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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Agriculture and climate are mutually dependent. Many Agricultural activities

contribute to climate change and are affected by climate change. Agricultural activities,

deforestation and some forms of land conversion account for about one third of total global

warming potential from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (IPCC, 2001a). As a result of

large-scale activities, inadequate management and improper implementation, Agriculture is a

significant contributor to land and water degradation, and in particular a major emitter of

greenhouse gases (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007a).The issue of

climate change has become more threatening not only to the sustainable development of

socio-economic and agricultural activities of any nation but to the totality of human existence

(Adejuwon, 2004).

Climate change, refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g using

statistical test) by changes in the variability of its properties, and that persist for an extended

period, typically decades or longer (IPCC, 2007b). Climate change causes variations in

weather conditions which in turn has impact on agricultural productivity. Increase in

temperature causes excessive vaporization leading to poor agricultural productivity.

Climate change is only one of the many pressures on agriculture. Agriculture is

challenged with growing global demand and competition for resources. Food production and

consumption need to be seen in a broader context, linking agriculture, energy, and food

security. Nigerian agriculture is already under significant pressure to meet the demand of

rising population using finite, often degraded soil and water resources, which are now further

stressed by the impact of climate change (Awotoye and Matthew, 2010).

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Climate change phenomenon manifests in many respects, these include increased

frequencies of extreme climatic events like strong storms, floods and above average daily

minimum and maximum temperature (Enete, 2008). The durations and intensities of rainfall

have increased in the last three decades, producing large runoffs, floods and water logging in

many places (Ojo et al., 2001).

Climate change and animal production always are complementary to each other and

its effect on livestock production is witnessed all over the world (Menquesha, 2011).The

livestock sector is vital to the socio-economic development of Nigeria. It contributes about 9-

10% of the agricultural GDP (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2006). Moreover,

Nigeria chicken population is about 150.682 million of which 25% are commercially farmed,

15% semi-commercially and 60% in the backyards (United Nation Development Programme

(UNDP, 2006). Consequently, livestock represents an important source of high quality

protein, providing about 36.5 per cent of the total protein intake by Nigerians making it one

of the highest investments in agriculture with net worth of ₦250 billion (Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2006).However, livestock production is likely to be

adversely affected by climate change (Thornton, 2010). Thus, having a resultant effect on

poultry production.

Poultry production is the process of raising domesticated birds for the purpose of

producing meat and eggs for food. Poultry are birds that include fowl, turkey, duck, goose,

ostrich, guinea fowl, etc which render not only economic services but contribute significantly

to human food as a primary supplier of meat, egg, raw materials to industries (feathers, waste

products), good source of animal protein, source of income and employment to people

compared to other domestic animals (Demeke, 2004). Poultry are efficient converters of feed

to egg and meat within a short period of time. Poultry are farmed in great numbers with
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chickens being the most numerous. More than 50 billion chickens are raised annually as a

source of food, for both their meat and eggs. Layers are raised for eggs while broilers are

economically raised for meat. (Compassion in world farming poultry 2011). Poultry flocks

have a range of thermal conditions within which animals are able to maintain a relatively

stable body temperature in their behavioural and physiological activities. This makes them to

be vulnerable to climate change. Climate change alters global disease distribution, affects

poultry feed intake, encourage outbreak of diseases which invariably affects poultry output

(egg and meat) and also cost of production (Guis, et al., 2011). Elijah and Adedapo (2006)

reported in his study that high rainfall and relative humidity provides a conducive

environment for breeding of parasites that causes outbreak of diseases which invariably

reduces egg production. These effects of climate change on poultry production have called for the

need to adopt certain mitigation and adaptation strategies to cope with its harmful effects.

Mitigation has the potential to reduce climate change impacts by reducing the

emission of greenhouse gases while adaptation can reduce the damage of those impacts.

Together, both approaches can contribute to the development of societies that are more

resilient to the threat of climate change. Adaptation to climate change in agricultural

production is the adjustment of farming activities or methods to suit the changes in climatic

conditions in order to lessen the potential damage that are caused. According to IPCC

(2001b), adaptation to climate change is the adjustment in natural or human systems in

response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm so as to

take advantage of opportunities. The study was carried out base on climate change on poultry

production in Benue State and Nigeria at large and also to enable the adoption of appropriate

adaptation strategies.
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1.2 Statement of the Problem

One of the most urgent problems of the second millennium is the changing climate of

the universe. Unfortunately, a lot of countries including Nigeria are already living with the

results of this global problem. Climate change, which is largely a result of burning fossil

fuels, is already affecting the Earth’s temperature, precipitation, and hydrological cycles.

Continued changes in the frequency and intensity of precipitation, heat waves, and other

extreme events have impact on agricultural production. Incidences of food crisis arises from a

combination of factors. Reduced productivity arising from lower yield is suspected to be

exacerbated by climate change and related events (Nnaji, 2001; Onyenechere and Igbozurike,

2008).Climate change is a serious environmental threat to farmers and it worsens poverty

because of its impact on agricultural productivity. Almost all sectors of agriculture depend on

weather and climate whose variability have meant that rural farmers who implement their

regular annual farm business plans, encounter total failure due to climate change effects

(Ozor et al., 2010).

Many researchers have shown that agriculture in Africa is negatively affected by

climate change (Deressa et al., 2008); Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2006). Birds reared

in hot and humid environment with detrimental heat stress were lighter at nine weeks of age

and experienced reduced growth and egg production (Lara and Rostagno, 2013).

In the bid to increase agricultural productivity, farmers indulge in agricultural

practices and activities such as fertilizer application, use of manure and belches from

digestive processes of animals. These agricultural activities release greenhouse gases such as

carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane which results in the long run to climate change.

Changes in climate could threaten human health, diminish global food security, change the

distribution and seasonal availability of fresh water resources while speeding up the
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extinction of animals and plant species upon which human survival depends on. (Wreford et

al., 2010).

In Benue State, farmers are facing problem of extreme weather effects such as floods,

droughts, and increase temperature which seem to lower the rate of poultry production. These

challenges call for adaptation to climate change or variability in order to maintain optimum

level of production (Arimi and Jenyo-Oni, 2014). Birds of different breeds and of different

age, sex, stage of production, and reproduction respond differently to climatic change (Alade

and Ademola, 2013). It is highly desirable that data on such effects in different flocks should

be generated and analyzed to develop strategies to deal with adverse effects of climate

change. A study by Lenis et al (2019) Recommended air ventilation, use of energy efficient

bulbs, the use of vitamins and medicines as climate change adaptation strategies. The

knowledge of adaptation strategies and factors determining their choice could enhance policy

towards tackling the challenges climate change is imposing on Nigerian farmers (Sofoluwe et

al., 2011).

Other farmers are faced with the problem of finance and other factors due to the fact

that adaptation of farmers to the challenges of climate change involves exploiting the

continually developing technologies, resources and the expertise of science which involves

money. Several studies have shown that access to credit increases the likelihood of adaptation

(O’Brien et al., 2000; Aymone, 2009; Deressa et al., 2009). A study in Tanzania by O’Brien

et al. (2000) reported that despite numerous adaptation options that farmers are aware of and

willing to apply, the lack of income to purchase the necessary inputs and other associated

equipment is one of the significant constraints to adaptation. Farmers can achieve food

security, high income and livelihood security objectives if they adapt effectively to climate

change (Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008). To adapt effectively means to have the capacity to
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adopt suitable adaptation strategies in minimizing the effects of climate change on

agricultural production.

In spite of the efforts made by the federal and state government in check-mating

climate change by establishing Federal Universities of Agriculture, Colleges of Agriculture

and meteorological Stations; the problem of climate change still persist in general and Benue

state in particular. This development is worrisome. Although, a lot of research have been

carried out on climate change and poultry production in other parts of the country. For

instance, Adesiji et al. (2013), studied the effects of climate change on poultry production in

Ondo State. Alade, and Ademola, (2013), studied the perceived effects of climate variation

on poultry production in Oke Ogun local government area of Oyo State. Little or no work has

been done on perceived effects of climate change on poultry production and adaptation

strategies by poultry farmers in Benue state. To address this gap, this study was designed to

assess the perceived effects of climate change on poultry production and adaptation strategies

by poultry farmers in Benue State, Nigeria.

1.3 Research Questions

i. What are the socio-economic characteristics of poultry farmers in the study area?

ii. What are poultry farmers’ perception of climate change and its intensity?

iii. What are the perceived effects of climate change on poultry production in the

study area?

iv. What are the adaptation strategies of poultry farmers to climate change in the

study area?

v. What are the factors influencing the choice of adaptation strategies?

vi. What is the effect of climate change adaptation strategies on technical efficiency

of poultry producers?
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1.4 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of the study was to assess the perceived effects of climate change on

poultry production and adaptation strategies on by poultry farmers in Benue state. The

specific objectives were to:

i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of poultry farmers in the study area;

ii. assess poultry farmers’ perception of climate change and its intensity;

iii. identify farmers’ perceived effect of climate change on poultry production in the

study area;

iv. Identify adaptation strategies of poultry farmers to climate change in the study area;

v. evaluate factors influencing the choice of adaptation strategies, and

vi. determine the effects of climate change adaptation strategies on technical efficiency

of poultry producers.

1.5 Statement of Hypotheses

Based on the specific objectives of the study, the following null hypotheses were

tested.

Hₒ1: Socio-economic characteristics of farmers have no significant influence on their choice

of climate change adaptation strategies.

Hₒ2: Climate change adaptation strategies have no significant influence on technical

efficiency of poultry production.

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1.6 Significance of the Study

This study will improve the understanding of poultry farmers on the use of

appropriate climate change adaptation strategies to increase productivity. The results from

this study will give direction to policy makers in designing appropriate public policies to

increase agricultural productivity and mitigate the effects of climate change on poultry

production in Benue State especially in the study area. It provides a useful guide to

international and local donor agencies interested in climate change adaptation in their

provision of grants and funds for environmental and resource management studies to increase

poultry production in the study area.

The results of this study will also help the agricultural sector of Benue state with

information to complement the farm-level adaptation strategies. Academically, this study

provides a good resource base for researchers to carry out further work on climate change.

This study determines the relationship between climate change adaptation strategies and

technical efficiency of poultry farmers and also determines the relationship between socio-

economic characteristics of farmers and their choice of climate change adaptation strategies

in the study area.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study assessed Perceived effects of climate change on poultry production and adaptation

strategies by poultry farmers in Benue state, Nigeria. The study covered two agricultural

zones in Benue state. Makurdi and Gboko Local Government Areas from the northern zone

(Zone B), Otukpo and Okpokwu Local Government Area from the central zone (Zone C)

respectively.
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1.8 Definition of Terms

i. Climate: Climate is the condition of the temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure,

wind, rainfall, and other meteorological elements in an area of the earth surface over a long

period of time.

ii. Climate change: This refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified

(e.g using statistical test) by changes in the variability of its properties, and that persist for an

extended period, typically decades or longer. (IPCC, 2007).

iii. Poultry: These are domesticated birds kept for meat and egg.

iv. Poultry farming: This is the process of raising domesticated birds for the purpose of

producing meat and eggs for food.

v. Adaptation to climate change: In agricultural production, it is the adjustment of farming activities

or methods to suit the changes in climatic conditions in order to lessen the potential damage that are

caused by climate change.

vi. Adaptation strategy: This is the framework for managing future climate risk, prioritizing

and coordinating action.

vii Green House Gas: These are dangerous industrial waste (examples are methane (CH 4)

carbon (iv) oxide and nitrous oxide (N2O)) released into the atmosphere.

vii Efficiency: It is a measurable concept that can be obtained by determining the ratio of

useful output by total inputs used.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature was reviewed under the following sub-headings based on the specific

objectives of the study:

2.1 Theoretical framework

2.1.1 Adaptation theory

2.1.2 Utility theory

2.2 Conceptual framework

2.3 Review of related Empirical studies

2.3.1 Concept of climatic change.

2.3.2 Socio-economic characteristics of poultry farmers

2.3.3 Farmers perception on intensity ofclimate change

2.3.4 Climatic factors influencing Poultry production

2.3.5 Perceived effects of climate change

2.3.6 Climate change adaptation strategies

2.3.7 Factors influencing choice of adaptation strategies

2.3.8 Poultry production

2.3.9 Poultry Housing

2.3.10 Feeding
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2.3.11 Care and Management

2.3.12 Marketing

2.3.13 Technical Efficiency

2.4 Summary of Literature Reviewed

2.1 Theoretical Framework

The theories reviewed in this study are adaptation theory and utility theory.

2.1.1 Adaptation theory

Adaptation theory is also known as the survival theory or survival of the fittest. The
theory explains the ability of individuals or organisms to adapt to changes in its environment
and adjust accordingly over time. Adaptation occurs over generations of species with those
traits that help the organisms or individuals eat and mate profusely being passed down from
generation to generation until the whole species change to be better suited to their
environment. The most famous scientist associated with adaptive theory is Charles Darwin
whose studies in the 1830s established a fixed relationship between organism and its
habitat or environment.

A process of change or modification by which an organism species becomes better

suited to its environment or ecological niche, or part of an organism to its biological
functions either through phenotypic change in an individual or through an evolutionary
process effecting change through successive generations is adaptation (Hutcheon, 2006).
Adaptation theory proposed three changes when environment or habitat changes: habitat
tracking genetic change or extinction. Only genetic change is adaptation. Habitat tracking is
when species follow a habitat change or find another environment similar to the one it lived
in before. When a species is unable to move or change, the result is extinction. Genetic
change is when natural selection allows the individuals with slight mutations to have
advantage over the rest of the population, giving them access to food and mates. A farming
system must adapt to environmental changes or it will not be productive.
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2.1.2 Utility theory

This is the second theory reviewed in this study. Utility theory is concerned with

people’s choices and decisions. It is concerned also with preferences and with judgments of

preferability, worth, value, goodness or any of a number of similar concepts. This theory

provides a methodological framework for the evaluation of alternative choices made by

individuals, firms and organizations. Utility refers to the satisfaction that each choice

provides to the decision maker. Thus, this theory assumes that any decision is made on the

basis of the utility maximization principle according to which the best choice is the one that

provides the highest utility (satisfaction) to the decision maker.

Utility theory is often used to explain the behaviour of individual consumers. In this

case, the poultry farmer plays the role of the decision maker that must decide which of the

many available climate change adaptation strategies to adopt so as to secure the highest

possible level of total utility subject to his or her available income, prices, and other factors.

The traditional framework of utility theory has been extended over the past three

decades to multi-attribute case, in which decisions are taken by multiple criteria. In all cases

the utility that the decision maker ( i.e. poultry farmer) gets from selecting a specific climate

change adaptation strategy is measured by a utility function U, which is a mathematical

representation of the decision maker’s (poultry farmer) system of preferences such that:

U(X1) ˃ U(X2),

where choice of climate change adaptation X1 is preferred over choice of X2 or

U(X2) > U(X1

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where choice of climate change adaptation X2 is preferred over choice X1 or

UX1= UX2,

Where both choice X1 and X2 are equally preferred. The climate change adaptation strategies

adopted by poultry farmers were modelled into regression models to determine the factors

that influence the choice of each adaptation strategies in Benue state.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework presented for this study shows the interrelationship
between climatic factors, factors influencing choice of adaptation strategy, adaptation
strategies and poultry production.

Poultry production as a dependent variable depends on independent variables such as climatic

factors (temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind) cost of inputs, access to credit, socio-

economic characteristics of farmers (level of education), lack of information on adaptation

strategies, type of housing as well as intervening variables such as adaptation strategies,

managerial skills and competence.

Climate change is a severe problem faced by poultry farmers. It exposes birds to

tough weather conditions resulting to disease infestation, reduced egg size, reduced growth,

high mortality of birds etc. Poultry farmers perceive climate change to be excessive sunshine,

excessive rainfall, increased incidence of drought, high temperature, high wind, long period

of harmattan, short period of harmattan and irregular relative humidity.

The degree to which an agricultural and pastoral system is affected by climate change

depends on its adaptive capacity, which is the ability of a system to adjust to climate change

and variability to moderate potential damage, take advantage of opportunities or cope with

the consequences (IPCC, 2001). In order to reduce the effect of climate change on poultry
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production, poultry farmers resolve to adopt appropriate adaptation strategies such as better

hygiene, more space per bird, more water served, prompt and extra vaccination of birds,

keeping of resistant breeds, regular practice of routine management, installed cooling

equipment, tree planting around poultry house and keeping of early maturing birds.

There are factors that influence poultry farmers’ choice of adaptation strategies.

Access to credit will speed up the adoption process of adaptation strategies by poultry

farmers since finance is a relevant factor for implementation. Adequate information and

knowledge of adaptation strategies, socio-economic characteristics of farmers such as age,

farming experience, gender, education and others, influences farmers’ choice of adaptation

strategies having a resultant effect on poultry production.

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Independent variables Intervening variables Dependent variable

Managerial skills and

Climate Change: climatic
factors are: competence
-Temperature
Adaptation strategies such as:
-Relative humidity

-Rainfall -keeping resistant breeds

- Wind etc.
-prompt and extra vaccine,
Factors influencing choice

of adaptation strategies -provision of shades Technical Efficiency in

Poultry production
are: - installed cooling equipment,

- cost of inputs - tree planting around poultry

house
- Access to credit

- keeping of early maturing

-Socio-economic
birds etc.
characteristics of farmers

such as age, education,

capital etc.

Figure 1: Conceptual Frame work for assessing Perceived Effects of Climate Change on Poultry

Production and Adaptation Strategies by Poultry Farmers in Benue state, Nigeria.

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2.3 Review of Emperical studies

2.3.1 Concept of Climatic Change

According to IPCC (2007), Climate is more frequently defined in a wider sense as the

statistical description of the climate system. This includes the analysis of the behaviour of its

five major components: the atmosphere (the gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth), the

hydrosphere (liquid water, i.e. ocean, lakes, underground water, etc), the cryosphere (solid

water, i.e sea ice, glaciers, ice sheets, etc), the land surface and the biosphere (all the living

organisms), and of the interactions between them. Climate change in IPCC usage refers to

any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human

activity (IPCC 2007).

The United Nations Framework on Climate change (2007) defines climate as a change

that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activities that alters the composition of the

global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over

comparable time periods. Brooks (2006) also submitted that the Sahel belt of Africa

experienced dramatic changes in climate between early 1970s and mid-1990s. Some studies

have noted that future climate change will have serious impacts on the livelihood of the

African Sahel region (Zeng, 2003; IPCC, 2007). Climate change affects agriculture and

agriculture also causes climate change. Agriculture causes climate change through the

emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) from different agricultural activities (Maraseni et al.,

2009; Edwards-Jones et al., 2009). More recently, due to climate change Sahel region was

affected by food and nutrition crises in 2005, 2010 and 2012 (European Commission, 2013).

A study by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

(IUCN, 2010) on Building climate change resilience for African livestock in Sub-Saharan
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Africa, submitted that there are a number of reasons for analyzing the interrelations of

climate change and the livestock sector. Specifically, although animal husbandry had been

noted as key contributors to climate change, rural poor households often depend on proceeds

from livestock enterprises for meeting critical domestic needs and they serve as sources of

credit and savings.

Adverse climate change impacts are considered to be particularly strong in countries

located in tropical Africa that depend on agriculture as their main source of livelihood (Inter

Academy Council Report, IACR 2004; Dixon et al., 2001; IPCC, 2001a).

2.3.2 Socio –economic Characteristics of Poultry Farmers

The effectiveness of climate change responses is influenced by the adaptive capacity of

communities within regions over spatial and temporal scales. Farmers’ adaptation to climate

change is affected by socioeconomic factors, such as farmers’ adaptive capacity and

traditional practices (Duan, and Hu, 2014; Masud et al., 2016). According to Deressa et al.

(2008), the decision of farmers to adopt or not to adopt any particular adaptation strategy

(technology) to reduce the effects of climate change on agricultural production is

characterized by certain socioeconomic factors, farm characteristics, changes in climatic

factors.

The study conducted in northern Thailand found that the farmers’ agricultural experience,

farm income, training, social capital, and effective climate adaptation communication

significantly increased the probability of adaptation by the farmers (Arunrat et al., 2017).

Thus, understanding how climate change is perceived, experienced and responded to by the

farmers at a household level is important for devising appropriate adaptation strategies and

support policies for addressing the expected changes. Recent regional climate change

assessments elsewhere in the world by Holman et al. (2005) have shown that socio-economic
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scenarios can often be more important than climate scenarios in impact assessments,

particularly in determining economic impacts and adaptive capacity.

Empirical study on effects of socio-economic characteristics of farmers on adoption of

adaptation strategies in Oyo state showed that household size, extension visits and non-farm

income significantly impact on the various strategies used on adaptation to climate change

(Olajide and Laudia, 2011). Age is an important factor among the socio-economic

characteristics of poultry farmers as it determines the effectiveness and competence of labour

availability for production. Alade and Ademola (2013), in a study on Perceived effect of

climate variation on poultry production in Oke Ogun area of Oyo State found out that the

more the education and income of poultry farmers, the higher the measures used in

controlling the effects of climate variation. Also Farmers with good educational background

are most likely to have better ability to keep records and make observation on effects of

climate change on their farms than the illiterates. (Adesiji et al. 2013).

2.3.3 Farmers Perception on Intensity of Climate Change

The fact that climate has been changing in the past and continues to change in the future

implies that, there is need to understand how farmers perceive climate change in order to plan

strategies for adaptation in the future. A study by Ishaya and Abaje (2008) on indigenous

people’s perception on climate change and adaptation strategies in Jema’a local government

area of Kaduna state reveals that, indigenous people in the study area perceived that climate

has been changing over the years due to human activities. Poultry farmers perceive climate

change to be excessive sunshine, excessive rainfall, increased incidence of drought, high

temperature, high wind, long period of harmattan, short period of harmattan and irregular

relative humidity. Farmers also perceive some effect to climate change such as increased

diseases infestation, regular wet animal faeces, higher mortality of birds, additional cost of
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production, increased feed consumption, scarcity of livestock feed, irregular humidity,

irregular temperature, reduced feed conversion and others. Studies indicate that farmers’

adapt to reduce the negative impacts of climate change (Mertz et al., 2009; Ishaya and Abaje

2008; David et al., 2007).

2.3.4 Climatic Factors Affecting Poultry Production

The climate in poultry houses influences the wellbeing and health of humans as well

as the birds. The levels of performance of poultry, does not depend only on inherited capacity

but, also to a great extent upon the environment (Babinszky et al., 2011). Respiratory,

digestive and behavioural disorders are more likely to occur in houses in which the climatic

conditions are not up to standard. Some climatic factors influencing poultry production are

temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, Air composition, Light, Air speed and air movement.

A study by Elijah and Adedapo (2006) on the effects of climate on poultry production in

Ilorin Kwara State reveals that the environmental conditions affecting the performance and

health productivity of chicken include temperature, relative humidity, light, sunshine

prevailing at a given time, housing system and ventilation. Adesiji et al., (2013) reveals in a

study on the effects of climate change on poultry production in Ondo State that behaviour of

birds will change when temperatures rise above their comfort zone as they will start to pant

and change their body position. When temperatures are below the comfort zone, birds will

also change their body position and huddle together. Whether or not birds are comfortable is

very much influenced by air velocity and air temperature. Temperature fluctuation, increased

in sunshine intensity and global warming has a negative effects on poultry production.

Relative humidity in poultry houses is measured to determine whether respiratory

disorders are due to too high or too low relative humidity. If the relative humidity is too high,

condensation can accumulate in the house. This has a direct effect on the growth of micro-
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organisms. Heating air results in lower relative humidity. Conversely, cooling the air will

result in a higher relative humidity. The morning relative humidity is always higher than that

of the afternoon. The more the number of rainy days, the more is the relative humidity.

Humidity more than 75% affect breathing, feed intake, and its utilization. The high morning

relative humidity might be attributed to affect the feed consumption and utilization resulting

in a negative effect on growth (Elijah and Adedapo 2006).

2.3.5 Perceived Effects of Climate Change on Poultry Production

It is very clear that climate change has different adverse effects on livestock

production as revealed from literatures (IPCC, 2007; BNRCC, 2008 and Nigerian

Environmental Study Action Team NEST, 2004). Climate change already affects physical

process in many parts of the world, leading to changes in temperature and rainfall patterns, in

wind direction and increased intensity and frequency of extreme events like drought, floods

and cyclones (Tubiello et al., 2007). Adverse effects of climate changes were stated by the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), to mean changes in

the physical environment or biota which have significant deleterious effects on the

composition, resistance, or productivity of natural and managed ecosystem or on the

operation of socio-economic systems or on human health and welfare (UNFCCC, 2003).

Climate change directly alters precipitation and temperature patterns, which are the

key natural inputs in agricultural production. One of the effects of climate change is the rise

in temperature that leads to water deficit (Chinvamo, 2010; Mitin, 2009).A study by Uzokwe

and Bakare (2013) on the effect of climate variability on poultry production in Ondo State

discloses that when temperature is higher than the comfort zone of the birds, the feed

consumption will be reduced leading to lower rate of growth. Feed intake decreased by 1.5 g

a day for every degree centigrade rise in temperature above 30°C (Weaver, 2002). A study by
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the Indian Council for Agricultural Research ICAR 2010, also discloses that ambient

temperatures significantly influence the survivability and performance of the poultry

production. When ambient temperature is high, chickens have higher energy needs than when

in thermoneutral environments. As the ambient temperature increased to 34oC the mortality

due to heat was significantly high in meat type chickens by 8.4%, the feed consumption of

the chickens decreases from 108.3g/bird/day at 31.6 oC to 68.9g/bird/day at 37.9oC, the egg

production also decreased by 6.4% as compared to their standard egg production. Presently,

local farmers are no longer able to predict incidence of rain, based on past observation.

Increasing temperatures, declining and more unpredictable rainfall, more frequent extreme

weather and higher severity of pests and diseases are among the drastic changes that impact

food production (Parry et al., 2007, Morton, 2007; Brown and Funk, 2008; Lobell et al.,

2008).

Excessive flooding can also lead to soil erosion and destruction of farmlands and

livestock houses. Climate change has significant impact on fragile soil and traditional

farming systems Akinro et al., 2008). The authors explained that small rural farmers and

communities no longer produce sufficient quantities of the food needed to sustain their

populations. This is as a result of flooding which destroys lives of livestock and infrastructure

used to store or transport food from production areas to markets thereby acting as

disincentive to farmers who could produce more food (Ifeanyieze et al., 2016). Climate

change resultant effect of hunger and malnutrition are now adversely affecting the livelihood

and wellbeing of a massive number of people and inhibiting the development of many poor

countries (Ikehi, 2014). The extents to which the impacts of climate change are felt depend

largely on the extent of adaptation.

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2.3.6 Climate Change Adaptation Strategies

Adaptation is the adjustments which moderates harm or exploit beneficial

opportunities in response to actual or expected climate stimuli or their effects (IPCC, 2007b).

Eisenack and Stecker (2010) define adaptation as decision-making processes and actions that

enhance adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity encompasses the enabling conditions for

adaptation. Many definitions and characteristics for adaptation are documented by

researchers both in developing and developed countries (Burton et al., 2005).

Climate-change adaptation refers to spontaneous or organized processes through

which human being and societies adjust to changes in climate, thereby making changes in the

operation of land and natural resource use systems and other forms of social and economic

organizations. (Quan and Dyer, 2008). Adaptation is place and context specific, with no

single approach for reducing risks among vulnerable groups or across all settings. Effective

risk reduction and adaptation strategies consider the dynamics of vulnerability and exposure

and their linkages with socioeconomic processes, sustainable development, and extent of

climate change (IPCC, 2014).Adaptation can be viewed as reducing the severity of many

impacts when adverse conditions prevail. That is, adaptation reduces the level of damages

that might have otherwise occurred.

Numerous adaptation studies have been conducted on assessing the impacts of climate

change on agricultural production (Chun et al.,2016; Truelove et al., 2015) and the empirical

evidence proves that climate change adaptation enables a reduction in impacts and prevents

possible damage to farmers and their livelihood (Arunrat et al., 2017). Efforts to adapt to

climate change can be directed at preventing its occurrence or at minimizing damage.

 23

Livestock producers have traditionally adapted to various environmental and climatic

changes by building on their in-depth knowledge of the environment in which they live. This

has been identified by several experts (IFAD, 2009; FAO, 2008; Thornton et al., 2008;

Sidahmed, 2008) as ways to increase adaptation in the livestock sector. A study by Hoffmann

(2008), on Livestock genetic diversity and climate change adaptation, reveals that adaptation

strategies address not only the tolerance of livestock to heat, but also their ability to survive,

grow and reproduce in conditions of poor nutrition, parasites and diseases. Efficient and

affordable adaptation practices need to be developed for the rural poor who are unable to

afford expensive adaptation technologies. These could include provision of shade and water

to reduce heat stress from increased temperature, timely administration of extra vaccination,

regular practice of routine management, keeping of resistant breeds etc.

2.3.7 Factors Influencing Choice of Adaptation Strategies

The success of adaptation depends critically on the availability of necessary resources,

not only financial and natural resources, but also knowledge, technical capability, and

institutional resources (Pew Center on Global Climate Change PCGCC, 2004). In addition,

many social, economic, technological and environmental trends also critically shape the

ability of farmers to perceive and adapt to climate change. High cost of production, access to

drugs and vaccines, agricultural extension services, inadequate capital, labour intensive

nature of adaptation strategies, inadequate information on climatic issues are also factors

influencing choice of adaptation strategies. Knowledge of the adaptation methods and factors

affecting farmers’ choices enhances efforts directed towards tackling the challenges that

climate change is imposing on farmers (Deressa et al., 2009). Thus, for many poor countries

that are highly vulnerable, understanding farmers’ response to climate change is crucial in

designing appropriate adaptation strategies (Mohmud et al., 2008).

 24

Experience has shown that identified adaptation measures do not necessarily translate

into changes, because adaptation strategies to climate change and physiological barriers to

adaptation are local specific (IPCC, 2007). A better understanding of the local dimensions of

climate change is essential to develop appropriate adaptation measures that will mitigate

adverse consequences of climatic change impact. The knowledge of the adaptation choices

and factors affecting the adaptation methods to climate change enhance policy towards

tackling the challenge that climate change is imposing on farm households having little

adaptation capacities. Better access to extension services seems to have a strong positive

influence on the probability of choosing in adaptation strategies (Aymone, 2009; Deressa et

al., 2009). The study by Aymone (2009) on understanding farmers perception and adaptation

to climate change and variability argue that farmers who have access to extension services are

more likely to be aware of changing climatic conditions and to have knowledge of the various

management practices that they can use to adapt to changes in climatic conditions. Individual

farmers may adapt to climate change in different ways based on their capability. An

individual adaptation scheme would differ from governmental policy that considered a much

larger scale (Kawasaki and Herath, 2011).

2.3.8 Poultry Production

Poultry production is a major source of protein which has empowered poultry farmers

to secure a means of survival and livelihood. Poultry plays an important economic, nutritional

and socio-cultural role in the livelihood of poor rural households in many developing

countries, including Nigeria. In terms of nutritive value, poultry egg rank second to cow milk.

A study by Amos (2006) on Analysis of backyard poultry production in Ondo State reveals

that Agriculturists and nutritionists have generally agreed that developing the poultry industry

of Nigeria is the fastest means of bridging the protein deficiency gap presently prevailing in
 25

the country. Improvement in poultry production implies to create an opportunity for

development of the poor section of the society (Adesiji et al 2013).

Major losses result from a less efficient conversion of feed to meat, which

detrimentally impacts poultry health and productivity (Olanrewaju et al., 2010). Climate

change affects poultry production by reducing poultry yield and nutritional quality of feeds,

increasing disease and disease-spreading pests, reducing water availability and making it

difficult for birds to survive (Spore, 2008). Climate change manifests as rise in temperature

causes a fall in humidity and provides a medium for fungal and bacterial growth. Disease

outbreak becomes inevitable; diseases like coccidiosis, haemorrhagic syndrome, fowl pox,

and bronchitis will thus be on the increase. Rowlinson (2008) stated that change in

temperature will reduce the rate of poultry feed intake causing poorer performance. Poultry

production in Nigeria is classified into intensive and semi-intensive systems. The age of a

bird determines its temperature and relative humidity requirement. Once the chicks are

hatched, they must be maintained at higher than normal temperatures until they develop some

specific size and feather coverage to acclimatize to more normal animal housing temperature.

Poultry production involves the following processes:

2.3.9 Poultry Housing

Good and suitable housing play a vital role in raising all types of poultry birds. Some

birds grow and live happily in the floor of poultry house and some in cages. Depending on

the birds, suitable housing with necessary facilities should be provided. The following aspects

should be Consider while building houses for your poultry birds.

 Make poultry houses in calm and quite place.

 26

 Always keep sufficient space in the poultry house, depending on the production stage

of the birds, to avoid overcrowding and enable birds to live, grow and produce

happily.

 Ensure good ventilation system

 Ensure sufficient flow of fresh air and light inside the poultry house.

 Keep proper distance between one house and another house.

 Make suitable drainage system inside the house for cleaning it properly.

 Clean and Sterilize the house before bringing new chicks into your farm.

2.3.10 Feeding

Feeding high quality, fresh and nutritious food, always ensure good health, proper

growth and high production. Healthy and nutritious feed usually contains all types of

necessary vitamins and minerals. High-quality and well-balanced protein sources ensures

maximum egg, meat and feather production. Along with feeding, birds needs sufficient

amount of fresh and clean water.

2.3.11 Care and Management

A carefully controlled environment that avoids crowding, chilling, overheating, or

frightening is almost universal in poultry farming. Cannibalism, which expresses itself as toe

picking, feather picking and tail picking is controlled by debeaking and other management

practices. The poultry house and equipment is kept clean on a regular basis with good

ventilation to avoid disease infection. Timely feeding and vaccination improves the growth of

birds and protect them from diseases. In poultry management, necessary steps are taken to

prevent predators and harmful animals. Good temperature management also prevents

excessive hot or cold environment (Rowlinson, 2008).

 27

2.3.12 Marketing

Marketing process of various types of poultry products are very easy because poultry

products have a huge demand globally. Poultry products can be sold in the farm, local market

or big supermarkets.

2.3.13 Technical Efficiency

Efficiency in itself is concerned with relative performance of the processes used in

transforming a set of inputs into output. The concept of efficiency has been interpreted in

many forms or ways. These are technical (or physical) and allocative (or price) efficiency.

Technical efficiency is the ratio of total output to total input. Chavanapoonphol et al. (2005)

described technical efficiency of an individual farmer as the ratio of observed output to its

corresponding stochastic frontier output, given the levels of the inputs used by the farmer.

The purely technical or physical efficiency is the ability to avoid waste by producing as much

output as input usage allows or by using as little input as output production allows (Lovell,

1993). Thus the analysis of technical efficiency can have an output-augmenting orientation

and an input-conserving orientation (Kebede, 2001). Ajibefun et al. (2002) used the translog

stochastic frontier production function methodology to estimate the level of technical

efficiency of smallholder food crop farmers in Oyo State of Nigeria. The results revealed that

the inefficiency effects of the smallholder croppers were significant. The technical
 28

inefficiency varied widely, ranging from 19 % to 95 %, with a mean value of 82 % indicating

that the farmers are 82 % efficient in the use of their production input.

Ogundele and Okoruwa (2006) in their study, “technical efficiency differentials in

rice production technologies in Nigeria,” estimated technical efficiency following the

maximum likelihood estimation using data from 302 farmers. The findings indicated that

there was no absolute difference between the two groups (local and improved) of farmers.

The average technical efficiency for the two groups were correspondingly high. Ojo (2003)

examined the productivity and technical efficiency of poultry egg production in Nigeria using

the stochastic frontier production function analysis using data from 200 farmers. The results

showed that poultry egg production was in the rational stage of production (stage II) as

depicted by the returns-to-scale (RTS) of 0.771. The technical efficiencies of the farmers

varied widely between 0.239 and 0.933 with a mean of 0.763.

2.4 Summary of Literature Reviewed

The study reviewed Literature on concept of climatic change, socio-economic characteristics

of poultry farmers and farmers’ perception on intensity of climate change. The study also

reviewed literature on climatic factors influencing poultry production, farmers’ perceived

effects of climate change, climate change adaptation strategies and factors influencing choice

of adaptation strategies. Literature was also reviewed on poultry production, care and

management, marketing and technical efficiency in the study. The Literature reviewed in the

study provided evidence to support the findings from perceived effects of climate change on

poultry production and adaptation strategies by poultry farmers in Benue State.

29
 30

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

This study employed cross-sectional survey design in which questionnaires were distributed

to poultry farmers in the study area to obtain responses.

3.2 The Study Area

The study area for this research is Benue state. Benue State is one of the 36 states in Nigeria.

The state derives its name from River Benue and lies in the middle belt region of Nigeria. Its

geographical coordinates are longitude 7o 47' 0"and 10o 0' 0"East and Latitude 6o 25' 0" and 8o

08' 0" North (NPC 2006). Benue State has the total area of about 30955km 2and is divided

into 23 Local Government Areas with the headquarters in Makurdi. The state shares

boundaries with five other states which are; Nasarawa to the North, Taraba to the East, Cross

River to the South-East, Enugu to the South-West, Kogi to the West. Benue state is divided

into three agricultural zones. Based on Köppen climate classification, Benue State lies within

the AW (tropical savanna climate) climate and experiences two distinct seasons, the Wet

season and the Dry season (Peel et al., 2007). The rainy season lasts from April to October

with annual rainfall in the range of 100-200mm. The dry season begins in November and

ends in March. Temperatures fluctuate between 21 – 37 degrees Celsius in the year. The

monthly distribution of rainfall in Benue State varies significantly from the North to South,

with the annual total averaging between 1200 in the North to about and 1400 mm in the

South (Ogungbenro and Morakinyo, 2014). The area is suitable for a wide range of

agricultural productions as it receives rich alluvial deposits annually during flood period

along the plains of the numerous tributaries and along the plains of the Benue River itself.

Owing to its ecologically balanced location between the forest and savannah biomes,
 31

virtually all tropical crops, ranging from tubers to cereals and fruits can be grown profitably

in the region. Important cash crops include soybeans, rice, peanuts, mango varieties, citrus,

etc. Other cash crops include palm oil, melon, African pear, chili pepper, tomatoes etc. Food

crops include Yam, Cassava, Sweet potato, Beans, Maize, Millet, Guinea corn, Vegetables

etc. Animal production include, Cattle, Pork, Poultry and Goat etc. Agriculture forms the

backbone of the Benue State economy, engaging more than 70 per cent of the working

population. This has made Benue the major source of food production in the Nation.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population for this study consist of all poultry farmers in Benue state.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

A Multistage sampling technique was used to select 198 respondents for the study. In the first

stage, two agricultural zones out of the three agricultural zones in Benue State were selected

purposively on the basis of high concentration of poultry farmers. The second stage involved

a purposive selection of two local government area from each agricultural zones due to high

level of poultry production in these areas. Thirdly, three communities each were randomly

selected from each local government area making a total of twelve communities. Fourthly, a

sampling frame was developed for each of the communities using a proportion of 30 % (0.3)

across board. This distribution is illustrated in Table 1.

 32

Table 1: Sample Size Selection Plan

Agricultura L.G.A Communities Sample frame Sample size

l zones (30 %)

B Makurdi Welfare Quarters 64 19

Old G.R.A 72 22

North bank 117 35

Gboko Yandev 59 18

Anyamkor 41 12

Akaajime 47 14

C Otukpo Obaganya 42 13

Asa-Ehicho 33 10

Jericho 45 14

Okpokwu Ugbokolo 56 17

Okpoga 44 13

Edumoga 38 11

Total 4 12 658 198

Source: Field survey 2018

 33

3.5 Instrument of Data Collection

The instrument for data collection was a set of structured questionnaire that covers all the

information to realize the research objectives.

3.6 Validation of the Instrument

The instrument for data collection in this study was validated by passing it through

three experts in the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Agriculture,

Makurdi. They gave their independent opinions on the adequacy and relevance of the

research instrument to ensure that it possesses both face and content validity. Their

observations were harmonized and necessary corrections were effected on the instrument

before data collection commenced.

3.7 Reliability of the Instrument

The type of reliability test that was used is the test retest method. The research

instrument was administered twice to a group of twenty (20) respondents at different times.

The obtained results were correlated with the use of Pearson correlation coefficient (r) to give

the internal consistency of the research instrument. The correlation coefficient (r) of 0.99 was

obtained.

3.8 Method of Data Collection

Data collection for this study were essentially from primary source in order to achieve

the specific objectives. The primary data were collected using structured questionnaire

administered to the respondents. The data collection instrument focused on socio-economic

factors, perceived intensity of climate change, perceived effect of climate change, climate
 34

change adaptation strategies used by the farmers, input-output data, and other relevant

information.

3.9 Variable Specification / Model Specification

3.9.1 Measurement of variables

The study measured the following variables to realize specific objectives.

Cost of production (Naira)

Access to veterinary drugs (access =1, 0 otherwise)

Access to agricultural extension services (access =1, 0 otherwise)

Capital (Naira)

Labour intensive nature of adaptation strategy (labour intensive =1, 0 otherwise)

Inadequate information on climate change adaptation strategies (adequate labour =1, 0

otherwise)

Access to credit (dummy, access =1, 0 otherwise)

Age (years)

Education (years)

Access to technology and new innovations (access =1, 0 otherwise)

Farming experience (years)

The value of poultry output (naira)

 35

The total labour used in poultry production (man days)

The total farm size (poultry house) used for poultry production (metres)

The total cost of feed used for poultry production (naira)

The total capital used for poultry production (naira)

The total cost of drugs and vaccine used for poultry production (naira)

Total cost of litter used for poultry production (naira)

Total cost of equipment used for poultry production (naira)

Total cost of stock chicks (naira)

Keeping of resistant breeds (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

Prompt and extra vaccination of birds (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

Raising of brood and sell (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

Tree planting around poultry house (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

More space per bird (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

More water served (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

Better hygiene (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

3.9.2 Model Specification

Descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, means and percentages were employed

to analyze data on objectives I, II, III and IV.

 36

Multinomial Regression Model

Multinomial logistic regression was used to measure objective V and test hypothesis

I. Multinomial Logistic Regression is the linear regression analysis to conduct when the

dependent variable is nominal with more than two levels.  Thus it is an extension of logistic

regression, which analyzes dichotomous (binary) dependents.  Since the SPSS output of the

analysis is somewhat different to the logistic regression’s output, multinomial regression is

sometimes used instead.

Like all linear regressions, the multinomial regression is a predictive analysis. 

Multinomial regression is used to describe data and to explain the relationship between one

dependent nominal variable and one or more continuous-level (interval or ratio scale)

independent variables. Mutinomial logit deals with truly nominal and mutually exclusive

categories (Sofoluwe et al., 2011).

Multinomial regression uses either logit or probit model. Logit is the use of a

logarithmic function which assumes the log distribution to restrict the probability values to

(0, 1) while probit assumes normal distribution of the probability of the event. The difference

between both functions is typically only seen in small samples.

Assuming that a dependent variable (Y) has m categories i.e. Y = 1, 2 …m with P1,

P2…Pm as associated probabilities, such that P1+P2+…+Pm = 1. The usual thing is to

designate one of the variables as the reference categories. The probability of membership in

other categories is then compared to the probability of membership in the reference category.

Consequently, for a dependent variable (Y) with m categories, this requires the calculation of

m-1 equations, one for each category relative to the reference category, to describe the

relationship between the dependent (Y) and the independent variables. The choice of the

reference category is arbitrary but should be theoretically motivated.

 37

Multinomial regression model is specified below.

Log Yi =log (Pj/Pi) = B0 + B1X1 + B2X2 … + B10X10+ ei

Where:

Yi = Adaptation strategies (1 =prompt and extra vaccination, 2 = tree planting around poultry

houses, 3 = regular practice of routine management, 4 = keeping of resistant breeds, 5 =

Installing cooling equipment, 6 = Keeping of early maturing birds, 7 = Extension

management services, 8 = Keeping birds varieties, 9 = Raising of broods and sell, 10 = More

space per bird, 11 = More water served, 12 = Better hygiene)

In objective V,

X1 = cost of production (Naira)

X2 = Access to veterinary drugs (access =1, no access = 0)

X3 = Access to agricultural extension services (access =1, no access = 0)

X4 = Capital (Naira)

X5 = Labour intensive nature of adaptation strategy (labour intensive =1, 0 otherwise)

X6 = Inadequate information on climate change adaptation strategies (adequate labour =1, 0

otherwise)

X7 = Access to credit (dummy, access =1, no access = 0)

X8 = Age (years)

X9 = Education (years)
 38

X10 = Access to technology and new innovations (access =1, no access = 0)

X11 = Farming experience (years)

Stochastic Frontier Production Function

The technical efficiency is defined in terms of the ratio of observed output (Y i) to the

corresponding frontier output (Yi) conditioned on the level of input used by the farmers.

Hence the technical efficiency (TEi) of the poultry farmers will be expressed as:

y i
TEi = ¿=¿ f (Xi,B) exp (Vi-µi)/f(Xi;β) exp V=exp (-µi)
y i ¿

Where

Yi = Observed output

¿
Y i = Frontier output

TEi = Ranges between 1 and 0

Stochastic frontier production function was used to estimate the Maximum Likelihood

Estimates of parameters in Cobb-Douglas stochastic production function for the effects of

climate change adaptation strategies on the technical efficiency of poultry production

(objective VI and hypothesis II).

The model is specified as:

lnY = β + β lnX1+ β lnX2+ β lnX3 + β lnX4+ β lnX5+ β6lnX6+ β lnX7+β lnX8+β lnX9+ (vi - ui)
0 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9

vi ~ N(0,σ v) 2

Where:

β = parameters estimates. Ʃ is the sign of summation.

Y = the value of poultry output in naira;

 39

X1 = the total labour used in poultry production in man days;

X2 = the total farm size (poultry house) used for poultry production in metres;

X3 = the total cost of feed used for poultry production in naira;

X4 = the total capital used for poultry production in naira;

X5 = the total cost of drugs and vaccine used for poultry production in naira;

X6 = total cost of litter used for poultry production in naira;

X7 =total cost of equipment used for poultry production in naira;

X8 = total cost of stock (chicks) in naira;

Vi = are random variables which are assumed to be independent of Ui, identical and normally

distributed with zero mean and constant variance.

Ui = which are non-negative random variables which are assumed to account for technical

inefficiency in production and are often assumed to be independent of Vi such that U is

the non-negative truncated (at zero) U of half normal distribution with |N (0, σ2v)|.

The inefficiency of production, Ui is modeled in terms of the climate change adaptation

strategies that are assumed to affect the efficiency of poultry production by poultry farmers.

The Technical Inefficiency Effects Model:

The technical inefficiency effect, µi is defined as:

µi = δ 0 +δ 1 I 1+ δ 2 I 2 +δ 3 I 3 +δ 4 I 4+ δ 5 I 5+ δ 6 I 6

µi= inefficiency effect,

I1 = Keeping of resistant breeds (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

I2 = Prompt and extra vaccination of birds (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

I3 = Raising of brood and sell (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

I4 = Tree planting around poultry house (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

 40

I5 = more space per bird (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

I6 = more water served (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

I7 = Better hygiene (adopted = 1, 0 otherwise)

δ 0 and δ i = coefficients (unknown parameters to be estimated along with the variance

parameters δ 2 and γ . The varience of the random errors, δ 2v and that of the technical

inefficiency effects δ 2μ and the overall variance of the model are related;

2 2 2 2
δ =δ v +δ μ.The δ indicates the goodness of fit and the correction of the distributional form

assumed for the composite error term.

2
δu
The ratio γ = 2 measures the total variation of output from the frontier which can be
δv

attributed to technical inefficiency. The estimates of the parameters of the stochastic frontier

production function and the inefficiency model will be obtained simultaneously using the

program frontier version 4.1

3.10 Data Analysis Technique

Data collected from this study were analyzed using descriptive statistics and

inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze data on specific objectives I,

II, III and IV. Multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze data on objective V.

Stochastic frontier production function was used to analyze data on objective VI.

Multinomial logistic regression was used to test hypothesis I while Stochastic frontier

production function was used to test hypothesis II.

41
 42

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1: Socio-Economic Characteristics of Poultry Farmers

4.1.1 Age

Table 1 showed that 57.9 % of poultry farmers in the study area were between the

ages of 21-40 years, 23.7 % were between the ages of 41-60 years, 15.8 % were less than 20

years while 2.6 % were more than 60 years. The table shows the mean age of 34 years. This

implies that majority of the poultry farmers were still in their active age and have the ability

to supply the required labour needed in the production process. This agreed with the findings

of Oladunni and Fatuase (2014) that young people dominate poultry farming.

4.1.2 Sex

Result in table 1 showed that 55.8 % of the respondents were male while 44.2 % were

female. This implies that men are more interested in poultry production than female in the

study area. This result agreed with Alade and Ademola (2013) showing the uneven gender

distribution in poultry production in Oke Ogun Area of Oyo State, Nigeria.

4.1.3 Marital status

Table 1, showed that 56.8 % were married, 40.5% were single while 2.6 % were

divorced. This shows that majority of the respondents were married showing the significance

of the enterprise in meeting family needs and welfare. This study agreed with Alade and

Ademola (2013) where it was noted that 73 % of poultry farmers were married.

4.1.4 Level of Education

On the educational level of the respondents, table 1 showed that 98.4 % of

respondents had formal education while 1.6 % had no formal education (never attended

school). Out of the 98.4 % of the respondents that had formal education, about 2.6 % of them

attended only primary school, 26.3 % attended secondary school while majority had tertiary
 43

education with 69.5 %. The average years of schooling of the respondents as estimated by

this study was about 15 years. This implies that farmers in the study area had formal

educational background and are likely to have better ability to keep records, make informed

observations on effects of climate change and are open to adoptions of adaptation strategies.

This agreed with a study by Amos (2006) where 80.4 % of poultry farmers were educated.

This finding also corroborates with earlier report by Ogunlade et al. (2007) that majority of

poultry farmers in Kwara state had post-secondary education

4.1.5 Household size

Analysis of the size of the poultry farmers’ households showed that majority of the

respondents (53.7 %) had household size of more than six people with the average household

size of seven people. Large family size is assumed to be the source of labour, skills and

strong social capital to adapt to changing situations. This implies that farmers in the study

area have good source of family labour. This result agreed with Obamiro et al. (2003) in

Pillars of food security in rural areas of Nigeria, who reported that the average number of

people in a farm household was seven.

4.1.6 Farming experience

According to table 1, 70.5 % of respondents had less than five years of experience,

20% had between 6 – 10 years of experience, 4.7 % had between 11 – 15 while 4.2 had

farming experience of 16 years and above. On the average, the farming experience of

respondent was five years. This implies that majority of farmers have few years of farming

experience and this may affect their level of performance and observation on variations on

climatic factors and its effects on poultry production.

4.1.7 Farm labour

Result further reveals that family labour was the commonest (80 %) type of labour

used by the poultry farmers in the study area. This result is similar to that of Oduwaiye et al
 44

(2017) who found out that rural poultry farmers in Delta state are highly depended on family

labour.

4.1.8 Extension contact

Table 1 further showed that 89.5 % do not have extension contact while 10.5 % had

extension contact. This reveals that majority of the respondents do not have access to

extension agents. This situation is likely to hinder the flow of information on new adaptation

strategies to reduce the effects of climate change on poultry production. This will further

reduce the awareness on new management skills that would help mitigate climate change

indices on poultry production.

4.1.9 Non-farm employment

The result on table 1 showed that 68.9 % of the respondents had non-farm

employment, while 31.1 % had no non-farm employment. On the average, annual income

from non-farm jobs was ₦299000. This showed that non-farm income was used to support

poultry production in the study area.

4.1.10 Access to credit

Table 1 showed 81.6 % of respondents had no access to formal credit while 18.4% of

respondents have access to credit. Access to credit was generally low in the study area. The

result indicated that majority (81.6 %) of the respondents had no access to formal sources of

credit. This situation is likely to decrease farmers’ efficiency by limiting investment and

adoption of adaptation strategies and farming practices that would reduce the effects of

climate change on poultry production. This result is similar to the findings of Essien et al.

(2013), who estimated that, only 18 % of farmers, had access to financial services.
 45

Table 2: Socio-Economic Characteristic of Poultry Farmers (n = 190)

Variables Frequency Percentage Mean

Age 34.00
≤ 20 30 15.8
21-40 110 57.9
41-60 45 23.7
≥ 61 5 2.6
Sex
Female 84 44.2
Male 106 55.8
Marital status
Single 77 40.5
Married 108 56.8
Divorced 5 2.6
Level of Education 14.68
Never attended school 3 1.6
Primary 5 2.6
Secondary 50 26.3
Tertiary 132 69.5
Household size 6.52
≤5 68 35.8
6-10 102 53.7
11-15 19 10.0
≥ 16 1 0.5
Farm experience 4.99

≤5 134 70.5
6-10 39 20.5
11-15 9 4.7
≥ 16 8 4.2
Farm Labour
Family 152 80.0
Hiired 15 7.9
Both 22 11.6
Non-farm employment 299000.00
No 59 31.1
Yes 131 68.9
Access to credit
No 155 81.6
Yes 35 18.4
Extension contact
No 170 89.5
Yes 20 10.5
Source: Field survey, 2018
 46

4.2 Perception of Poultry Farmers on Intensity of Climate Change

Table 3 showed the distribution of the average scores of respondents on perception of

poultry farmers on intensity of climate change in the study area. Majority of the farmers in

the study area perceived intensity of climate change as very high temperature (Mean = 3.3),

excessive rainfall (Mean = 2.2), drought (Mean = 2.04), irregular relative humidity (Mean =

2.1, excessive sunshine (Mean = 3.0), wind effect (Mean = 1.8), and long period of

harmattan; with each variable exceeding the cut-off mean score of 2.0 except wind effect

which had a mean of 1.8. This implies that the respondents have perceived evidence that

climate has changed and therefore will be willing to adopt adaptation strategies related to

climate change in other to reduce its effects on poultry production. This agrees with the

findings of Chah et al. (2013) that excessive sunshine (90.0 %), excessive rainfall (80.0 %),

short period of harmattan (75.5 %) and increased incidence of drought (66.7 %) were seen by

respondents as evidence of climate change in Enugu state.

This corroborates with the findings of Adesiji et a.l (2013) that 78.4 % of the

respondents all agreed that temperature fluctuate and 98.8 % observed increased sunshine

intensity in Ondo state. This is also similar to the opinion of Gueye (2003) who reported that

climate changes in form of drought, temperature variability, too much sunshine and

windstorm have negative effects on agricultural productivity especially on poultry

production.
 47

Table 3: Perception of Poultry Farmers on Intensity of Climate Change

Variables Mean Std. Deviation

High temperature 3.31* 0.77

Excessive rainfall 2.19* 0.82

Drought 2.04* 1.08

Irregular Relative
2.13* 0.92
Humidity

Excessive sunshine 3.01* 0.85

Wind effect 1.78 0.94

Long harmattan 2.14* 0.94

*above cut-off mean score of 2.0

Source: Field Survey, 2018
 48

4.3 Perceived Effect of Climate Change on Poultry Production in the Study Area

The result on table 3 showed the summary of the perceived effect of climate change

on poultry production in the study area. On the average, majority of the variables except

scarcity of poultry feed (Mean=1.42) were perceived as very high effects of climate change

on poultry as their mean scores were greater than 2.0.

Farmers in the study area perceived very high disease infestation (Mean=2.84) and very high

death rate (Mean =2.74) as effects of climate change on poultry production. This implies that

fluctuations in climatic elements provides a conducive environment for the growth and spread

of disease causal organisms that infest birds and leads to death. This is similar to the findings

of Elijah and Adedapo (2006) that high rainfall and relative humidity provides a conducive

environment for breeding of parasites that causes outbreak of diseases which invariably

results to death and reduces production confirming the opinion of Gueye (2003) that high or

low temperatures lead to diseases infection while wind may serve as agent for spread of air-

born disease that affects poultry. This result also agrees with the finding by ICAR, (2010)

that high temperature and sunshine intensity many at times results to high mortality of the

chickens, low egg production and low feed in take with low production.

This result also reveals that most of the farmers in the study area perceived reduced

egg size (Mean = 2.20), reduced growth (Mean = 2.36) and reduced weight (Mean = 2.50) as

effects of climate change on poultry production. This is because high temperature leads to

discomfort in birds. To conserve the heat, birds take more water and less feed resulting to

reduction in egg production, growth and weight of birds. This agrees with the findings of

Adesiji et al (2013), that majority (94 %) of the respondents agreed that climate change

affects egg and meat production pattern in Ondo state, in the same vein 78.4 % of the

respondents agreed that high temperature makes birds feed less and drink more water. This
 49

also corroborates the findings of Rowlinson (2008) that heat distress suffered by animals will

reduce the rate of animal feed intake and result in poor growth performance.
 50

Table 4: Perceived Effect of Climate Change on Poultry Production in the Study Area

Variables Mean Standard

Deviation
Increased 2.84* 0.96
disease
infestation
High death rate 2.70* 1.05
Reduced egg 2.20* 0.85
size
Additional cost 2.18* 1.25
of feeding
Decrease growth 2.36* 0.91
Reduced weight 2.50* 0.92
size
High 3.02* 0.92
maintenance cost
Scarcity of 1.42 0.99
poultry feed
Decrease in farm 2.53* 1.03
income
*above cut-off mean score of 2.0

Source: Field Survey, 2018

 51

4.4 Climate Change Adaptation Strategies used by Poultry Farmers in the Study Area

Findings in table 5showed that 97.4 % of the respondents agreed they were aware of

climate change with 85.8 % of them having less than 7 years of awareness. This is to say that,

majority of the poultry farmers in the study area have noticed variation in climatic elements.

Hence they perceived climate change in various ways.

Majority of the respondents (75.8 %) used better hygiene as climate change

adaptation strategy since dirty environment can aid breeding of disease causal organisms.

This implies that farmers used better hygiene to reduce the growth and spread of infection

caused by fluctuations in climatic factors. More space per bird was used by 73.7 % of the

respondents as a coping strategy. This implies that farmers ensure there is enough space in

the poultry house for birds to freely move about to enhance ventilation and prevent heat. This

agrees with the findings of Alade and Ademola (2013) that giving more spacing per average

bird will prevent generation of heat from birds. 72.1 % of the respondents served more water

as a coping strategy to climate change. This is because birds tend to drink more water when

the temperature is high to conserve heat.

Prompt and extra vaccination of birds was used by 68.4 % of the respondents to build

the immune system of birds to resist and reduce the effect of diseases on birds. Keeping of

resistant breeds was used by 63.2 % of respondent as a coping strategy to withstand the effect

of climate change to an extent. About 59.5 % of respondents used regular practice of routine

management as a coping strategy to climate change to ensure that birds are well attended to

and also to reduce the effect of climate change on birds. Tree planting around poultry house

was used by 55.8 % of respondents to provide ventilation in their poultry houses and greatly

reduce heat wave caused by high temperature and excessive sunshine. About 55.3 % of

respondents used keeping of early maturing birds as a coping strategy to climate change.
 52

Table 5: Adaptation Strategies of Poultry Farmers to Climate Change in the Study Area

(n = 190)

Variables Frequencies Percentage

Climate change awareness
Yes 185 97.4
No 5 2.6
Years of climate change
Awareness
≤6 163 85.8
7 – 12 21 11.1
13 – 18 3 1.6
≥ 19 3 1.6
Adaptation strategy
Keeping of resistant and improved breeds 120 63.2
Installing cooling equipment 110 57.9
Keeping of early maturing birds 105 55.3
Prompt and extra vaccination of birds 130 68.4
Raising of broods and sell 42 22.1
Tree planting around poultry house 106 55.8
More space per bird 140 73.7
More water served 137 72.1
Better hygiene 144 75.8
*Multiple responses

Source: Field Survey, 2018

 53

4.5 Factors Influencing the Choice of Adaptation Strategies on Poultry Production

in Benue State

In this analysis, the base category is keeping of resistant and improved breeds. The

choice options set in the multinomial logistic regression model include Installing cooling

equipment, Early maturing birds, Prompt and extra vaccination, More space per bird and

Better hygiene. While the socio economic and institutional factors are age, school years,

household size, farm size, number of birds, annual income, annual off farm income, amount

of credit, extension contact, years of climate change awareness, sex and marital status.

Results of the parameter estimates (the estimated coefficients along with the robust

standard errors) from the multinomial logit (MNL) models are presented in Table 5.The

likelihood ratio chi-square test for the model was highly significant (P < 0.000), suggesting

the model has a strong explanatory power and that the socio economics and other factors

included in the model are significantly related to the choice of adaptation strategies in the

study area rejecting the null hypothesis that socio-economic characteristics of farmers have

no significant influence on their choice of climate change adaptation strategies.

4.5.1 Age: The result shows that there is a positive relationship between age of farmers and

the probability of choosing early maturing birds as adaptation strategy among poultry farmers

in Benue state. This means that, a unit increase in age of poultry farmers would lead to an

increase in adaptation of early maturing birds by 0.090 (9 %). This implies that adaptation of

early maturing birds increases as the age of poultry farmers increases.

4.5.2 School years: The number of years spent in school by poultry farmers has a negative

relationship with the probability of choosing and using better hygiene (-0.165) as climate

change adaptation strategy in Benue state. An increase in school years would lead to

decreasing the probability of choosing and using better hygiene. This implies that, increase in

school years of farmers will lead to reducing the choice of using better hygiene and
 54

increasing the use of keeping of resistant and improved breeds. This result contradicts the

apriori expectation which was that, an increase in school years of farmers would lead to

increasing the probability of choosing better hygiene.

4.5.3 Number of birds: Number of birds has a positive and significant impact on the

likelihood of choosing installing cooling equipment and early maturing birds as adaptation

strategies at 1% level. A unit increase in number of birds would increase the adaptation of

installing cooling equipment and early maturing birds by 0.009(0.9 %) and 0.020(2 %)

respectively. This implies that as number of bird increases, the probability of installing

cooling equipment and using of early maturing birds increases while the choice of keeping

resistant and improved breeds decreases.

4.5.4 Annual income: Annual income has a positive and significant relationship with the

probability of the choice of Installing cooling equipment, Early maturing birds, Prompt and

extra vaccination, More space per bird as adaptation strategies among poultry farmers in

Benue state. This implies that the ability of farmers to adopt the major adaptation strategies

depends on their annual income except for better hygiene. This is because annual income

strengthens the economy of poultry farmers and enables them to adopt their choice adaptation

strategies. An increase in annual income of poultry farmers in the study area will lead to

increasing the choice of Installing cooling equipment, Early maturing birds, Prompt and extra

vaccination, More space per bird and reducing the choice of keeping resistant or improved

breeds.

4.5.5 Amount of credit: The amount of credit is significant and positively correlated with the

probability of choosing and using Installing cooling equipment (0.001), Early maturing birds

(0.001), Prompt and extra vaccination (0.001), More space per bird (0.001) as climate change

adaptation strategies in Benue state at 1 % level. This implies that increase in the amount of

credit will lead to reducing the choice of keeping resistant or improved varieties and
 55

increasing the choice of Installing cooling equipment, Early maturing birds, Prompt and

extra vaccination and more space per bird. This is because the cost of adaptation is capital

intensive. The availability of credit enables farmers to adopt their choice adaptation

strategies.

4.5.6 Years of climate change awareness: Years of climate change awareness has a

significant and positive relationship with the probability of choosing and using Installing

cooling equipment (0.306), Early maturing birds (0.392), Prompt and extra vaccination

(0.498), More space per bird (0.339) as climate change adaptation strategy in Benue state.

This implied that increase in the number of years of climate change awareness would lead to

reducing the choice of keeping resistant or improved varieties and increasing the choice of

Installing cooling equipment, Early maturing birds, Prompt and extra vaccination and More

space per bird. This is expected because the knowledge and understanding of climate change

made farmers to be prepared against its effects on poultry production.

 56

Table 6: Parameter Estimates of the Multinomial Logit (MNL) Analysis of Factors

Influencing the Choice of Adaptation Strategies in Poultry Production in Benue State.

Explanatory Coefficients
variables
Installing cooling Early maturing Prompt and More space per Better hygiene
equipment birds extra vaccination bird

Age (years)
0.024 (0.277) 0.090 (2.711)*** 0.001 (0.001) 0.028b (0.333) 0.057b(1.469)

School years
-0.018 (0.025) -0.152 (1.229) -0.090 (0.526) 0.014 (0.014) -0.165(1.832)*

Household size
-0.115 (1.085) -0.093 (0.417) -0.053 (0.191) -0.078b (0.430) -0.032b(0.076)
(number)

Farm size
-0.001 (0.385) 0.000 (0.060) 0.001 (0.414) 0.000 (0.081) 0.000(0.176)
(metres)

Number of 0.009 (3.014)*** 0.020 0.004 (0.363) 0.002 (0.163) 0.005(0.961)

birds (numbers) (5.353)***

Annual 0.000 (2.969)*** 0.000 0.000 0.000 (1.732)* 0.000(0.990)

income(naira) (6.677)*** (3.625)***

Annual off 0.000 (0.058) 0.000 (0.612) 0.000 (0.129) 0.000 (1.429) 0.000(0.001)
farm
income(naira)

Amount of 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

credit (naira) (168991.189)*** (117338.097)** (4691.927)*** (15266.619)***
*

Number of -0.120 (1.086) -0.197 (0.932) -0.033 (0.093) -0.199 (0.972) -0.035(0.143)
extension
contact
(number)

Years climate 0.306 (1.884)* 0.392 (2.310)** 0.498 0.339 (2.082)** 0.084(0.127)
change (4.599)***
awareness

Sex (female) -0.384 (0.332) 0.039 (.002) 0.226 (0.098) -0.729 (1.012) -0.521(0.528)

[mstatus=0 0.543 (0.449) 0.001 (0.000) 0.352 (0.164) 0.334 (0.145) 0.600(0.465)

***, **, * = 1 %, 5 %, and 10 % level of significance respectively.

Reference category: keeping of resistant and improved breed.
Source: Field Survey, 2018
 57

4.6 Maximum Likelihood Estimates of Parameters in the Stochastic Frontier Analysis

for Effects of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies on Technical Efficiency of Poultry
Production.
The analysis of the data for the technical efficiency estimates was achieved through

the Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) which involved the estimation of stochastic

frontier model with inefficiency effects. The maximum likelihood estimates of parameters in

stochastic frontier function are presented in Table 7. The elasticity parameters are contained

in the upper segment of the table while the determinants of inefficiency are also contained in

the lower segment of the table. The sigma square (1.23) is significant at 5 % level which

implied that the stochastic frontier production model was the model that best fit the data. The

significance of the estimates of gamma (0.93) at 1 % showed that the inefficiency effects

jointly estimated with the production frontier function were not simply random errors. This

implied that climate change adaptation strategies as well as farm and farmer specific

characteristics had significant influence on the efficiency of poultry production rejecting the

null hypothesis that climate change adaptation strategies have no significant influence on

technical efficiency of poultry production.

The γ- parameter shows the relative magnitude of the variance in output associated

with technical efficiency. The coefficients of the variables derived from the Maximum

Likelihood Estimation (MLE) are very important for discussing results of the analysis of the

data. These coefficients represent percentage change in the dependent variables as a result of

percentage change in the independent (or explanatory) variables. The coefficients presented

in the upper segment of table 4.6 showed that, the parameter of chick was positive (0.29) and

significant at 1 %. This implied that a 100 percent increase in the number of chicks increased

the value of revenue in poultry production by 29 percent. The coefficient of feed (0.68) was

also positive and significantly related to poultry revenue value at 1 %. The result meant that a

100 % increase in quantity of feed increased poultry revenue value by 68 percent.

 58

Climate change, farm and farmer specific variables influencing inefficiency of poultry

production are contained in the inefficiency model of the lower section of Table 7. The

following variables, raising of broods and sell, tree planting around poultry house, more

water served had negative and significant relationship on economic inefficiency, while better

hygiene had a positive and significant relationship with economic inefficiency. The climate

change adaptation strategies, farm and farmer specific variables that had significant

relationship with economic inefficiency were discussed below:

Raising of brood and sell was found to have a negative (-3.26) and significant

relationship with farmers inefficiency in the study area. This implied that increase in raising

of brood and sell would lead to reducing farmers’ economic inefficiency in poultry

production. This is expected because younger birds experience less heat stress and less effect

of climate change hence reducing loss and increasing revenue in poultry production. The use

of tree planting around poultry house was negative (-1.36) and significant to inefficiency.

This implied that increasing the practice of tree planting around poultry house reduced

inefficiency in the value of poultry output. Tree planting around poultry house provided

ventilation and shade and also reduced the intensity of heat in poultry houses. It increased the

value of poultry output by reducing the death rate of birds and other effects of climate

change. More water served had a negative (-1.37) and significant relationship with farmers

inefficiency in the study area. This implied that increase in the practice of serving more water

would lead to reducing farmers’ economic inefficiency in poultry production. This is because

birds take in more water to conserve heat and reduce effects of heat on birds thereby

increasing the value of poultry output. The use of better hygiene was found to have a positive

(2.02) and significant relationship with farmers’ inefficiency in the study area. This implied

that increase in the use of better hygiene increased inefficiency in poultry production. This
 59

was not expected because better hygiene is supposed to reduce the spread of diseases and

death rate.
 60

Table 7: Maximum Likelihood Estimates of Parameters in the Stochastic Frontier

Analysis for Effects of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies on Technical Efficiency of
Poultry Production in Benue State
Independent variables Coefficient t-ratio

Constant 1.45 4.37

Chick 0.29 4.71***

Feed 0.68 10.35***

Labour -0.002 -0.26

Fumigation 0.01 0.98

Water 0.0003 0.03

Miscellinous 0.06 1.31

Technical Inefficiency Model

Constant -6.18 -1.57

Farm size space 0.35 1.22

Keeping of resistant breeds 0.28 0.61

Prompt and extra vaccination 0.71 1.12

of birds

Raising of broods and sell -3.26 -1.75*

Tree planting around poultry -1.36 -1.74*

house

More space per bird 0.26 0.51

More water served -1.37 -1.51*

Better hygiene 2.02 1.90*

Diagnostic statistics

Sigma squared 1.23 2.43

Gamma 0.93 30.44

Likelihood function -80.71

*, *** = significant at 10% and 1% level respectively. Source: Field survey, 2018.
 61

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The study assessed the Perceived effects of climate change on poultry production and

adaptation strategies adopted by poultry farmers in Benue state, Nigeria. Specifically, the study

described socio-economic characteristics of poultry farmers in the study area; assessed the

perception of poultry farmers on intensity of climate change; identified farmers’ perceived

effect of climate change on poultry production in the study area; identified adaptation

strategies of poultry farmers to climate change in the study area; evaluated factors influencing

the choice of adaptation strategies, and determined the effects of climate change adaptation

strategies on technical efficiency of poultry production in the study area.

Multi-stage random sampling technique was used to select 198 respondents.

Structured questionnaire was used to collect data from the selected poultry farmers. Relevant

descriptive and inferential statistics such as frequency, percentages, mean, multinomial

regression analysis and stochastic frontier analysis, were used to analyze the data.

The result on the socio economic characteristics of respondents in the study area

showed that majority (57.9 %) of the farmers were within the ages of 21-40 years with an

average age of 34 years, males dominated (55.8 %) poultry production in the study area.

Majority (56.8 %) of the farmers were married, with an average household size of 7 persons

and majority (69.5 %) of the farmers had tertiary education with a mean schooling years of

15 years. On the average, farmers had 5 years of farming experience and majority (68.9 %) of

farmers had non-farm employment with a mean annual non-farm income of ₦299000. A

greater proportion of the farmers did not have access to extension services and credit.
 62

The result on perception showed that majority of the farmers in the study area

perceived intensity of climate change as very high temperature (Mean = 3.3), excessive

rainfall (Mean = 2.2), drought (Mean = 2.04), irregular relative humidity (Mean = 2.1,

excessive sunshine (Mean = 3.0), wind effect (Mean = 1.8), and long period of harmattan

with each variable exceeding the cut-off mean score of 2.0 except wind effect which had a

mean of 1.8.

The result on perceived effect of climate change showed that farmers in the study area

perceived very high increased disease infestation (Mean = 2.84), very high death rate(Mean =

2.7), reduced egg size (Mean = 2.2), additional cost of feeding (Mean = 2.18), decrease

growth (Mean = 2.36), reduced weight size (Mean = 2.5), high maintenance cost (Mean =

3.02) and decrease in farm income (Mean = 2.53) as effects of climate change on poultry

production with each variable exceeding the cut-off mean score of 2.0 .

The result also shows that majority (97.4 %) of farmers agreed they were aware of

climate change with 85.8% having 6 years of awareness. The analysis of data on climate

change adaptation strategies revealed that majority of the respondents used better hygiene

(75.8 %), More space per bird (73.7 %), More water served (72.1 %), Prompt and extra

vaccination of birds (68.4 %), Keeping of resistant breeds (63.2 %), regular practice of

routine management (59.5 %), installed cooling equipment (57.9 %), Tree planting around

poultry house (55.8 %) and keeping of early maturing birds (55.3 %) as climate change

adaptation strategies on poultry production.

The result on multinomial regression analysis showed that age positively influenced

the use of early maturing birds at 1 % level of significance. School years is significant at 10%

level and negatively influenced the use of better hygiene. Number of birds had a positive

effect on the choice and use of installing cooling equipment and early maturing birds at 1 %
 63

level of significance. Annual income, amount of credit, and Years of climate change

awareness had positively influenced the choice of Installing cooling equipment, Early

maturing birds, Prompt and extra vaccination and More space per bird at 1 %, 5 % and 10 %

level of significance.

The result of the stochastic frontier analysis showing the climate change adaptation

strategies influencing inefficiency of poultry output showed that, raising of broods and sell,

tree planting around poultry house, more water served were found to reduce farmers’

economic inefficiency of poultry output at 10 % level of significance.

5.2 Conclusion

The study revealed that majority of the respondents were aware of climate change and

were most likely to make observation on how it affect poultry production pattern. Effects of

climate change which results in high temperature, excessive rainfall, drought, irregular

relative humidity, excessive sunshine and long period of harmattan had negative effects on

poultry production which many at times results to very high increased disease infestation,

very high death rate, reduced egg size, reduced growth and reduced weight. From the

findings of the study, poultry farmers’ choice and use of climate change adaptation strategies

in the study area was significantly influenced by age, school years, number of birds, annual

income, amount of credit and years of climate change awareness. The study also revealed that

climate change adaptation strategies had significant relationship with technical inefficiency of

poultry production in the study area.

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this, the following recommendation are made:

i. There is need to improve on farmers’ access to information on climate change and

appropriate adaptation strategies.

 64

ii. Effort should be made to provide credit facilities to help improve farmers’ capacity to

adapt to climate change.

iii. There is need to emphasize adequate education to facilitate the farmers’ adaptation to

climate change.

5.4 Contributions to Knowledge

i. This study established that poultry farmers’ choice and implementation of climate

change adaptation strategies in the study area was significantly influenced by age,

school years, number of birds, annual income, amount of credit and years of climate

change awareness.

ii. The study also revealed that climate change adaptation strategies adopted by poultry

farmers significantly influenced technical efficiency of poultry production in the study

area.

5.5 Limitations of the Study

The study was limited to the rural areas of Benue state, precisely Otukpo, Makurdi,

Gboko and Okpokwu local government areas. One of the limitations of the study was lack of

good road in the interior parts of the study areas which increased the cost of transportation.

This was overcome by using any means of transport at any cost to reach the farmers. Time

constraint was also a limitation in this study. In order to reduce error, some respondents were

interviewed instead of self-administration. This made data collection to take time. The

reluctance of farmers to fill the questionnaire was another limitations which was overcome by

persuading farmers to respond. Another limitation was the issue of finance which restricted

the study to four out of twenty-three local government areas in Benue state, Nigeria.
 65

5.6 Suggestions for Further Study areas

i. Determine the effect of climate change adaptation strategies on the technical

efficiency of animal production.

ii. Effects of climate change adaptation strategies on the profitability of poultry

production in Benue State.

iii. Assessment of the influence of agricultural policies on choice and implementation of

climate change adaptation strategies adoption by farmers in Nigeria.

 66

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 75

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Agricultural Economics,

College of Agricultural Econs. and Extension,

University of Agriculture,Makurdi.

Benue State.

Dear Respondent,

I am an M.Sc. student of the above named University. I am carrying out a

research on “Perceived Effects of Climate Change on Poultry Production and

Adaptation Strategies by Poultry Farmers in Benue State, Nigeria”. As part of

the requirements for my study, the attached questionnaire schedule has being

designed to facilitate the investigation.

You are kindly, requested to supply answers to every question. Please note that

any information provided will be used solely for this research and would be

confidential.

Thank you for yourpatience andcooperation.

Yours faithfully,

ElizabethEnayiOchima

08068481784/07013110628
 76

A. Socio-economic and Institutional Characteristics of the Poultry

Farmers

1. How old are you? ………………….years old

2. Please indicate your sex: (a) Male (b) Female

3. What is your marital status? (a) Single (b) Married (c) Widowed

(d) Separated

4. What is your level of Education: Primary Education Secondary Education

TertiaryEducationNever attended school

5. What is thenumber of years you spent in school?…………………………

6. What is the total number of the people in your household? …………………

7. What is the Sex of the house head? Male Female

8. What is the total size of your poultry house? ----------------------m

9. What is the total number of birds in stock or at the beginning of the farming season in your

poultry house?……………………………

10. What is the total number of birds after the farming season?_________________________

11. What is the source of your poultry house? (a) Inherited (b)Hire(c) Purchased (d) Family

(f) gift

12. What is the average distance to your farm(s) in kilometers from your

homestead?………………..

13. For how long have you been into poultry farming? ---------------------- years.

14. Do you belong to any farm association(s)? Yes NoIf yes, how many

years……………….

15. What is the major source of your labour? (a) Family labour (b) Hired labour

(c) Both a & b

16. What was your total output in 2018? …………………….Kg/₦

 77

17. What was your annual poultry farm income in 2018? ₦…………………

18. Do you do any other job apart from farming? (a) Yes (b) No

19. If your answer to 18 above is yes, specify ………………………………..

20. What was your annual income from non-farm jobs in 2018? ₦……………

21. Do you have access to formal credits? Yes No

22. How much loan did you collect in 2018? ₦...........................

24. Do you have contact with extension staff? Yes No

25. If your answer in 24 is yes, how many times did you have extension staff contact in

2018?....

26. What is the distance to the nearest poultry commodity market in m/km ..................

B. Intensity of Perceived Climatic Factors by Poultry Farmers

27. Are you aware of climate change? Yes No

28. For how long have you been aware of climate change ________________________

29. Do you perceive climate change? Yes No

30.How intense do youperceive climatic change on poultry production?

KEY GUIDE

Very High: VH;High: H; Moderate: M; Low: L; NA: Non applicable

VH H M L NA

a. High Temperature

b. excessive rainfall

c. Increased incident of drought

d. Irregular relative humidity

e. Excessive sunshine

f. Wind effect
 78

g. Long period of harmattan

D. Farmers Perceived Effectsof Climate Change on Poultry Production

31. Do you perceive any effect of climate change on poultry production? Yes No

32. Which of the following ways do you perceived effect of climate change on poultry

production and how?

KEY GUIDE

Very High: VH; High: H; Moderate: M; Low: L; NA: Non applicable

VH H M L NA

a. Increased disease infestation

b. High death rate

c. Reduced egg size

d. Additional cost of feeding

e. Decrease growth

f. Reduced weight size

g. High maintenance cost

h. Scarcity of poultry feed

i. Decrease in farm income

 79

E. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies of Poultry Farmers

33. Are there ways of adapting to climate change in other to reduce its effect on poultry

production? Yes No

34. How did you know about the ways of adapting to climate change

(a)Extension agents (b)Television (c)Radio (d) Friends (e) others

specify_____________________________________________________________________

35. Which of these adaptation strategies do you use?

a. Keeping of resistant breeds

b. Installing cooling equipment

c. Keeping of early maturing birds

d. Extension management services

e. Keeping birds varieties

f. Prompt and extra vaccination of birds

g. Raising of broods and sell

h. Tree planting around poultry house

i. More space per bird

j. More water served

k. Better hygiene
 80

l. regular practice of routine management,

m.Others specify ____________________________________________________________

36. From the list of adaptation strategies used above, indicate one major and effective

adaptation strategies used_____________________________________________________.

37. How many years have you adopted it?_________________________________________

F. Effect of climate change adaptation strategies on technical efficiency of poultry

production. (Crop input, output and sales)

Please tick or fill where appropriate

38. List the type of birds you have

i. _________________ ii. ______________________ iii._________________

39. What was the output from each bird type in kg or their unit of measurement?

i._________________ ii.______________________ iii____________________

40. What was the price of each bird per unit of measurement?

i. ₦_______________ ii. ₦_________________ iii. ₦_____________________

41. What was the total sales for each of the bird type?

i. ₦__________________ ii. ₦__________________ iii. ₦______________________

42. If not sold all, indicate the quantity or number that is consumed at home or given out

as gifts

i.____________________ii.___________________iii._________________

43. Duration of maturity period of birds in monthsi.________________ ii. ______________

iii._______________
 81

44.Indicate the quantity and amount paid for the following inputs for each bird type

Type of bird
Poultry house size (metres)
Cost of hired labour per man days (₦)
Family labour (man days)
Total cost of labourused per manday ( ₦)

Total cost of feed used (kg/₦)

Total cost of drugs and vaccine used (₦)

Total capital (₦)

Total cost of litter used (₦)

Total cost of equipment used (₦)

Total cost of stock (chicks)(₦)

Total cost of fumigation (₦)

Quantity of water (litres)

45. Indicate the price you paid per unit of the following inputs in 2018 farming season

i. Cost of hired labour per person day ₦_____________

ii. Price of each bird (chick) at stock i. ₦__________, ii. ₦ _________, iii. ₦_________

iii. Price of 1 litre of fumigant used ₦___________________

iv. Price of water per litre₦ __________________________

v. Price of feed per bag (specify feed type) i_____________, ii_______________,

iii______________

46. Indicate the number of farm equipment you own, their purchased price, present value

and their useful period.

 82

Farm equipment Number of Purchased Useful Disposable

items owned price (₦) period in value (value
currently years after useful
period) ₦
Feeder
Drinker
Poultry cage
Egg tray
Shovel
Spade
Wheel barrow
Ventilation fan
Heater
Laying nest
Egg hanging nest
Incubator
Manure
removing
conveyor
Others specify