Science 1st Quarter

Volcano
 A mountain, hill, or conical shape with a crater.
 PHILVOCS - Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology.

Formation of Volcano
 When a continental crust and oceanic crust undergo the process of subduction.

Volcano Classifications
1. Active Volcanoes
 Currently erupting and expected to erupt.
2. Dormant Volcanoes
 Potentially active volcanoes.
 Not currently erupting but erupted with a recordable history and expected to erupt
again.
3. Extinct Volcanoes
 Inactive Volcanoes.
 Considered to be dead and not expected to erupt in the future.

Parts of a Volcano

Types of Volcano
1. Cinder cone
 Simplest and most common.
 100 to 400 m.
2. Composite (Stratovolcano)
 Tall conical-shaped mountain.
 100 to 3500 m.
3. Shield
 Huge gently sloped and exclusively erupt basaltic lava.
 As high as 9000 meters.

Style of Eruption
1. Phreatic eruption 
 Steam-driven; heated water.
2. Phreatomagmatic eruption
 Can send ash and debris; which may cause structural damage.
3. Magmatic eruption
 The rise of magma.
Earthquake 
 Natural geological phenomena that are caused by the sudden and rapid movement of a large
volume of rocks.
 Tectonic - movement along faults and plate boundaries.
 Volcanic - rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes.

Focus, Epicenter, and Fault

 Focus or hypocenter
 Point where faulting begins.
 Epicenter
 The point directly above the focus.
 Fault
 Rupture and slippage along fractures of Earth’s crust.

Seismology and Seismologist

 Seismology 
 Study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth.
 Seismologists
 Scientists who study earthquakes and seismic waves.

Seismic Waves
 The vibration of the earth.
 Produced by the rapid release of energy; all directions from the focus.

2 types of Seismic Waves

1. Body waves
 P waves (Primary Waves)
 The fastest wave that can travel through solids, liquids, and gases; a compressional
wave.
 S waves (Secondary Waves)
 Slower than P waves and can only travel through solids; shear wave.
2. Surface waves
 Just below or along the ground's surface.
 R waves (Rayleigh Waves)
 Rolling
  L waves (Love Waves)
 Side-to-side; most damaging.

Seismographs Record Events

1. Horizontal Seismograph
 Horizontal Movement
2. Vertical Seismograph
 Vertical Movement


Seismograph Records
1. Amplitude
 Maximum height in a peak of a wave.
2. Time
 Distance graph, average travel time for p and s waves.
 Farther seismograph, longer intervals between the arrival of p and s waves.

The magnitude and Intensity

1. Magnitude
 The measure of earthquake size.
2. Intensity
 The degree of shaking at a given place decreases with distance from the epicenter.

Triangulation
 Three seismograph stations are needed.
 A circle where the radius equals to distance to the epicenter is drawn.
 The intersection of the circle is the epicenter
 The formula for 100km:                         
 d = (Td/8 sec)100km

Scales used to measure earthquakes

1. Ritcher Scale
2. Mercalli Scale
3. Moment Magnitude Scale

Earthquake preparedness
 Minimize the effects of an earthquake.
 Disaster supply kits, go bags, preparedness plan, (DCH), or duck cover and hold.

Distribution of Active volcanoes, Earthquakes epicenters, And Major Mountain

belts
 Mountain
 The landmass that projects above its surroundings.
 Volcano
 Vent into the planet’s crust.
 Earthquake
 Shaking or trembling of the earth.
 Epicenter
  Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
 Seismograph
 Apparatus to measure and record vibrations in the Earth.

Seismic Zones
 Areas where volcanoes, mountain ranges, and earthquake epicenters are situated/located.

Plate tectonics
 The theory is that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into so-called tectonic plates.
 Move around on top of the Asthenosphere.

Plate
 The lithospheric plate is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock.
1. Major: Eurasian, African, Australian-Indian, North American, South American, Pacific, and The
Antarctic.
2. Intermediate: Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca, Arabian, Philippines, Juan de Fuca, and Scotia.

Pacific Ring of Fire

 The region around much of the rim of the Pacific Ocean where many volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes occur.
 40,000 km long and 500 km wide.

Plate boundaries
 Lines at the edges of the different places of the lithosphere.
San Andreas Fault
 Transform boundary; Strike-slip fault.

West Valley Fault

 Transform boundary; Strike-slip fault.
 Also called the Marikina Fault Line.
 Most geologically active fault line in the Philippines.

Types of Plate Boundaries

1. Convergent 
 Moves toward one another and collides.
 Mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
 Types: Oceanic and Continental, Continental and Continental, and Oceanic and Oceanic.
 Reverse fault.
2. Divergent
 Moves away from each other.
 Rift valley, ocean ridges, and earthquakes.
 Normal fault.
3. Transform
 slide past one another.
 Earthquakes.
 Strike-slip fault.
Layers of Earth

Layers of Earth

 Crust 
 Thinnest and outermost layer.
 Crust is part of the lithosphere.
 Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Potassium, Magnesium, Hydrogen, Calcium, Sodium,
and Titanium. 
 O, So, Al, Fe, K, Mg, H, C, Na, and T.

2 types of Crust
1. Continental Crust 
 surface
 Less Dense
2. Oceanic Crust
 underwater
 Denser

 Mohorovicic Discontinuity
 Separates crust and mantle.
 Lithosphere
 The lower crust and the upper layer of the mantle together
 Divided into separate plates which move very slowly in response to the “convecting” part
of the mantle.
 Mantle
 Largest and Thickest Layer.
 2850 - 2900  km.
 Solid but capable of flow (like fudge) Semi-Solid/Semi-Liquid.
 The conveyer belt for tectonic plates is called a convection current.
 Magnesium, Silicon, Oxygen, and Iron.
 Mg, S, O, and Fe.
 Layers: Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, and Mesosphere.
 Asthenosphere
 Where plate tectonics are moving and located.
 The plates "float" on the soft, semi-rigid asthenosphere.
 Convection is the movement of heated material as a result of differences in density.
  Mesosphere
 The strong, lower part of the mantle.
 Rock in the mesosphere flows slower than rock in the Asthenosphere.
 Gutenberg Discontinuity
 Separates mantle and core.
 Core
 3470 km thick
 Outer; liquid; 2200 km
 Inner; solid; 1270 km
 Iron and Nickel (Fe and N)

2 types of Core
1. Inner Core
 Molten (liquid) metal that is about 4,700°C (8,500°F)
 Liquid
2. Outer Core
 Solid; because of the pressure from the outer core, mantle, and crust compressing it.
 Heat in the core generated by the radioactive decay of uranium and other elements.
 It is believed to be as hot as 6,650°C (12,000°F).

Causes of the Plates Moving

1. Mantle Convection Current
 Warm mantle currents drive and carry the plates along the like a conveyer belt in a
circular motion.
2. Ridge Push
 The buoyant force; ability to float.
 The plates are floating on top of the asthenosphere due to the upward force that
equalizes the 2.
3. Slab Pull
 The subduction process where the denser plate goes below the less dense plate.

Continental Drift Theory

 The theory that all continents were once part of a single landmass or supercontinent that
broke apart and moved to their present locations.
 PANGEA - all land
 PANTHALASSA - all sea

Alfred Wegener
 Alfred Lothar Wegener
 Meteorologist and Scientist with a Ph.D. in Astronomy.
 Born on November 1, 1880, in Berlin, Germany.
 Died on November 1930 at age 50 in Greenland.
 Wrote a book named “Origin of Continents and Oceans”.
 His theory was rejected by Physicist Scheidegger.

4 Pieces of Evidence
1. Apparent Fit of Continents
 The shape of continents fits together like puzzle pieces.
 The coastlines of eastern South America and western Africa fit together.
2. Evidence of Life
 The fossil or remains of the same species are found on different continents.
 Ex. Mesosaurous, Cynogathous, Lystrosaurus, and Glossopteris. 
3. Rock and Mountain Correlation
 The mountains in Canada, Norway, and Sweden matched up.
 The rocks have the same type and the same age.
4. Paleoclimate Data
 Glacial Striations on hot countries
 Bituminous coals.