'
Edge of K
J
26'
A B C D E F H J L M N
G
Roof
2nd
1st
Basement
C D
R oof
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in .
E ach Face
1 3 '- 6 " 1 8 in . S q C o lu m n
(T y p )
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in .
E ach Face S econd
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in .
1 3 '- 6 " E ach Face
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in . E a c h F a c e 5 " S la b O n
F irs t G ra d e
1 '- 6 "
6' Sq
9 0 ° H o o k ( T y p a t B o tto m ) F o o tin g
2 6 '- 0 "
6 7
2 # 1 0 B a rs # 4 S ti r r u p s @ 1 2 " R oof
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in . E a c h
Face
1 3 '- 6 " 2 # 1 0 B a rs 1 8 in . S q C o lu m n
4' E xt (T yp )
2 # 9 B a rs
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in . E a c h F a c e
3' Lap S econd
18" Lap
2 # 1 0 B a rs # 4 S ti r r u p s
@ 12"
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in . E a c h F a c e
1 3 '- 6 " 2 # 1 0 B a rs
# 4 B a rs @ 1 3 in . E a c h F a c e
3 # 1 0 B a rs
5 " S la b O n
3' G ra d e
F irs t
1 '- 6 "
6 ' S q F o o tin g
3 # 1 0 H o o k s (T yp )
9 0 ° H o o k (T y p a t B o tto m )
2 6 '- 0 "
Below the ceiling the cracks may also have been D19. Each of the component damage records depicts
injected with epoxy. However, the architectural finishes the observations for both stories of a two-story wall,
on those surfaces obscured the evidence of the previous except for the single-story wall on the lower level
repairs. Many of the cracks in the plaster coat on the shown on Record D19. All observable cracks are
walls appeared to have been cosmetically repaired using shown, but only those cracks found to be wider than 30
a strip of fabric and plaster placed over the crack. It was mils (1/32 inch) have the crack width, in mils, written
not clear whether the underlying cracks in the concrete on the component damage record at the approximate
had been repaired. Therefore, the building is assumed to location of the measurement. Cracks found to be
have some cracking prior to the damaging earthquake previously repaired with epoxy and those with pre-
and the pre-existing cracking is taken into account by existing surface patches are indicated. Spalls are also
reducing the pre-event stiffness of the concrete walls. noted.
7.2.2.2 Postearthquake Condition and The two first-story coupled walls in the stem of the T
Damage Documentation section of the building experienced heavy cracking in
The concrete walls experienced minor the coupling beams (Column lines 7 and 10, L to M,
to moderate amounts of cracking. Based Documen- Component Damage Records D4 and D6). One of the
on the visual observations, component tation of other coupling beams (Column Line B, 14 to 15, Record
damage, D12) also experienced heavy cracking. The damage to
damage records were prepared for each Section 3.7
of the walls in the building. These forms of FEMA 306 the coupling beams included some spalling of the con-
are included as Figures 7-6, 7-7, and in crete, buckling of reinforcing bars, and cracking of the
Appendix A, Component Damage Records D1 through floor slab adjacent to the wall. Several walls were
observed to have horizontal cracks along the interface 5-3 of FEMA 306 are also helpful in identifying behav-
between the top of the wall and the floor slab above. ior modes appropriate to the identified components.
7.2.3 Preliminary Classification (by For the typical coupled wall shown in Figure 7-7, the
Observation) of Component coupling beam component (RC3) on the second floor is
Types, Behavior Modes, and observed to have light diagonal (shear) cracking, with
Damage Severity little or no evidence of flexural cracking. As is typical
of a building designed in the late 1950s, the coupling
The first critical step in interpreting beam does not contain diagonal reinforcement, or even
Component
component damage records is to iden- types, sufficient stirrup reinforcement, so mode A (ductile
tify the components within the struc- Table 5-1 of flexure) may be safely eliminated. The diagonal cracks
tural element under investigation. In FEMA 306 then suggest that the behavior mode may be either mode
this case, the example building is rein- B (flexure/diagonal tension) or mode H (preemptive
forced concrete, so the summary of relevant component diagonal tension). At the first floor coupling beams, the
types is found in Sections 2.4 and 5.2.1 of FEMA 306. damage is more severe, but the behavior mode still
appears to be either B or H.
7.2.3.1 Component Types
The first pass in the identification process is conducted In the first floor coupling beam, identi-
by observation, keeping in mind that the definition of a fication of the damage severity is rela- Component
tively straightforward: the observed Guides,
component type is not a function of the geometry alone, Section 5.5
but of the governing mechanism of lateral deformation damage would be classified as Heavy of FEMA 306
for the entire element or structure. Thus the identifica- regardless of the behavior mode. In
tion of structural components requires consideration of many cases, however, the damage severity level may
the wall element over multiple floor levels. Complete depend on the behavior mode. In the second floor cou-
diagrams showing the crack pattern over multiple floor pling beam, for example, the damage would be classi-
levels such as the ones shown in the attached damage fied as Insignificant if the behavior mode is identified as
records shown in Figures 7-6, 7-7 and Damage Records B (flexure followed by diagonal tension), but as Moder-
D1 through D19 (Appendix A) are essential. ate if the behavior mode is identified as H (preemptive
diagonal tension).
For the typical coupled wall elements
of the example building, shown in Component Similarly, the wall piers of the coupled walls (RC1)
Figure 7-7, a survey of the element identification, have light diagonal cracking, which may be indicative
Section 2.4 of early stages of mode B (flexure/diagonal tension),
geometry and the general pattern of of FEMA 306
damage suggests that the beams over early stages of mode C (flexure/diagonal compression)
the openings may be classified as weaker coupling or more advanced stages of mode H (preemptive diago-
beams (RC3), and that the wall piers flanking the open- nal tension). In the first two cases, damage would be
ings will behave as two-story cantilever components classified as Insignificant, while in the last case, dam-
(RC1). The thought process that leads to this conclusion age would be classified as Moderate.
includes the recognition that the beam elements are
likely to be weaker than the walls on either side of the It is often not possible to distinguish
coupling beams, as well as a mental visualization of the between the different behavior modes, Verification
and hence the damage severity, with- loop,
lateral deformation of the walls and the attendant large Figure 1-3 of
deformation demands on the beams. As shown in out some analysis. This is particularly FEMA 306
Figure 7-6, the solid reinforced concrete wall compo- important for lower levels of damage
nent is type RC1. where different modes may look very much alike, but
which have different response at higher levels of dam-
7.2.3.2 Behavior Modes and Damage Severity age. Consider, for example, modes B and H. The flex-
ural cracks that initiate mode B response may have
Once the component types have been closed and become nearly invisible. The light diagonal
identified, an initial classification of the Behavior cracking that occurs at the outset of both modes B and
behavior modes and damage severity modes,
Table 5-2 of H will then be indistinguishable from one another, and
may be made by inspecting the visible FEMA 306 only analysis of the section will differentiate the two
damage with reference to the compo- modes, and hence the severity of damage. In other
nent damage classification guides. Tables 5-1, 5-2, and cases, the differences between modes are of less impor-
tance. Modes B and C are physically different, but have sary to perform some analysis to distinguish between
a similar effect on the stiffness, strength, and deforma- behavior modes that are different but visually similar.
tion capacity of the component at all levels of damage As a first example, consider the damage record for the
severity. wall shown in Figure 7-6. The wall is 12 inches thick
with 18-inch square boundary elements at each end.
7.2.4 Final Classification (by The wall length from center to center of the boundary
Analysis) of Component Type, elements is 26 feet, and the story height is 13 feet-6
Behavior Mode and Damage inches. Note that the wall is L-shaped in plan and has a
Severity 26-foot return along line B.
In the previous section, component type, behavior Component Type. The definition of this wall as a sin-
mode, and damage severity were preliminarily defined gle RC1 component (isolated wall or stronger wall pier)
based only on observation. In this section, those defini- is easily and intuitively verified by sketching the inelas-
tions are verified by calculation. In practice, iterations tic deformation mechanism for the wall and its sur-
between observation and analysis may be needed to rounding structure. The slabs framing into the wall
interpret correctly the seismic response and damage. clearly do not have the stiffness or strength to force a
“weaker wall” type of behavior. The wall is therefore a
7.2.4.1 Expected Strength single component with a height of 27 feet.
The expected pre-earthquake strengths
for each of the components were cal- Expected Behavior Mode. The preliminary
strength, classification identified four possible Component
culated using the FEMA 306 Section 3.6 guides,
Section 3.6 procedures. The design of FEMA 306
behavior modes for this component RC1B, RC1C,
concrete strength was shown on the that were consistent with the compo- and RC2H,
drawings to be 3000 psi. According to the discussion in nent type and the observed damage: Section 5.5
mode B (flexure/diagonal tension), of FEMA 306
FEMA 306, Section 5.3.2, expected concrete strengths
ranging from 1.0 to 2.3 times the specified strength are mode C (flexure/diagonal compres-
not unrealistic. In the example building, concrete sion), mode H (preemptive diagonal tension), and mode
strength was suspect, so tests were conducted which M (foundation rocking). For each of these behavior
revealed that expected strength was, in fact, near the modes, Component Guides provide, in addition to the
specified strength. For the purposes of the following visual description of the different behavior modes, guid-
analysis an expected strength of 3000 psi was assumed. ance in the analytical steps required to verify a particu-
Based on the drawing notes, reinforcing bars had a lar behavior mode. See for example the Component
specified yield strength of 40 ksi. The expected strength Damage Classification Guide RC1B under “How to dis-
of the reinforcing bars was assumed to be greater than tinguish behavior mode by analysis”. Based on the rec-
the nominal yield strength by a factor of 1.25, so a value ommendations of the guide, the shear associated with
of 50 ksi was used for the yield strength in all calcula- the development of the maximum strength in flexure,
tions. If, during the course of the analysis, it becomes diagonal tension, web crushing, and foundation rocking
difficult to reconcile analytically determined behavior were calculated. Calculation results are summarized in
modes with observed damage, assumed values for Table 7-1. Selected details of the calculations are pro-
material strength may need to be re-evaluated or veri- vided in the box on 192.
fied through tests.
The relationship between capacities of the different
There are two typical element types in the lateral-force- potential behavior modes defines the governing compo-
resisting system, solid walls and coupled walls. The fol- nent behavior mode. Initially, consider the first five
lowing sections describe the details of the calculations modes listed in Table 7-1, temporarily neglecting the
and methodology used to classify the components of overturning (foundation rocking) response. Because the
these elements. wall is flanged, its response depends on the direction of
seismic force, and the flexural capacity must be calcu-
7.2.4.2 Example 1 – Solid Wall (2B-2C) lated for each direction. It is possible that a different
behavior mode will govern in each of the two different
Once a preliminary damage classification has been loading directions. In this example, the diagonal tension
made by visual observation, it will generally be neces- strength at low ductility is less than the flexural strength
Table 7-1 Capacity of Potential Behavior Modes for Typical Solid Wall (2B-2C)
Behavior Mode Shear FEMA 306 Comments
Capacity Reference
(kips)
Flexure (modes A & B) – flange 1570* Sect. 5.3.5 All distributed reinforcement is included
in compression in the calculation of flexural strength, as is
the contribution of the flange reinforce-
Me = 31,300 k-ft ment.
Me = 44,600 k-ft
Diagonal Tension (B & H) – at 1350 Sect. 5.3.6b Low ductility implies µ ≤ 2 and high duc-
low flexural ductility tility implies µ ≥ 5, but for this example
the exact displacement ductility is not
Diagonal Tension (B) – at high 851 Sect. 5.3.6b important. Capacity at high ductility does
flexural ductility not govern, since flexural yielding does
not occur.
Web crushing (C) 2560 Sect. 5.3.6c
Overturning (M) – flange in com- 343 Sect. 5.2.6 When the flange is in tension, the vertical
pression Me = 6,860 k-ft load includes dead load contribution of
flange.
Overturning (M) – flange in ten- 923 Sect. 5.2.6
sion Me = 18,000 k-ft
* Shear associated with development of the moment strength
in either loading direction, so mode H (preemptive restoring force. However, the overturning value calcu-
diagonal tension) appears to be the governing the lated is sufficiently less than the other behavior modes
behavior mode. In either direction, web crushing can be to suggest that damage will be limited by rocking on the
eliminated as a potential behavior mode since its capac- foundation. Mode M is therefore the behavior mode for
ity is greater than that of all of the other modes. In the the wall.
absence of overturning, mode H would therefore be
selected as the behavior mode for this component. Damage Severity. The identification of the rocking
behavior mode is important, because the damage sever-
Additional calculations indicate, however, that founda- ity is different for mode M than for mode H. While
tion rocking (overturning of the wall and its foundation) there is no explicit Component Damage Classification
will occur before the other failure modes can develop. Guide provided for the rocking mode—the component
This is indicated in the last two rows of Table 7-1, may be considered as roughly analogous to the portion
where overturning capacity with the flange in compres- of a flexural wall (mode A) above the plastic hinge
sion is shown to be less than other behavior modes. As region—there is a ductile fuse in the structure below the
shown in the example calculations (see sidebar), the component in question that will prevent the develop-
foundation rocking capacity is based on the static over- ment of the brittle, force-controlled behavior mode H
turning force associated with all tributary gravity loads. by limiting the development of additional seismic force.
In reality, there are a number of factors that would Using this analogy, and Component Guide RC1A, the
increase the force required to overturn the wall, so the damage severity is classified as Insignificant. Without
calculated value may be a lower bound. For example, as the rocking mechanism, the behavior mode would be
the foundation lifts, it will pick up an increasing tribu- classified as H, and the damage severity would be Mod-
tary area of the surrounding slabs, thus increasing the erate rather than Insignificant. It is important to note
that the damage severity is not a function of the mode B (flexure / diagonal tension) or mode H (pre-
observed crack pattern alone – the governing behavior emptive diagonal tension), and the wall piers were des-
mode must be known before a judgement of the damage ignated as mode B (flexure / diagonal tension), mode C
severity can be made. (flexure / diagonal compression), mode H (preemptive
diagonal tension), or mode N (individual pier rocking).
7.2.4.3 Example 2 – Coupled Wall (7L-7M) As in the first example, the shears associated with the
development of the maximum strength in flexure, diag-
As an example of the second typical wall element type,
onal tension, and web crushing were calculated, with
consider the damage record for the coupled wall shown
results summarized in Tables 7-2 and 7-3. Selected
in Figure 7-7. Like the solid wall example, the wall is
details of the calculations are provided for reference on
12 inches wide with 18-inch-square boundary elements
pages 196 through 198.
at each end. However, there is a 6'-6" wide by 7'-3" tall
opening in the center of the wall at each floor. The wall
Looking first at the RC3 coupling beam component, the
length from center to center of the boundary elements is
calculation results shown in Table 7-2 indicate that the
26 feet, and the story height is 13'-6". The coupled wall
shear strength will be reached before the development
has an L-shaped plan with a 26-foot flange along line
of the moment strength, even at low ductility levels, so
M. The coupling beam and wall are similar to the exam-
the behavior mode H (preemptive diagonal tension)
ple shown in Figure 7-5, except that this particular cou-
governs.
pled wall is discontinuous below the first floor and is
supported on 24-inch-square reinforced-concrete col-
For the RC1 wall pier components, the calculations and
umns at the basement.
discussions that follow show that behavior mode N,
individual pier rocking, governs the seismic response.
Component Type. Visual observation leads to the divi-
For the piers of the coupled wall, which discontinue
sion of this structural element into two RC1 wall piers
below the first floor and are supported on basement col-
and two RC3 coupling beams. Analysis will verify that
umns, this behavior mode involves the yielding in flex-
the beams are weaker than the walls, and thus that the
ure of the basement columns and the coupling beams
initial classification is valid.
reaching their capacity in shear. The wall pier rotates
Behavior Mode. In the preliminary classification, the about the supporting column in a manner similar to
coupling beams were designated by observation as
Table 7-2 Capacity of Potential Behavior Modes for Typical Coupling Beam
Coupling Beams Limiting Compo- FEMA 306 Comments
RC3 Behavior Mode nent Shear (kips) Reference
Flexure (mode A) 373* Sect. 5.3.5 Note that slab reinforcement was
Me = 1210 k-ft ignored in the calculation of the beam
flexure capacity. Since preemptive
shear governs (242 < 373), this is irrel-
evant. A more accurate calculation
would be warranted if the capacities in
the different modes were similar.
Diagonal Tension (B and H) – 242 Sect. 5.3.6b Governing capacity
at low flexural ductility
Diagonal Tension (B) – at 137 Sect. 5.3.6b This capacity does not govern since
high flexural ductility flexural yielding does not occur.
Sliding Shear (D) 150 Sect. 5.3.6c This mode is unlikely since it typically
occurs after flexural yielding. Such
yielding is not expected since preemp-
tive diagonal tension governs over
flexural response.
* Component shear in beam associated with development of the component moment strength
foundation rocking. Free body diagrams corresponding The limiting component shears associated with possible
to this mechanism and behavior mode are shown in the behavior modes for the wall piers are summarized in
example calculations that follow. Table 7-3. The table verifies that the web crushing
(diagonal compression) can be eliminated as a possible
Comparison of the moment demands corresponding to behavior mode because the capacity is much higher
the behavior mode N to moment capacities of the wall than that corresponding to other behavior modes.
pier sections is shown in the example calculations. The Behavior mode H, preemptive diagonal tension, is
moment demands are well below the moment capaci- investigated by comparing the limiting shears to those
ties, indicating that flexural yielding will not occur. This of mode N.
eliminates modes B (flexure/diagonal tension) and C
(flexure/diagonal compression) as possible behavior Diagonal tension capacities at high ductility are only
modes. relevant for the combined flexure/diagonal tension
behavior mode, which will not occur since flexural
yielding and the consequent degradation of the Vc com- crack and suspected that sliding shear behavior may
ponent of shear strength does not occur. The relevant have occurred.
diagonal tension capacities are those at low ductility.
Subsequent thinking by the evaluating engineers about
The diagonal tension capacities of 311k (RC1@7L-load this observation, however, weighed against the conclu-
to west) to 328k (RC1@7M-load to east) for the wall sion of sliding shear behavior. The crack was not
piers subject to axial tension are similar to the shear observed to extend into the boundary columns of the
demands in the pier rotation mode after failure of the wall, and there was no evidence of lateral offset at the
coupling beams; however, there is significant capacity boundary columns. While the crack is located near a
of 690k (RC1@7L-load to east) to 692k (RC1@7M- likely construction joint where poor construction prac-
load to west) in diagonal tension on the corresponding tice can exacerbate sliding shear behavior, the crack is
compression sides of the wall. A diagonal tension fail- not located in the maximum moment region of the wall.
ure cannot fully develop on one side of the coupled wall As is indicated in FEMA 306, sliding shear behavior is
without transferring lateral forces to the other side of most likely to occur after flexural yielding has occurred.
the wall. Considering that shear can be transferred as For this wall, flexural yielding would initiate at the base
axial forces in the coupling beam and slab according to of the wall where moments are at a maximum, not at the
the stiffness and strength of each wall pier, the sum of top. In any case, foundation rocking preempts flexural
wall pier component strengths on each side of the cou- yielding for the typical solid wall, as indicated previ-
pled wall can be used to determine the governing behav- ously in this example. A quick calculation of sliding
ior mode. For the individual pier rotation behavior, the shear strength shows that the behavior mode is not
associated total shear demand is 630k on the coupled expected to govern the wall’s response.
wall element. For a diagonal tension behavior mode
occurring in both wall piers, the associated shear capac- Given this information, the damage observations are
ity is 1003k to 1018k. Diagonal tension failure will not reconsidered, and it is judged that sliding movements
govern, since the pier rotation behavior mode occurs at did not occur at the horizontal crack. Therefore, the
a lower total lateral load. Thus, the results of the analyt- most likely explanation is that these horizontal cracks
ical calculations indicate the pier rotation (N) is the are caused by earthquake displacements in the out-of-
governing behavior mode for the RC1 components. plane direction of the wall. It is judged that the horizon-
This analytical conclusion agrees with field observa- tal cracks, whose widths are less than 0.03 inches, do
tion. The degree of diagonal cracking observed in the not significantly affect seismic response.
wall pier RC1 components is consistent with substantial
shear stress, but less than that which might be expected 7.2.6 Summary of Component
for diagonal tension failure. Classifications
Damage Severity. For the RC3 components behaving 7.2.6.1 Solid Walls
in mode H, the damage classification guides indicate All wall components of the building are evaluated in a
that the observed damage is Moderate in the second similar manner, as described in the preceding sections.
story and Heavy in the first story coupling beam. In the In total, the building has six coupled walls plus five
wall piers, the protection of the element by a ductile solid walls acting in the North-South direction, and two
mode (similar to mode N, Foundation Rocking) in sur- coupled walls plus six solid walls acting in the East-
rounding components places them in an Insignificant West direction. The damage records for these walls can
damage category. be found in Component Damage Records D1–D19
(Appendix A).
7.2.5 Other Damage Observations
Each solid wall is a single structural component (RC1),
Several of the walls were observed to have horizontal
while each coupled wall has four components: two cou-
cracks just below the roof slab and/or the second-floor
pling beams (RC3) and two wall piers (RC1). Thus
slab. In addition to new cracks of this type, a few walls
there are a total of 43 structural wall components in the
had pre-existing horizontal cracks below the slabs,
building, as indicated in Tables 7-4 and 7-5. For each of
which had been repaired by epoxy injection. The widest
these, the component type, behavior mode and damage
of these horizontal cracks occurred under the roof slab
severity is established as described below and shown in
of the wall on column lines 7C-7D, as shown in the
the tables.
Component Damage Record D3. The engineer in the
field indicated that joint movement occurred at this
Vc = 127 kips at low ductility The moment capacity and demand for the RC1 components
must be determined with respect to the same axis. For
RC1@L the elastic centroid is selected. For RC1@M the
Vc = 22 kips at high ductility elastic centroid of the component neglecting the return wall
is used as the axis. When the return wall is in compression it
The steel contribution is given by Equation 5-5 contributes little to the flexural strength of the wall pier.
However, when in tension, the reinforcment in the return
Vs = ρ n f ye bw h d increases moment strength. Therefore, in the capacity cal-
culations, the vertical reinforcment in approximately 10 ft.
where ρn = .00256 is based on the vertical (stirrup) rein- of return is included. This distance is estimated in accor-
forcement, fye = 50 ksi is the expected steel yield strength, dance with FEMA 306 Section 5.3.5b as 50% to 100% of
the M/Vfor the entire wall.
bw = 12", and hd = 75" is the horizontal length over which
vertical stirrup reinforcement contributes to shear strength, The flexural demand and capacity of the RC1 components
in this case the length of the coupling beam. Thus are summarized in the following table:
Vs = 115 kips
L M L M
26' 26'
18 k 18 k 18 k 18 k
242 k 242 k
35 k 35 k
443 ft-k 280 ft-k (Col. moment capacity 248 ft-k 431 ft-k (Col. moment capacity
@ associated axial load)
at associated axial load)
773 k Axial forces in RC1 215 k 265 k Axial forces in RC1 823 k
(comp.) components (ten.) (ten.) components (comp.)
Free Body Diagram for Seismic Forces to East Free Body Diagram for Seismic Forces to West
x x x x
Roof Roof
Second Second
1253 121 170 1295
First First
3960 1482 1657 4156
Moment Diagram(@ centroid of piers) for Load to East Moment Diagram(@ centroid of piers) for Load to West
(plotted on tension side in k-ft) (plotted on tension side in k-ft)
L M
26'
x x
18’’ 12’’
Return wall
126’’ (wall flange)
Plan
Distance to the elastic centroid from gridline:
X={ [126(12)126/2+2(18)3(9)] / [126(12)+2(18)3] } - 9
= 50.2” or 4.2’
The equations in Section 5.3.6 of FEMA 306 were again The compressive axial load contribution is given by
used to calculate the diagonal tension strength. Equation 5-6.
Vn = Vc + Vs + V p Vp =
al − c f N
w u
The typical solid walls were calculated to behave in a the appropriate potential repairs to restore each compo-
foundation rocking (or overturning) mode (type M). nent.
There are no damage guides for this behavior mode.
However, component behavior description in FEMA The potential repairs required to restore the structural
306 considers this mode to have moderate to high duc- performance and nonstructural functionality of the
tility. The damage associated with this behavior mode building include both structural and nonstructural (e.g.,
may not be apparent based on the observations of the cosmetic) measures for each damaged component.
walls. Damage to other structural and nonstructural ele-
ments, such as damage to the floor slab at the base or to 7.3.1 Structural Restoration Measures
the beams framing into the ends of the walls, should be
7.3.1.1 Coupling Beams
used to assess the severity of the mode. Since there was
no significant damage to the adjacent structural and As shown in Tables 7-4 and 7-5, three
nonstructural elements, the damage severity is judged to of the coupling beams were classified Damage
guide for
be Insignificant. as component type RC3, behavior RC3H,
mode H, having Heavy damage. As Table 5-2 of
7.2.6.2 Coupling Beams recommended for this component FEMA 306
Based on calculations, the behavior mode of the cou- type, behavior mode, and damage
pling beams is Preemptive Diagonal Tension (Type H). severity, the component restoration measure chosen is
Based on the damage observations and the component to replace these components. The proposed repair
guides, the damage for the coupling beams with spal- would be to remove the concrete at the coupling beam
ling, bar-buckling, and/or significant cracking was clas- and a portion of the floor slab, install new reinforcing
sified as Heavy. For the coupling beams with shear bars, and cast new concrete for the wall. The new
cracking, but no bar-buckling or significant spalling, the reinforcing steel in the coupling beams would be
damage is Moderate. detailed in accordance with the current provisions of the
governing building code for coupled shear walls, as
7.2.6.3 Wall Piers shown in Figure 7-8.
The walls adjacent to the coupling beams are expected The coupling beams with Moderate damage could be
to behave in a mode of indiviudal pier rocking (type N). repaired by epoxy injection of all diagonal shear cracks
Thre are no Component Guides for this behavior mode. greater than 10 mils wide, since epoxy injection is rec-
However, the component behavior description for this ommended for structural restoration using the damage
mode of behavior considers this mode to have moderate guide for RC3H. Although it is possible to inject
to high ductility. Similar to the solid shear walls, the smaller cracks, the additional cost does not justify the
lack of damage to the adjacent structural and nonstruc- marginal benefit. Since cracks as large as 12 mils can be
tural elements was used to classify the damage as Insig- tolerated in normal concrete structures (ACI, 1994), the
nificant. unrepaired cracks should not be detrimental. The length
of the cracks to be injected is estimated as 100 feet.
7.3 Evaluation by the Direct 7.3.1.2 Solid Walls
Method The remaining wall components are type N or M. There
The effects of damage are quantified are no Component Guides for these modes to indicate
by the costs associated with potential Hypothetical the appropriate repairs directly. As discussed earlier,
repairs for
repairs (component restoration mea- direct
these modes have moderate to high ductility capacity.
sures), which if implemented, would method, Conservatively, the damage guide for Type B, flexure /
restore the components to their pre- Section 4.6 diagonal tension, is used since this is a moderate ductil-
event condition. In the direct method, of FEMA 306 ity mode, analogous to the actual behavior mode. The
restoration measures are considered on Component Guides for the type RC1B components
a component-by-component basis without an analysis indicate that if cracks are less than 1/16 inch, the dam-
of global performance. It is intended to be a simple and age can be classified as Insignificant, and therefore
approximate approach. The Component Damage Clas- structural repairs are not necessary. Two of the shear
sification Guides in FEMA 306 are used to determine wall components had cracks that exceeded 1/16 inch.
This amount of cracking would be classified as Moder-
Table 7-4 Summary of Component Type, Behavior Mode, and Damage Severity for Wall Components
(North-South Direction)
Table 7-5 Summary of Component Type, Behavior Mode, and Damage Severity for Wall Components
(East-West Direction)
ate for type B behavior. Epoxy injection is recom- In addition, many of the suspended ceiling tiles became
mended in the Component Damage Classification dislodged and fell during the earthquake. The nonstruc-
Guides for these cracks. Thus, for performance restora- tural repairs would include replacing the ceiling tiles.
tion by the direct method, these walls would have all of
the cracks exceeding 1/16 inch repaired by injection 7.3.3 Restoration Summary and Cost
with epoxy. The total length of crack to be injected is
estimated at 22 feet. Table 7-6 summarizes the performance restoration mea-
sures and estimated costs. Additional costs related to
Spalls (other than at the coupling beams that are being inspection, evaluation, design, management and indi-
replaced) could be repaired by application of a concrete rect costs may also be involved.
repair mortar to restore the visual appearance. The total
volume of concrete spalls is estimated to be 3 cubic 7.4 Evaluation by Performance
feet.
Analysis
7.3.2 Nonstructural Restoration The use of the direct method is limited to an estimate of
Measures the loss associated with the damaging earthquake. It
The wall components with visible cracks could be cannot be used to evaluate actual performance. For
repaired by patching the cracks with plaster, and then these purposes, relative performance analysis as
painting the entire wall. This repair is only intended to described in FEMA 306 is used. The basic procedure
restore the visual appearance of the wall. Restoration of comprises a comparison of the anticipated performance
other nonstructural characteristics, such as water tight- of the building in future earthquakes in its pre-event,
ness and fire protection, are not necessary in this damaged, and repaired conditions. This comparison
instance. may be made for one or more performance objectives.
Roof
Elevation
# 4 Stirrups @
6 inches
Floor Slab
Section
1.2
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (Sec)
The building was also checked for immediate occu- that represent the wall section stiffness. Rigid end
pancy performance level using an earthquake with a 50 offsets are used to model the joint regions in the
percent probability of exceedance in 50 years. For this coupled walls as shown in Figure 7-10. Small models of
earthquake, the spectral response at short periods at this individual walls are used to verify that the beam
site is 0.68 g and the spectral response at 1 second is elements used to model the walls have approximately
0.35 g. The response spectra for the immediate occu- the same stiffness and shear distribution as a model
pancy performance level is also shown in Figure 7-9. using shell elements for the walls. A three dimensional
view of the global model is shown in Figure 7-11. The
It should be noted that these performance objectives do horizontal floor and roof diaphragms are modeled using
not necessarily correspond to the original criteria used beam elements, as shown in Figure 7-11, with lumped
for design of the building. masses at the nodes.
7.4.2 Nonlinear Static Analysis The pushover analysis is conducted by applying static
loads at the locations of the lumped masses in a vertical
7.4.2.1 Computer Model distribution pattern as described in the second option of
The building is analyzed in its pre-event, post-event and Section 3.3.3.2 C, of FEMA 273. Sixty percent of the
repaired conditions using a three-dimensional computer total lateral force is applied to the roof, thirty percent is
model. Modeling of the building is done using the rec- applied at the second floor, and ten percent is applied at
ommendations of FEMA 273 and FEMA 306. The the first floor. The nodal loads are increased proportion-
model is subjected to a nonlinear static (pushover) anal- ally in progressive iterations. When elements reach
ysis to assess its force/displacement response. For this their strength limit, their stiffness is iteratively reduced
example, the analysis is run only in the East-West direc- to an appropriate secant stiffness and the model is rerun
tion, which is the direction that experienced the most at the same load level until no elements resist loads in
significant damage. excess of their calculated capacities. (Secant stiffness
method, see side bar.)
The computer analysis program SAP2000 (CSI, 1997)
is used to model the structure. The reinforced concrete The pushover analysis is continued to cover the dis-
walls and coupling beams are modeled using beam placement range of interest, which is based on a prelim-
elements. The beam elements are located at the center inary estimate of the maximum displacement demand.
of gravity of each wall section, and are given properties A global pushover curve is then produced.
R ig id E n d
O ffse t
N o d e
C o u p lin g B e a m
E le m e n t
C o lu m n E le m e n t
R e p re s e n tin g W a ll P ie r
C o lu m n E le m e n t
Beam Elements
Representing Solid Wall
Beam Elements
Representing Floor
Slab
Coupled Wall
beams are given a flexural rigidity of 0.5EcIg. The base- is based on calculations as illustrated in Section 7.2.4 of
ment columns of the structure, which support the dis- this example. For the post-event structure, the pre-event
continuous walls, are given a flexural rigidity of strength is multiplied by the λQ factors recommended in
0.7EcIg. As recommended in FEMA 273, the shear FEMA 306. Heavily damaged coupling beams have
rigidities of all components are set equal to gross sec- their strength reduced to 30 percent of the pre-event
tion values. value. Moderately damaged coupling beams have their
strength reduced to 80 percent of the pre-event value.
The post-event structure is modeled with stiffness val- For components where damage is classified either
ues multiplied by the λk factors recommended in FEMA Insignificant or None, the strength is not reduced.
306. Heavily damaged coupling beams have their stiff- Figure 7-12(b) shows the force-deformation curves for
ness reduced to 20 percent (λk = 0.2) of the pre-event the moderately and heavily damaged coupling beams.
value. Moderately damaged coupling beams have their
7.4.2.3 Foundation Rocking
stiffness reduced to 50 percent (λk = 0.5) of the pre-
event value. For the solid shear walls, where damage is Since the governing behavior mode of the solid con-
classified between Insignificant and None, stiffness is crete walls is identified to be foundation rocking, this
reduced to between 80 percent to 100 percent of the pre- behavior is incorporated into the pushover analysis. To
event stiffness depending on the amount of cracking. model the rocking, the stiffness of the lower story wall
elements is reduced when the shear force in those ele-
The horizontal plateau of the component force/deforma- ments reaches the shear force that causes rocking. Once
tion curves is based on the strength of the governing the wall element in the model had started to overturn in
behavior mode. For the pre-event structure, the strength the analysis, the stiffness is adjusted so that the wall
would resist about 10 to 20 percent more shear force 7.4.3 Force-Displacement Capacity
than that calculated to cause overturning. This adjust- (Pushover Analysis) Results
ment is made to account for the additional dead weight
of the structure that the wall would pick up once it 7.4.3.1 Pre-Event Structure
started to uplift. The amount of additional overturning
resistance in the wall is based on the shear and moment The results of the pushover analysis indicate the pro-
capacity of the beams framing into the wall. gression of displacement events to be as follows for
East-West loading (See Figure 7-2 for wall locations):
300 IO LS
250 CP
Shear (kips)
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
Rotation (Radians)
a) Pre-event
300
250 IO LS CP
Shear (kips)
200 Moderate
150 Heavy
100
50
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
Rotation (Radians)
b) Post-event
300 IO LS CP
250
Shear (kips)
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
Rotation (Radians)
8,000
7,000
6,000
Base Shear (kips)
5,000
4,000
Pre-event
3,000
Post-event
2,000
1,000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Roof Displacement (Inches)
• When the solid walls between lines C and D are As shown in Figure 7-13, the pushover analysis
softened, the solid walls on lines 2 and 15 between indicates that global nonlinearity begins at a base shear
lines B and C, and between D and E at the first floor of approximately 5000 k. As lateral displacements
pick up additional force and reach their rocking increase, the base shear climbs to about 8000 k. Since
capacity. 10% of the total is applied at the first floor and is
transmitted directly into the foundation, the force
• As the solid walls are softened, the coupled walls on resisted by the structure above the first floor prior to
lines 7 and 10 between lines L and M resist more global nonlinearity is about 4500 k. Allowing for some
force. The first floor coupling beam picks up more increase in capacity to reflect rocking behavior more
force than the second floor coupling beam and accurately (see Section 7.4.2.3), this agrees well with
reaches its shear capacity first. the hand-calculated capacities of the walls summarized
in Tables 7-1 and 7-3. The applied load in excess of the
• Additional coupling beams reach their capacity and capacity of the walls is resisted by the columns. The
the solid walls continue to rock as the displacement magnitude of the increased load is compatible with the
of the structure is increased. capacity of the columns. In the analysis, the first story
coupling beams are the first element to reach the
• The approximate target roof displacement is reached immediate occupancy and life safety acceptability
after the coupling beams have exceeded their limits. The component deformation limit for immediate
collapse prevention acceptability limit, requiring a occupancy occurs when the roof displacement reaches
reduction in their capacity. about 0.65 inches and that for life safety is reached at
about 0.88 inch. These displacements are taken as the larger displacements (greater than about 1.5 inches) the
displacement capacity dc, as defined in FEMA 306. response of the pre-event and post-event structures are
essentially the same.
The progression of damage shown in the analysis is
consistent with the observed damage. 7.4.4 Estimation of Displacement, de,
Caused by Damaging
7.4.3.2 Post-Event Condition Earthquake
For the post-event structure, the pro- The accuracy of the structural model of the building can
gression of displacement events is Modeling of
the post-event be verified by estimating the maximum displacement,
essentially the same as that outlined condition, de, that was caused by the damaging event. This is done
for the pre-event structure. The results Section 4.4.3.2 in two ways. If the data were available, actual ground
of the post-event pushover analysis of FEMA 306
motion records could be used to predict displacement
are shown in Figure 7-13. In this anal- analytically. Secondly, the pushover curve in conjunc-
ysis, the first story coupling beams reach the immediate tion with component capacity data could be used to esti-
occupancy acceptability limit at a roof displacement of mate displacements from the observed damage.
0.47 inches; the beams reach the life safety limit at a
roof displacement of 0.66 inches. These values are used In this case, a spectrum from recorded ground motion at
for d'c. a site approximately 1.5 mi. from the building was
available (see Figure 7-14). FEMA 273 (equation 3-11)
7.4.3.3 Comparison of Force-Displacement uses the displacement coefficient method to estimate
Capacity Curves (Pushover Curves) maximum displacement from spectral acceleration as
The performance of the post-event building was slightly follows:
different than the pre-event performance; the overall
building is softer since more deflection is obtained for Te2
the same magnitude of applied load. The reduced stiff- de = C0 C1C2 C3 Sa g (7-1)
ness of the damaged components causes the global
4π 2
reduction of stiffness of the post-event structure. The
In this expression the coefficients C0 to C3 modify the
Moderate and Heavy damage to some of the compo-
nents corresponds to a reduction in their strength. At basic relationship between spectral acceleration and dis-
1.2
Spectral Acceleration (g)
1.0
5% Damp
0.8 10% Damp
20% Damp
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period (Sec.)
placement for an elastic system as a function of the From the damage observations, one of the first-floor
effective period of the structure, Te. The effective period coupling beams in the east-west direction appeared to
for the pre-event structure is approximately 0.3 sec. The reach its capacity, since a severe crack had developed
spectral acceleration for this period from Figure 7-14 and a transverse bar had buckled. Shear cracking had
would be approximately 0.5 to 0.6 g producing an elas- also developed in the wall piers adjacent to the coupling
tic spectral displacement between 0.4 and 0.5 in. beams.
The coefficient C0 converts spectral displacement to From the pushover analysis, at displacement demands
roof displacement and has an approximate value of 1.25 between 0.3 inches and 0.5 inches, the coupling beams
for two- and three-story buildings. reach their capacity. The pushover analysis also indi-
cates that the first floor coupling beam would be the
For short-period buildings, the maximum inelastic dis- first to reach its capacity, which is verified by the obser-
placement often is greater than the elastic. FEMA 273 vations. Since only the first floor beams were heavily
provides the following expression C1 to adjust conser- damaged, the displacement demand of the damaging
event should not have been much greater than 0.5 in.
vatively from elastic to inelastic:
The difference between the analytical estimate of de and
FG1.0 + a R − 1.0f T IJ
0 the estimate from the model and observed damage is not
C =
H TKe
where R =
Sa 1 (7-2) large. The difference is acceptable because the building
is farther away from the epicenter than the site where
1
R FG IJ
Vy C0 the motion was recorded, and actual recorded building
H K
W response is usually less than that which is predicted ana-
lytically. Based on the comparison there is no need to
In these expressions, Vy /W is the effective base shear at adjust the structural model.
yield as a portion of the building weight, or about 0.28
in this case. This would result in an R-factor of approxi- 7.4.5 Displacement Demand
mately 1.4 to 1.7. The point where the spectral accelera- 7.4.5.1 Estimate of Target Displacement
tion transitions from the acceleration to velocity
controlled zone occurs at a period of around 0.5 to 0.6 Estimating the target displacement can be an interactive
sec. These values would combine to result in a coeffi- process. The nonlinear static analysis produces a force-
cient C1 of around 1.2 to 1.4. displacement pushover curve covering the displacement
range of interest. Based on the procedures of FEMA
273, an equivalent bilinear curve is fitted to the push-
The coefficient C2 accounts for the shape of the hystere-
over curve and a yield point is estimated.
sis curve and is equal to 1.0 in this case. The coefficient
C3 accounts for dynamic P-∆ effects and is also equal to Using this yield point and the associated effective
1.0 for this case. period, the target displacement is calculated using the
coefficient method. Given the calculated target dis-
Combining all of the coefficients and the elastic spectral placement, the equivalent bilinear curve can be refitted,
displacement results in an estimate for the maximum adjusting the yield point, and giving a new target dis-
displacement at the roof, de, of between 0.6 to 0.9 in. placement. The revised target displacement is close to
the original estimate so further iteration is not needed.
Section 5.4 of FEMA 306 describes the procedures for cal- Pre-Event Target Displacement, dd
culating the displacement demand for both the pre-event and
the post-event structures. The pre-event and post-event An idealized bi-linear capacity curve for the pre-event
pushover curves for this example are shown in Figure 7-13. structure is developed to approximate the actual pushover
For this example, the coefficient method is used to calculate curve. Based on this idealized curve, the yield level base
the target displacements and FEMA 306 procedures are used shear Vy is 6000 kips and the yield level displacement Dy is
to determine the corresponding displacement demands.
0.31 inches. The effective stiffness Ke then becomes 19,400
kips/inch.
10,000
Base Shear (kips)
8,000
2,000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Comparison of idealized bilinear curve to pushover the pre-event effective stiffness and the post-yield stiffness
curve for the post-event curve to calculate a target displacement.
In this example, the slopes of the post-yield curves for the
The initial period Ti is 0.25 seconds taken from the initial pre-event and post-event conditions are similar. Therefore,
structural model. The effective period is calculated to be the target displacements will be essentially the same. The
0.30 seconds using the ratio of the initial to the effective value for d'd1 will be taken as the pre-event demand dis-
stiffness. placement, which is 1.68 inches.
The target displacement dd for the The Performance Indices for both the pre-event and
Displacement post-event structures are less than one for both perfor-
pre-event structure for life safety per- demand,
formance against the 475-year- Section 4.4.4 mance objectives, indicating that the objectives are not
return-period earthquake, based on of FEMA 306 met. The effects of damage can be quantified by identi-
the coefficient method calculations, fying restoration measures to return the Performance
is 1.68 inches. The displacement demand for immediate Index to its pre-event value, as outlined in the following
occupancy after the 100-year earthquake is 0.97 inches. sections. The actual course of action to accept, restore,
or upgrade the damaged building is a separate consider-
Calculations (see sidebar on previous page) indicate ation for the owner and the local building authority.
that displacement demand for the post-event structure is
essentially the same as for the pre-event structure. 7.4.6 Analysis of Restored Structure
damaged coupling beams are repaired by injecting the the model are unchanged from their post-event condi-
cracks with epoxy. The heavily damaged coupling tion. The pushover analysis is then conducted using the
beams are repaired by removing the damaged coupling same procedures and load patterns.
beams and replacing them with new coupling beams.
Each new coupling beam will be designed using the The progression of displacement events for the repaired
provisions of the current building code, which requires structure is similar to that for the pre-event structure
diagonal reinforcing bars be installed as the primary except that the replaced coupling beam does not reach
shear resistance. A detail of the potential repair is its collapse prevention displacement limit. Figure 7-15
shown in Figure 7-8. shows the pushover curve for the repaired structure.
Also shown on this curve is the pre-event pushover
7.4.6.2 Analysis Results curve. The overall behavior of the repaired structure
closely matches that of the pre-earthquake structure, as
The moderately damaged coupling beams are
it was designed to do. The ratio of displacement capac-
“repaired” in the model by revising their stiffness and
ity to demand, dc∗ / d d∗ , is 0.53 for the life safety perfor-
strength based on the Component Damage Classifica-
tion Guides. The heavily damaged coupling beams that mance level and 0.66 for immediate occupancy, which
were replaced are given stiffness values for initial, are the same as those for the pre-event performance.
undamaged elements and displacement capacities as in
FEMA 273 for flexure-governed beams with diagonal The displacement capacity for the repaired structure is
reinforcement, as shown in Figure 7-12(c). The stiffness governed by the component deformation limits of the
of the moderately damaged coupling beams is restored coupling beams that were not replaced. Note that an
to 80 percent of the pre-event stiffness. The strength and effective upgrade measure might be to replace all cou-
displacement limits are restored to the pre-event values. pling beams, as this would greatly increase global dis-
The strength and stiffness of the other components in placement capacity.
9,000
8,000
7,000
Base Shear (kips)
6,000
5,000 Repaired Structure
4,000
Pre-event Structure
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Roof Displacement (Inches)
7.4.7.2 Nonstructural Restoration Measures The weak link in the building, as determined by analy-
sis and confirmed with the field observations, is the
The Component Guides for the type RC1B components shear capacity of the coupling beams. Although the
indicate that if cracks are less than 1/8 inch, the damage analysis indicates that foundation rocking of the solid
can be classified as Insignificant, and therefore struc- walls is probably the initial nonlinearity in the building,
tural repairs are not necessary. Two of the wall compo- the rocking of the walls is not detrimental to the global
nents had cracks that exceeded 1/16 inch. These wall behavior under the anticipated seismic demands.
components will have all of the cracks exceeding 1/16
inch repaired by injection with epoxy. The total length In the section of the building in which the coupling
of these cracks is estimated to be about 22 feet. beams were damaged, the coupled shear walls are dis-
continuous and are supported by columns at the ends of
The wall components with visible cracks will be the walls. Normally, columns supporting discontinuous
repaired by patching the cracks with plaster and paint- walls are susceptible to high compressive stresses, and
ing the entire wall. This repair is only intended to consequently reduced ductility capacity, as the wall
restore the visual appearance of the wall. Restoration of overturns. During the pushover analysis, the forces in
other nonstructural characteristics, such as water tight- the columns supporting the coupled walls remained
ness and fire protection, is not necessary. within their capacity. The reason the columns were not
overstressed is that the coupling beams acted as fuses
7.4.7.3 Summary of Restoration Measures for the coupled wall element. The overturning force in
and Costs the columns could not be greater than the shear capacity
Table 7-8 summarizes the repairs and estimated costs. of the coupling beams. If the strength of the replaced
Additional costs related to inspection, evaluation, man- coupling beams is too large, the overturning force gen-
agement, and indirect costs may also be involved. erated could cause failure of the columns below the
wall, resulting in a partial collapse of the building. For FEMA 306 presents two methods for calculating the
this reason, the capacity of the repaired coupling beam loss associated with earthquake damage, the direct
was designed to be similar to that of the previous cou- method and the relative performance method. These
pling beam. methods are used to determine the loss, which is mea-
sured as the cost associated with returning the building
One of the advantages of the relative performance anal- to its pre-event performance. In this example, the cost
ysis is the ability to assess the behavior of structure and of restoring the performance using the two methods
the influence of the behavior of the individual compo- produce the same result, principally because the repairs
nents on the overall behavior. Strengthening a single chosen in the relative performance method match those
component may not produce a significant improvement suggested by the direct method. In other buildings, there
in the overall performance if the progression of failure can be differences between the results obtained by the
shifts to a less desirable mode. The pushover analysis two methods.
of the repaired structure needs to consider the change in
overall behavior caused by the repairs. The Nonlinear Static Procedure described in FEMA 273
is used in the relative performance method to assess the
Because of the improved performance of the first story performance of the building in the pre-event, post-event
coupling beams that were replaced, these beams no and repaired conditions. This analysis method is rela-
longer control the global displacement limit of the tively new and is still subject to further refinements.
structure. The force/displacement capacity of the sec- This procedure can be time-consuming to implement
ond story coupling beams in their repaired condition is properly. As the method and the analytical tools become
the same as in the pre-event condition. The displace- further developed, this method should be easier to
ment demand at which the second story coupling beams implement.
reach their acceptability limit is very close to the limit at
which the first story coupling beams in the pre-event
condition reached their limit. Therefore, the overall per- 7.6 References
formance of the building is not improved substantially. ACI Committee 201, 1994, “Guide for Making a Condi-
The information gained from these analyses can be used tion Survey of Concrete in Service,” Manual of
to assess whether an upgrade of the building to improve Concrete Practice, American Concrete Institute,
its performance may be cost effective. Detroit, Michigan.
7.5.2 Discussion of Methodology and CSI, 1997, SAP2000: Integrated Structural Design &
Repair Costs Analysis Software, Computers and Structures Inc,
Berkeley, California
This example has illustrated some of the important
aspects in the FEMA 306 approach to assessing the ATC, 1996, The Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of
earthquake damage to concrete and masonry wall build- Concrete Buildings, Applied Technology Council,
ings. The example building represents an actual build- ATC-40 Report, Redwood City, California.
ing that experienced a damaging earthquake.
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
Legend:
Crack Spall
Crack Width in Mils (0.001 Inch)
Crack Previously Filled with Epoxy Not Accessible
Crack at Pre-existing Surface Patch
Partition
ATC MANAGEMENT
Mr. Christopher Rojahn, Mr. Craig Comartin,
Principal Investigator Co-PI and Project Director
Applied Technology Council 7683 Andrea Avenue
555 Twin Dolphin Drive, Suite 550 Stockton, CA 95207
Redwood City, CA 94065
FEMA/PARR Representatives
Mr. Timothy McCormick Prof. Robert Hanson
PaRR Task Manager FEMA Technical Monitor
Dewberry & Davis 74 North Pasadena Avenue, CA-1009-DR
8401 Arlington Boulevard Parsons Bldg., West Annex, Room 308
Fairfax, VA 22031-4666 Pasadena, CA 91103
One of the primary purposes of Applied Technology mic analysis and design that was proposed by vari-
Council is to develop resource documents that translate ous segments of the engineering profession.
and summarize useful information to practicing engi- Specific building designs, design procedures and
neers. This includes the development of guidelines and parameter values were evaluated for future applica-
manuals, as well as the development of research recom- tion. Eleven existing buildings of varying dimen-
mendations for specific areas determined by the profes- sions were redesigned according to the procedures.
sion. ATC is not a code development organization,
although several of the ATC project reports serve as ATC-3: The report, Tentative Provisions for the Devel-
resource documents for the development of codes, stan- opment of Seismic Regulations for Buildings (ATC-3-
dards and specifications. 06), was funded by NSF and NBS. The second printing
of this report, which includes proposed amendments, is
Applied Technology Council conducts projects that available through the ATC office. (Published 1978,
meet the following criteria: amended 1982, 505 pages plus proposed amendments)
1. The primary audience or benefactor is the design ABSTRACT: The tentative provisions in this docu-
practitioner in structural engineering. ment represent the results of a concerted effort by a
multi-disciplinary team of 85 nationally recognized
2. A cross section or consensus of engineering opinion experts in earthquake engineering. The provisions
is required to be obtained and presented by a neutral serve as the basis for the seismic provisions of the
source. 1988 Uniform Building Code and the 1988 and sub-
sequent issues of the NEHRP Recommended Provi-
3. The project fosters the advancement of structural
sions for the Development of Seismic Regulation for
engineering practice.
New Buildings. The second printing of this docu-
A brief description of several major completed projects ment contains proposed amendments prepared by a
and reports is given in the following section. Funding joint committee of the Building Seismic Safety
for projects is obtained from government agencies and Council (BSSC) and the NBS.
tax-deductible contributions from the private sector.
ATC-3-2: The project, Comparative Test Designs of
ATC-1: This project resulted in five papers that were Buildings Using ATC-3-06 Tentative Provisions, was
published as part of Building Practices for Disaster funded by NSF. The project consisted of a study to
Mitigation, Building Science Series 46, proceedings of a develop and plan a program for making comparative
workshop sponsored by the National Science Founda- test designs of the ATC-3-06 Tentative Provisions. The
tion (NSF) and the National Bureau of Standards project report was written to be used by the Building
(NBS). Available through the National Technical Infor- Seismic Safety Council in its refinement of the ATC-3-
mation Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Spring- 06 Tentative Provisions.
field, VA 22151, as NTIS report No. COM-73-50188.
ATC-3-4: The report, Redesign of Three Multistory
ATC-2: The report, An Evaluation of a Response Spec- Buildings: A Comparison Using ATC-3-06 and 1982
trum Approach to Seismic Design of Buildings, was Uniform Building Code Design Provisions, was pub-
funded by NSF and NBS and was conducted as part of lished under a grant from NSF. Available through the
the Cooperative Federal Program in Building Practices ATC office. (Published 1984, 112 pages)
for Disaster Mitigation. Available through the ATC
ABSTRACT: This report evaluates the cost and tech-
office. (Published 1974, 270 Pages)
nical impact of using the 1978 ATC-3-06 report,
ABSTRACT: This study evaluated the applicability Tentative Provisions for the Development of Seismic
and cost of the response spectrum approach to seis- Regulations for Buildings, as amended by a joint
committee of the Building Seismic Safety Council ATC-4-1: The report, The Home Builders Guide for
and the National Bureau of Standards in 1982. The Earthquake Design, was published under a contract
evaluations are based on studies of three existing with HUD. Available through the ATC office. (Pub-
California buildings redesigned in accordance with lished 1980, 57 pages)
the ATC-3-06 Tentative Provisions and the 1982
Uniform Building Code. Included in the report are ABSTRACT: This report is an abridged version of
recommendations to code implementing bodies. the ATC-4 report. The concise, easily understood
text of the Guide is supplemented with illustrations
ATC-3-5: This project, Assistance for First Phase of and 46 construction details. The details are pro-
ATC-3-06 Trial Design Program Being Conducted by vided to ensure that houses contain structural fea-
the Building Seismic Safety Council, was funded by the tures that are properly positioned, dimensioned and
Building Seismic Safety Council to provide the services constructed to resist earthquake forces. A brief
of the ATC Senior Consultant and other ATC personnel description is included on how earthquake forces
to assist the BSSC in the conduct of the first phase of its impact on houses and some precautionary con-
Trial Design Program. The first phase provided for trial straints are given with respect to site selection and
designs conducted for buildings in Los Angeles, Seattle, architectural designs.
Phoenix, and Memphis.
ATC-5: The report, Guidelines for Seismic Design and
ATC-3-6: This project, Assistance for Second Phase of Construction of Single-Story Masonry Dwellings in
ATC-3-06 Trial Design Program Being Conducted by Seismic Zone 2, was developed under a contract with
the Building Seismic Safety Council, was funded by the HUD. Available through the ATC office. (Published
Building Seismic Safety Council to provide the services 1986, 38 pages)
of the ATC Senior Consultant and other ATC personnel
to assist the BSSC in the conduct of the second phase of ABSTRACT: The report offers a concise methodol-
its Trial Design Program. The second phase provided ogy for the earthquake design and construction of
for trial designs conducted for buildings in New York, single-story masonry dwellings in Seismic Zone 2
Chicago, St. Louis, Charleston, and Fort Worth. of the United States, as defined by the 1973 Uni-
form Building Code. The Guidelines are based in
ATC-4: The report, A Methodology for Seismic Design part on shaking table tests of masonry construction
and Construction of Single-Family Dwellings, was pub- conducted at the University of California at Berke-
lished under a contract with the Department of Housing ley Earthquake Engineering Research Center. The
and Urban Development (HUD). Available through the report is written in simple language and includes
ATC office. (Published 1976, 576 pages) basic house plans, wall evaluations, detail draw-
ings, and material specifications.
ABSTRACT: This report presents the results of an
in-depth effort to develop design and construction ATC-6: The report, Seismic Design Guidelines for
details for single-family residences that minimize Highway Bridges, was published under a contract with
the potential economic loss and life-loss risk associ- the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Avail-
ated with earthquakes. The report: (1) discusses able through the ATC office. (Published 1981, 210
the ways structures behave when subjected to seis- pages)
mic forces, (2) sets forth suggested design criteria
for conventional layouts of dwellings constructed ABSTRACT: The Guidelines are the recommenda-
with conventional materials, (3) presents construc- tions of a team of sixteen nationally recognized
tion details that do not require the designer to per- experts that included consulting engineers, academ-
form analytical calculations, (4) suggests ics, state and federal agency representatives from
procedures for efficient plan-checking, and (5) pre- throughout the United States. The Guidelines
sents recommendations including details and sched- embody several new concepts that were significant
ules for use in the field by construction personnel departures from then existing design provisions.
and building inspectors. Included in the Guidelines are an extensive com-
mentary, an example demonstrating the use of the
Guidelines, and summary reports on 21 bridges published under a grant from NSF. Available
redesigned in accordance with the Guidelines. through the ATC office. (Published 1980, 302 pages)
The guidelines have been adopted by the Ameri-
can Association of Highway and Transportation ABSTRACT: The report includes seven papers on
Officials as a guide specification. state-of-the-practice and two papers on recent
research. Also included are recommendations
ATC-6-1: The report, Proceedings of a Workshop for future research that were developed by the 35
on Earthquake Resistance of Highway Bridges, was workshop participants.
published under a grant from NSF. Available
through the ATC office. (Published 1979, 625 pages) ATC-8: This report, Proceedings of a Workshop on
the Design of Prefabricated Concrete Buildings for
ABSTRACT: The report includes 23 state-of-the- Earthquake Loads, was funded by NSF. Available
art and state-of-practice papers on earthquake through the ATC office. (Published 1981, 400 pages)
resistance of highway bridges. Seven of the
twenty-three papers were authored by partici- ABSTRACT: The report includes eighteen state-
pants from Japan, New Zealand and Portugal. of-the-art papers and six summary papers. Also
The Proceedings also contain recommendations included are recommendations for future
for future research that were developed by the 45 research that were developed by the 43 work-
workshop participants. shop participants.
ATC-6-2: The report, Seismic Retrofitting Guide- ATC-9: The report, An Evaluation of the Imperial
lines for Highway Bridges, was published under a County Services Building Earthquake Response and
contract with FHWA. Available through the ATC Associated Damage, was published under a grant
office. (Published 1983, 220 pages) from NSF. Available through the ATC office. (Pub-
lished 1984, 231 pages)
ABSTRACT: The Guidelines are the recommen-
dations of a team of thirteen nationally recog- ABSTRACT: The report presents the results of an
nized experts that included consulting engineers, in-depth evaluation of the Imperial County Ser-
academics, state highway engineers, and federal vices Building, a 6-story reinforced concrete
agency representatives. The Guidelines, appli- frame and shear wall building severely damaged
cable for use in all parts of the United States, by the October 15, 1979 Imperial Valley, Cali-
include a preliminary screening procedure, fornia, earthquake. The report contains a review
methods for evaluating an existing bridge in and evaluation of earthquake damage to the
detail, and potential retrofitting measures for the building; a review and evaluation of the seismic
most common seismic deficiencies. Also design; a comparison of the requirements of var-
included are special design requirements for var- ious building codes as they relate to the building;
ious retrofitting measures. and conclusions and recommendations pertain-
ing to future building code provisions and future
ATC-7: The report, Guidelines for the Design of research needs.
Horizontal Wood Diaphragms, was published under
a grant from NSF. Available through the ATC ATC-10: This report, An Investigation of the Corre-
office. (Published 1981, 190 pages) lation Between Earthquake Ground Motion and
Building Performance, was funded by the U.S. Geo-
ABSTRACT: Guidelines are presented for design- logical Survey (USGS). Available through the ATC
ing roof and floor systems so these can function office. (Published 1982, 114 pages)
as horizontal diaphragms in a lateral force resist-
ing system. Analytical procedures, connection ABSTRACT: The report contains an in-depth ana-
details and design examples are included in the lytical evaluation of the ultimate or limit capac-
Guidelines. ity of selected representative building framing
types, a discussion of the factors affecting the
ATC-7-1: The report, Proceedings of a Workshop seismic performance of buildings, and a sum-
of Design of Horizontal Wood Diaphragms, was
mary and comparison of seismic design and seismic at a 3-day workshop in New Zealand attended by 16
risk parameters currently in widespread use. U.S. and 35 New Zealand bridge design engineers
and researchers.
ATC-10-1: This report, Critical Aspects of Earthquake
Ground Motion and Building Damage Potential, was ATC-12-1: This report, Proceedings of Second Joint
co-funded by the USGS and the NSF. Available U.S.-New Zealand Workshop on Seismic Resistance of
through the ATC office. (Published 1984, 259 pages) Highway Bridges, was published under a grant from
NSF. Available through the ATC office. (Published
ABSTRACT: This document contains 19 state-of- 1986, 272 pages)
the-art papers on ground motion, structural
response, and structural design issues presented by ABSTRACT: This report contains written versions of
prominent engineers and earth scientists in an ATC the papers presented at this 1985 Workshop as well
seminar. The main theme of the papers is to iden- as a list and prioritization of workshop recommen-
tify the critical aspects of ground motion and build- dations. Included are summaries of research
ing performance that currently are not being projects being conducted in both countries as well
considered in building design. The report also con- as state-of-the-practice papers on various aspects of
tains conclusions and recommendations of working design practice. Topics discussed include bridge
groups convened after the Seminar. design philosophy and loadings; design of columns,
footings, piles, abutments and retaining structures;
ATC-11: The report, Seismic Resistance of Reinforced geotechnical aspects of foundation design; seismic
Concrete Shear Walls and Frame Joints: Implications analysis techniques; seismic retrofitting; case stud-
of Recent Research for Design Engineers, was pub- ies using base isolation; strong-motion data acquisi-
lished under a grant from NSF. Available through the tion and interpretation; and testing of bridge
ATC office. (Published 1983, 184 pages) components and bridge systems.
ABSTRACT: This document presents the results of ATC-13: The report, Earthquake Damage Evaluation
an in-depth review and synthesis of research reports Data for California, was developed under a contract
pertaining to cyclic loading of reinforced concrete with the Federal Emergency Management Agency
shear walls and cyclic loading of joint reinforced (FEMA). Available through the ATC office. (Published
concrete frames. More than 125 research reports 1985, 492 pages)
published since 1971 are reviewed and evaluated in
this report. The preparation of the report included a ABSTRACT: This report presents expert-opinion
consensus process involving numerous experienced earthquake damage and loss estimates for indus-
design professionals from throughout the United trial, commercial, residential, utility and transporta-
States. The report contains reviews of current and tion facilities in California. Included are damage
past design practices, summaries of research devel- probability matrices for 78 classes of structures and
opments, and in-depth discussions of design impli- estimates of time required to restore damaged facil-
cations of recent research results. ities to pre-earthquake usability. The report also
describes the inventory information essential for
ATC-12: This report, Comparison of United States and estimating economic losses and the methodology
New Zealand Seismic Design Practices for Highway used to develop loss estimates on a regional basis.
Bridges, was published under a grant from NSF. Avail-
able through the ATC office. (Published 1982, 270 ATC-14: The report, Evaluating the Seismic Resistance
pages) of Existing Buildings, was developed under a grant from
the NSF. Available through the ATC office. (Published
ABSTRACT: The report contains summaries of all 1987, 370 pages)
aspects and innovative design procedures used in
New Zealand as well as comparison of United ABSTRACT: This report, written for practicing
States and New Zealand design practice. Also structural engineers, describes a methodology for
included are research recommendations developed performing preliminary and detailed building seis-
mic evaluations. The report contains a state-of- including braced steel frame buildings, beam-col-
practice review; seismic loading criteria; data col- umn joints in reinforced concrete buildings, sum-
lection procedures; a detailed description of the maries of comparative U. S. and Japanese design,
building classification system; preliminary and and base isolation and passive energy dissipation
detailed analysis procedures; and example case devices.
studies, including nonstructural considerations.
ATC-15-3: The report, Proceedings of Fourth U.S.-
ATC-15: The report, Comparison of Seismic Design Japan Workshop on Improvement of Building Structural
Practices in the United States and Japan, was published Design and Construction Practices, was published
under a grant from NSF. Available through the ATC jointly by ATC and the Japan Structural Consultants
office. (Published 1984, 317 pages) Association. Available through the ATC office. (Pub-
lished 1992, 484 pages)
ABSTRACT: The report contains detailed technical
papers describing design practices in the United ABSTRACT: This report contains 22 technical
States and Japan as well as recommendations ema- papers presented at this Kailua-Kona, Hawaii,
nating from a joint U.S.-Japan workshop held in workshop in August, 1990, by practitioners and
Hawaii in March, 1984. Included are detailed researchers from the United States, Japan, and Peru.
descriptions of new seismic design methods for Included are papers on postearthquake building
buildings in Japan and case studies of the design of damage assessment; acceptable earth-quake dam-
specific buildings (in both countries). The report age; repair and retrofit of earthquake damaged
also contains an overview of the history and objec- buildings; base-isolated buildings, including Archi-
tives of the Japan Structural Consultants Associa- tectural Institute of Japan recommendations for
tion. design; active damping systems; wind-resistant
design; and summaries of working group conclu-
ATC-15-1: The report, Proceedings of Second U.S.- sions and recommendations.
Japan Workshop on Improvement of Building Seismic
Design and Construction Practices, was published ATC-15-4: The report, Proceedings of Fifth U.S.-
under a grant from NSF. Available through the ATC Japan Workshop on Improvement of Building Structural
office. (Published 1987, 412 pages) Design and Construction Practices, was published
jointly by ATC and the Japan Structural Consultants
ABSTRACT: This report contains 23 technical Association. Available through the ATC office. (Pub-
papers presented at this San Francisco workshop in lished 1994, 360 pages)
August, 1986, by practitioners and researchers from
the U.S. and Japan. Included are state-of-the-prac- ABSTRACT: This report contains 20 technical
tice papers and case studies of actual building papers presented at this San Diego, California
designs and information on regulatory, contractual, workshop in September, 1992. Included are papers
and licensing issues. on performance goals/acceptable damage in seismic
design; seismic design procedures and case studies;
ATC-15-2: The report, Proceedings of Third U.S.- construction influences on design; seismic isolation
Japan Workshop on Improvement of Building Structural and passive energy dissipation; design of irregular
Design and Construction Practices, was published structures; seismic evaluation, repair and upgrad-
jointly by ATC and the Japan Structural Consultants ing; quality control for design and construction; and
Association. Available through the ATC office. (Pub- summaries of working group discussions and rec-
lished 1989, 358 pages) ommendations.
ABSTRACT: This report contains 21 technical ATC-16: This project, Development of a 5-Year Plan
papers presented at this Tokyo, Japan, workshop in for Reducing the Earthquake Hazards Posed by Existing
July, 1988, by practitioners and researchers from Nonfederal Buildings, was funded by FEMA and was
the U.S., Japan, China, and New Zealand. Included conducted by a joint venture of ATC, the Building Seis-
are state-of-the-practice papers on various topics, mic Safety Council and the Earthquake Engineering
Research Institute. The project involved a workshop in Federal Highway Administration. Available through the
Phoenix, Arizona, where approximately 50 earthquake ATC office. (Published 1997, 152 pages)
specialists met to identify the major tasks and goals for
reducing the earthquake hazards posed by existing non- ABSTRACT: This report documents the findings of a
federal buildings nationwide. The plan was developed 4-year project to review and assess current seismic
on the basis of nine issue papers presented at the work- design criteria for new highway construction. The
shop and workshop working group discussions. The report addresses performance criteria, importance
Workshop Proceedings and Five-Year Plan are available classification, definitions of seismic hazard for
through the Federal Emergency Management Agency, areas where damaging earthquakes have longer
500 “C” Street, S.W., Washington, DC 20472. return periods, design ground motion, duration
effects, site effects, structural response modification
ATC-17: This report, Proceedings of a Seminar and factors, ductility demand, design procedures, foun-
Workshop on Base Isolation and Passive Energy Dissi- dation and abutment modeling, soil-structure inter-
pation, was published under a grant from NSF. Avail- action, seat widths, joint details and detailing
able through the ATC office. (Published 1986, 478 reinforced concrete for limited ductility in areas
pages) with low-to-moderate seismic activity. The report
also provides lengthy discussion on future direc-
ABSTRACT: The report contains 42 papers describ- tions for code development and recommended
ing the state-of-the-art and state-of-the-practice in research and development topics.
base-isolation and passive energy-dissipation tech-
nology. Included are papers describing case studies ATC-19: The report, Structural Response Modification
in the United States, applications and developments Factors was funded by NSF and NCEER. Available
worldwide, recent innovations in technology devel- through the ATC office. (Published 1995, 70 pages)
opment, and structural and ground motion issues.
Also included is a proposed 5-year research agenda ABSTRACT: This report addresses structural
that addresses the following specific issues: (1) response modification factors (R factors), which are
strong ground motion; (2) design criteria; (3) mate- used to reduce the seismic forces associated with
rials, quality control, and long-term reliability; (4) elastic response to obtain design forces. The report
life cycle cost methodology; and (5) system documents the basis for current R values, how R
response. factors are used for seismic design in other coun-
tries, a rational means for decomposing R into key
ATC-17-1: This report, Proceedings of a Seminar on components, a framework (and methods) for evalu-
Seismic Isolation, Passive Energy Dissipation and ating the key components of R, and the research
Active Control, was published under a grant from NSF. necessary to improve the reliability of engineered
Available through the ATC office. (Published 1993, 841 construction designed using R factors.
pages)
ATC-20: The report, Procedures for Postearthquake
ABSTRACT: The 2-volume report documents 70 Safety Evaluation of Buildings, was developed under a
technical papers presented during a two-day semi- contract from the California Office of Emergency Ser-
nar in San Francisco in early 1993. Included are vices (OES), California Office of Statewide Health
invited theme papers and competitively selected Planning and Development (OSHPD) and FEMA.
papers on issues related to seismic isolation sys- Available through the ATC office (Published 1989, 152
tems, passive energy dissipation systems, active pages)
control systems and hybrid systems.
ABSTRACT: This report provides procedures and
ATC-18: The report, Seismic Design Criteria for guidelines for making on-the-spot evaluations and
Bridges and Other Highway Structures: Current and decisions regarding continued use and occupancy
Future, was published under a contract from the Multi- of earthquake damaged buildings. Written specifi-
disciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering cally for volunteer structural engineers and building
Research (formerly NCEER), with funding from the inspectors, the report includes rapid and detailed
evaluation procedures for inspecting buildings and a contract with FEMA. Available through the ATC
posting them as “inspected” (apparently safe), “lim- office. (Published 1993, 177 pages; 160 slides)
ited entry” or “unsafe”. Also included are special
procedures for evaluation of essential buildings ABSTRACT: This training manual is intended to
(e.g., hospitals), and evaluation procedures for non- facilitate the presentation of the contents of the
structural elements, and geotechnical hazards. ATC-20 and ATC-20-1. The training materials con-
sist of 160 slides of photographs, schematic draw-
ATC-20-1: The report, Field Manual: Postearthquake ings and textual information and a companion
Safety Evaluation of Buildings, was developed under a training presentation narrative coordinated with the
contract from OES and OSHPD. Available through the slides. Topics covered include: posting system;
ATC office (Published 1989, 114 pages) evaluation procedures; structural basics; wood
frame, masonry, concrete, and steel frame struc-
ABSTRACT: This report, a companion Field Manual tures; nonstructural elements; geotechnical hazards;
for the ATC-20 report, summarizes the hazardous materials; and field safety.
postearthquake safety evaluation procedures in
brief concise format designed for ease of use in the ATC-21: The report, Rapid Visual Screening of Build-
field. ings for Potential Seismic Hazards: A Handbook, was
developed under a contract from FEMA. Available
ATC-20-2: The report, Addendum to the ATC-20 through the ATC office. (Published 1988, 185 pages)
Postearthquake Building Safety Procedures was pub-
lished under a grant from the NSF and funded by the ABSTRACT: This report describes a rapid visual
USGS. Available through the ATC office. (Published screening procedure for identifying those buildings
1995, 94 pages) that might pose serious risk of loss of life and
injury, or of severe curtailment of community ser-
ABSTRACT: This report provides updated assess- vices, in case of a damaging earthquake. The
ment forms, placards, and procedures that are based screening procedure utilizes a methodology based
on an in-depth review and evaluation of the wide- on a "sidewalk survey" approach that involves iden-
spread application of the ATC-20 procedures fol- tification of the primary structural load resisting
lowing five earthquakes occurring since the initial system and building materials, and assignment of a
release of the ATC-20 report in 1989. basic structural hazards score and performance
ATC-20-3: The report, Case Studies in Rapid modification factors based on observed building
Postearthquake Safety Evaluation of Buildings, was characteristics. Application of the methodology
funded by ATC and R. P. Gallagher Associates. Avail- identifies those buildings that are potentially haz-
able through the ATC office. (Published 1996, 295 ardous and should be analyzed in more detail by a
pages) professional engineer experienced in seismic
design.
ABSTRACT: This report contains 53 case studies
using the ATC-20 Rapid Evaluation procedure. ATC-21-1: The report, Rapid Visual Screening of
Each case study is illustrated with photos and Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards: Supporting
describes how a building was inspected and evalu- Documentation, was developed under a contract from
ated for life safety, and includes a completed safety FEMA. Available through the ATC office. (Published
assessment form and placard. The report is intended 1988, 137 pages)
to be used as a training and reference manual for ABSTRACT: Included in this report are (1) a review
building officials, building inspectors, civil and and evaluation of existing procedures; (2) a listing
structural engineers, architects, disaster workers, of attributes considered ideal for a rapid visual
and others who may be asked to perform safety screening procedure; and (3) a technical discussion
evaluations after an earthquake. of the recommended rapid visual screening proce-
ATC-20-T: The report, Postearthquake Safety Evalua- dure that is documented in the ATC-21 report.
tion of Buildings Training Manual was developed under
ATC-21-2: The report, Earthquake Damaged Build- ATC-22-1: The report, Seismic Evaluation of Existing
ings: An Overview of Heavy Debris and Victim Extrica- Buildings: Supporting Documentation, was developed
tion, was developed under a contract from FEMA. under a contract from FEMA. (Published 1989, 160
(Published 1988, 95 pages) pages)
ABSTRACT: Included in this report, a companion ABSTRACT: Included in this report, a companion
volume to the ATC-21 and ATC-21-1 reports, is volume to the ATC-22 report, are (1) a review and
state-of-the-art information on (1) the identification evaluation of existing buildings seismic evaluation
of those buildings that might collapse and trap vic- methodologies; (2) results from field tests of the
tims in debris or generate debris of such a size that ATC-14 methodology; and (3) summaries of evalu-
its handling would require special or heavy lifting ations of ATC-14 conducted by the National Center
equipment; (2) guidance in identifying these types for Earthquake Engineering Research (State Uni-
of buildings, on the basis of their major exterior fea- versity of New York at Buffalo) and the City of San
tures, and (3) the types and life capacities of equip- Francisco.
ment required to remove the heavy portion of the
debris that might result from the collapse of such ATC-23A: The report, General Acute Care Hospital
buildings. Earthquake Survivability Inventory for California, Part
A: Survey Description, Summary of Results, Data Anal-
ATC-21-T: The report, Rapid Visual Screening of ysis and Interpretation, was developed under a contract
Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards Training Man- from the Office of Statewide Health Planning and
ual was developed under a contract with FEMA. Avail- Development (OSHPD), State of California. Available
able through the ATC office. (Published 1996, 135 through the ATC office. (Published 1991, 58 pages)
pages; 120 slides)
ABSTRACT: This report summarizes results from a
ABSTRACT: This training manual is intended to seismic survey of 490 California acute care hospi-
facilitate the presentation of the contents of the tals. Included are a description of the survey proce-
ATC-21 report. The training materials consist of dures and data collected, a summary of the data,
120 slides and a companion training presentation and an illustrative discussion of data analysis and
narrative coordinated with the slides. Topics cov- interpretation that has been provided to demonstrate
ered include: description of procedure, building potential applications of the ATC-23 database.
behavior, building types, building scores, occu-
pancy and falling hazards, and implementation. ATC-23B: The report, General Acute Care Hospital
Earthquake Survivability Inventory for California, Part
ATC-22: The report, A Handbook for Seismic Evalua- B: Raw Data, is a companion document to the ATC-
tion of Existing Buildings (Preliminary), was developed 23A Report and was developed under the above-men-
under a contract from FEMA. Available through the tioned contract from OSHPD. Available through the
ATC office. (Originally published in 1989; revised by ATC office. (Published 1991, 377 pages)
BSSC and published as the NEHRP Handbook for Seis-
mic Evaluation of Existing Buildings in 1992, 211 ABSTRACT: Included in this report are tabulations
pages) of raw general site and building data for 490 acute
care hospitals in California.
ABSTRACT: This handbook provides a methodol-
ogy for seismic evaluation of existing buildings of ATC-24: The report, Guidelines for Seismic Testing of
different types and occupancies in areas of different Components of Steel Structures, was jointly funded by
seismicity throughout the United States. The meth- the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), American
odology, which has been field tested in several pro- Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), National Center
grams nationwide, utilizes the information and for Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER), and
procedures developed for and documented in the NSF. Available through the ATC office. (Published
ATC-14 report. The handbook includes checklists, 1992, 57 pages)
diagrams, and sketches designed to assist the user.
ABSTRACT: This report provides guidance for most ABSTRACT: This report identifies and provides reso-
cyclic experiments on components of steel struc- lutions for issues that will affect the development of
tures for the purpose of consistency in experimental guidelines for the seismic strengthening of existing
procedures. The report contains recommendations buildings. Issues addressed include: implementa-
and companion commentary pertaining to loading tion and format, coordination with other efforts,
histories, presentation of test results, and other legal and political, social, economic, historic build-
aspects of experimentation. The recommendations ings, research and technology, seismicity and map-
are written specifically for experiments with slow ping, engineering philosophy and goals, issues
cyclic load application. related to the development of specific provisions,
and nonstructural element issues.
ATC-25: The report, Seismic Vulnerability and Impact
of Disruption of Lifelines in the Conterminous United ATC-29: The report, Proceedings of a Seminar and
States, was developed under a contract from FEMA. Workshop on Seismic Design and Performance of
Available through the ATC office. (Published 1991, 440 Equipment and Nonstructural Elements in Buildings
pages) and Industrial Structures, was developed under a grant
from NCEER and NSF. Available through the ATC
ABSTRACT: Documented in this report is a national office. (Published 1992, 470 pages)
overview of lifeline seismic vulnerability and
impact of disruption. Lifelines considered include ABSTRACT: These Proceedings contain 35 papers
electric systems, water systems, transportation sys- describing state-of-the-art technical information
tems, gas and liquid fuel supply systems, and emer- pertaining to the seismic design and performance of
gency service facilities (hospitals, fire and police equipment and nonstructural elements in buildings
stations). Vulnerability estimates and impacts and industrial structures. The papers were presented
developed are presented in terms of estimated first at a seminar in Irvine, California in 1990. Included
approximation direct damage losses and indirect are papers describing current practice, codes and
economic losses. regulations; earthquake performance; analytical and
experimental investigations; development of new
ATC-25-1: The report, A Model Methodology for seismic qualification methods; and research, prac-
Assessment of Seismic Vulnerability and Impact of Dis- tice, and code development needs for specific ele-
ruption of Water Supply Systems, was developed under ments and systems. The report also includes a
a contract from FEMA. Available through the ATC summary of a proposed 5-year research agenda for
office. (Published 1992, 147 pages) NCEER.
ABSTRACT: This report contains a practical method- ATC-29-1: The report, Proceedings Of Seminar On
ology for the detailed assessment of seismic vulner- Seismic Design, Retrofit, And Performance Of Non-
ability and impact of disruption of water supply structural Components, was developed under a grant
systems. The methodology has been designed for from NCEER and NSF. Available through the ATC
use by water system operators. Application of the office. (Published 1998, 518 pages)
methodology enables the user to develop estimates
of direct damage to system components and the ABSTRACT: These Proceedings contain 38 papers
time required to restore damaged facilities to pre- presenting current research, practice, and informed
earthquake usability. Suggested measures for miti- thinking pertinent to seismic design, retrofit, and
gation of seismic hazards are also provided. performance of nonstructural components. The
papers were presented at a seminar in San Fran-
ATC-28: The report, Development of Recommended cisco, California, in 1998. Included are papers
Guidelines for Seismic Strengthening of Existing Build- describing observed performance in recent earth-
ings, Phase I: Issues Identification and Resolution, was quakes; seismic design codes, standards, and proce-
developed under a contract with FEMA. Available dures for commercial and institutional buildings;
through the ATC office. (Published 1992, 150 pages) seismic design issues relating to industrial and haz-
ardous material facilities; design, analysis, and test-
ing; and seismic evaluation and rehabilitation of of Caltrans-designed bridges in the 1989 Loma Pri-
conventional and essential facilities, including hos- eta and other recent California earthquakes.
pitals.
ATC-34: The report, A Critical Review of Current
ATC-30: The report, Proceedings of Workshop for Uti- Approaches to Earthquake Resistant Design, was devel-
lization of Research on Engineering and Socioeconomic oped under a grant from NCEER and NSF. Available
Aspects of 1985 Chile and Mexico Earthquakes, was through the ATC office. (Published, 1995, 94 pages)
developed under a grant from the NSF. Available
through the ATC office. (Published 1991, 113 pages) ABSTRACT. This report documents the history of U.
S. codes and standards of practice, focusing prima-
ABSTRACT: This report documents the findings of a rily on the strengths and deficiencies of current
1990 technology transfer workshop in San Diego, code approaches. Issues addressed include: seismic
California, co-sponsored by ATC and the Earth- hazard analysis, earthquake collateral hazards, per-
quake Engineering Research Institute. Included in formance objectives, redundancy and configura-
the report are invited papers and working group rec- tion, response modification factors (R factors),
ommendations on geotechnical issues, structural simplified analysis procedures, modeling of struc-
response issues, architectural and urban design con- tural components, foundation design, nonstructural
siderations, emergency response planning, search component design, and risk and reliability. The
and rescue, and reconstruction policy issues. report also identifies goals that a new seismic code
should achieve.
ATC-31: The report, Evaluation of the Performance of
Seismically Retrofitted Buildings, was developed under ATC-35: This report, Enhancing the Transfer of U.S.
a contract from the National Institute of Standards and Geological Survey Research Results into Engineering
Technology (NIST, formerly NBS) and funded by the Practice was developed under a contract with the
USGS. Available through the ATC office. (Published USGS. Available through the ATC office. (Published
1992, 75 pages) 1996, 120 pages)
ABSTRACT: This report summarizes the results from ABSTRACT: The report provides a program of rec-
an investigation of the effectiveness of 229 seismi- ommended “technology transfer” activities for the
cally retrofitted buildings, primarily unreinforced USGS; included are recommendations pertaining to
masonry and concrete tilt-up buildings. All build- management actions, communications with practic-
ings were located in the areas affected by the 1987 ing engineers, and research activities to enhance
Whittier Narrows, California, and 1989 Loma Pri- development and transfer of information that is
eta, California, earthquakes. vital to engineering practice.
ATC-32: The report, Improved Seismic Design Criteria ATC-35-1: The report, Proceedings of Seminar on New
for California Bridges: Provisional Recommendations, Developments in Earthquake Ground Motion Estima-
was funded by the California Department of Transpor- tion and Implications for Engineering Design Practice,
tation (Caltrans). Available through the ATC office. was developed under a cooperative agreement with
(Published 1996, 215 Pages) USGS. Available through the ATC office. (Published
1994, 478 pages)
ABSTRACT: This report provides recommended
revisions to the current Caltrans Bridge Design ABSTRACT: These Proceedings contain 22 technical
Specifications (BDS) pertaining to seismic loading, papers describing state-of-the-art information on
structural response analysis, and component design. regional earthquake risk (focused on five specific
Special attention is given to design issues related to regions--California, Pacific Northwest, Central
reinforced concrete components, steel components, United States, and northeastern North America);
foundations, and conventional bearings. The rec- new techniques for estimating strong ground
ommendations are based on recent research in the motions as a function of earthquake source, travel
field of bridge seismic design and the performance path, and site parameters; and new developments
specifically applicable to geotechnical engineer- ern States Seismic Policy Council “Overall
ing and the seismic design of buildings and Excellence and New Technology Award.”
bridges.
ATC-44: The report, Hurricane Fran, South Caro-
ATC-37: The report, Review of Seismic Research lina, September 5, 1996: Reconnaissance Report, is
Results on Existing Buildings, was developed in con- available through the ATC office. (Published 1997,
junction with the Structural Engineers Association of 36 pages.)
California and California Universities for Research
in Earthquake Engineering under a contract from the ABSTRACT: This report represents ATC’s
California Seismic Safety Commission (SSC). Avail- expanded mandate into structural engineering
able through the Seismic Safety Commission as problems arising from wind storms and coastal
Report SSC 94-03. (Published, 1994, 492 pages) flooding. It contains information on the causative
hurricane; coastal impacts, including storm
ABSTRACT. This report describes the state of surge, waves, structural forces and erosion;
knowledge of the earthquake performance of building codes; observations and interpretations
nonductile concrete frame, shear wall, and of damage; and lifeline performance. Conclu-
infilled buildings. Included are summaries of 90 sions address man-made beach nourishment, the
recent research efforts with key results and con- effects of missile-like debris, breaches in the
clusions in a simple, easy-to-access format writ- sandy barrier islands, and the timing and duration
ten for practicing design professionals. of such investigations.
ATC-40: The report, Seismic Evaluation and Retro- ATC-R-1: The report, Cyclic Testing of Narrow Ply-
fit of Concrete Buildings, was developed under a con- wood Shear Walls, was developed with funding from
tract from the California Seismic Safety the Henry J. Degenkolb Memorial Endowment Fund
Commission. Available through the ATC office. of the Applied Technology Council. Available
(Published, 1996, 612 pages) through the ATC office (Published 1995, 64 pages)
ABSTRACT. This 2-volume report provides a ABSTRACT: This report documents ATC's first
state-of-the-art methodology for the seismic self-directed research program: a series of static
evaluation and retrofit of concrete buildings. and dynamic tests of narrow plywood wall pan-
Specific guidance is provided on the following els having the standard 3.5-to-1 height-to-width
topics: performance objectives; seismic hazard; ratio and anchored to the sill plate using typical
determination of deficiencies; retrofit strategies; bolted, 9-inch, 5000-lb. capacity hold-down
quality assurance procedures; nonlinear static devices. The report provides a description of the
analysis procedures; modeling rules; foundation testing program and a summary of results,
effects; response limits; and nonstructural com- including comparisons of drift ratios found dur-
ponents. In 1997 this report received the West- ing testing with those specified in the seismic
provisions of the 1991 Uniform Building Code.
Sponsors
Structural Engineers Association of California
James R. & Sharon K. Cagley
John M. Coil
Burkett & Wong
Supporters
Charles H. Thornton
Degenkolb Engineers
Japan Structural Consultants Association
Contributors
Lawrence D. Reaveley
Omar Dario Cardona Arboleda
Edwin T. Huston
John C. Theiss
Reaveley Engineers
Rutherford & Chekene
E. W. Blanch Co.