EXP-PR-EQ140-EN-R0 - 2 - Turbines

EQUIPMENT
TURBINES
TRAINING MANUAL
COURSE EXP-PR-EQ140
Revision 0.2
Exploration and Production
Equipment
Turbines
EQUIPMENT
TURBINES
CONTENTS
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................5
2. TURBINE FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................6
2.1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................6
2.2. EXAMPLES ...............................................................................................................6
3. THE MAIN CATEGORIES ...............................................................................................8
3.1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF TURBINE...........................................................................8
3.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES ................12
4. TURBINE AND TURBINE AUXILIARY OPERATION ....................................................14
4.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLE (SIMPLE OPEN CYCLE)...................................................14
4.2. COMPRESSOR ......................................................................................................18
4.2.1. Compressor technology...................................................................................18
4.2.2. Compressor monitoring parameters ................................................................19
4.3. COMBUSTION CHAMBER .....................................................................................20
4.3.1. General............................................................................................................20
4.3.2. Chamber feed..................................................................................................20
4.4. POWER TURBINES................................................................................................23
4.4.1. Distributor ........................................................................................................23
4.4.2. Turbine wheel..................................................................................................24
4.4.3. Cooling technique............................................................................................25
4.4.4. Materials..........................................................................................................25
4.5. AUXILIARIES ..........................................................................................................26
4.5.1. Air suction........................................................................................................26
4.5.1.1. Filtering ......................................................................................................27
4.5.1.2. Primary inertial filtering...............................................................................28
4.5.1.3. Demister.....................................................................................................28
4.5.1.4. Coalescer ...................................................................................................29
4.5.1.5. Primary filters .............................................................................................29
4.5.1.6. Fine filters...................................................................................................29
4.5.1.7. Supporting structure...................................................................................30
4.5.1.8. Self-cleaning cartridges..............................................................................31
4.5.1.9. Choice of filtering system ...........................................................................33
4.5.1.10. Silencers ..................................................................................................33
4.5.1.11. Compressor inlet ......................................................................................34
4.5.1.12. Auxiliary systems .....................................................................................35
4.5.2. Exhaust system ...............................................................................................37
4.5.2.1. Types of exhaust........................................................................................38
4.5.2.2. Noise reduction ..........................................................................................39
4.5.2.3. Manufacturing precautions .........................................................................40
4.5.2.4. Types of exhaust........................................................................................41
4.5.2.5. Silencer and ducts......................................................................................42
4.5.2.6. Accessories................................................................................................44
Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Last revision: 08/06/2007 Page 2 of 178
Equipment
Turbines
4.5.3. Lubrication and control oil systems .................................................................46

4.5.3.1. Aeroderivative turbine systems ..................................................................46
4.5.3.2. Industrial machine oil systems ...................................................................48
4.5.4. Fuel system .....................................................................................................52
4.5.4.1. General ......................................................................................................52
4.5.4.2. Fuel-gas regulation ....................................................................................54
4.5.4.3. Liquid fuel qualities.....................................................................................56
4.5.4.4. Liquid fuel regulation ..................................................................................56
4.5.4.5. Dual-fuel regulation ....................................................................................58
4.5.4.6. Multiple fuel-gas systems ...........................................................................58
4.5.5. Cooling and sealing system.............................................................................59
4.6. TURBO-MACHINE BASEPLATES..........................................................................61
4.7. START-UP SYSTEMS ............................................................................................63
4.8. REDUCTION GEARS AND COUPLINGS...............................................................66
4.8.1. Auxiliary reduction gears .................................................................................66
4.8.2. Capacity reduction gear...................................................................................67
4.8.3. Coupling ..........................................................................................................70
4.9. ELECTRICAL CABLES AND BOXES .....................................................................73
4.10. ENCLOSURES AND ASSOCIATED AUXILIARY SYSTEMS ...............................75
4.10.1. General..........................................................................................................75
4.10.2. Types of enclosure ........................................................................................75
4.10.3. Enclosure auxiliaries......................................................................................78
4.11. OIL COOLING .......................................................................................................81
4.12. CONTROL, REGULATION AND PROTECTION SYSTEM ...................................83
4.13. CONTROL AND SEQUENCE SYSTEM ...............................................................85
4.14. PROTECTION SYSTEM .......................................................................................89
4.15. CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION .............................90
5. TURBINE OPERATING PARAMETERS .......................................................................94
5.1. BRAYTON CYCLE ..................................................................................................94
5.2. PERFORMANCE ....................................................................................................97
5.3. EFFECT OF EXTERNAL FACTORS ......................................................................98
5.4. EFFECTS OF INTERNAL FACTORS ...................................................................100
5.4.1. Suction pressure drop ...................................................................................100
5.4.2. Pressure increase at exhaust (or increase in back-pressure)........................100
5.4.3. Effect of fuel ..................................................................................................101
5.4.4. Draw-off from axial compressor.....................................................................102
5.4.5. Injection of steam and injection of water........................................................103
5.4.6. Air cooling......................................................................................................104
5.5. TURBINE CAPACITIES ........................................................................................107
6. OPERATING THE TURBINES ....................................................................................113
6.1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................113
6.2. PREPARATION FOR COMMISSIONING .............................................................115
6.2.1. PRELIMINARY CHECKS ..............................................................................115
6.2.2. Motoring procedure for crank mode ..............................................................116
6.3. AUTOMATIC OPERATING MODE SEQUENCES (Principles) .............................118
6.3.1. "OFF" mode...................................................................................................118
6.3.2. "Crank" mode ................................................................................................118
6.3.3. Idle mode.......................................................................................................119

Equipment
Turbines
6.3.4. "Auto" mode ..................................................................................................120

6.3.5. Permissives to start .......................................................................................120
6.3.6. Trip protections..............................................................................................122
6.3.7. Operating limits .............................................................................................123
6.4. START-UP SEQUENCE IN OPERATION.............................................................124
6.4.1. Normal Start-Up ............................................................................................124
6.4.2. Hot start alarm...............................................................................................132
6.5. STOP SEQUENCES .............................................................................................133
6.5.1. Normal shutdown (crank authorized).............................................................135
6.5.2. Emergency shut-down (crank not authorized) ...............................................136
6.5.3. SDML Slow Deceleration to Minimum Load ..................................................137
6.5.4. Idle mode (STI step to idle) ...........................................................................138
6.6. SHUT-DOWN OF PRESSURIZED TURBO-COMPRESSOR ...............................139
6.7. DEPRESSURISED TURBO-COMPRESSOR SHUT-DOWN................................141
6.8. WINDMILL EFFECT..............................................................................................143
6.9. SURGING .............................................................................................................144
6.9.1. Turbine compressor surging..........................................................................144
6.9.2. Driven compressor surging............................................................................145
6.10. OFF-LINE COMPRESSOR WASHING SEQUENCE ..........................................148
6.11. OPERATOR ACTIONS .......................................................................................149
6.11.1. Special constraints ......................................................................................149
6.11.2. T5.4 limit......................................................................................................149
6.11.3. Low oil pressure ..........................................................................................149
6.11.4. GG rotor-stator friction during surge (seizure) .............................................150
6.11.5. GG re-start after on-load shut-down ............................................................150
6.11.6. PT speed nil during re-start .........................................................................150
6.12. FIRST LEVEL MAINTENANCE...........................................................................153
6.13. SAFETY ADVICE ................................................................................................154
7. TROUBLESHOOTING.................................................................................................156
7.1. ALARM CODING TABLE ......................................................................................158
7.2. ALARM SPECIFICITIES .......................................................................................161
7.3. NUMBERING OF PROCEDURES ........................................................................163
7.4. TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES ................................................................164
7.5. TABLE OF CAUSES AND EFFECTS ...................................................................164
8. GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................173
9. SUMMARY OF THE FIGURES ...................................................................................174
10. SUMMARY OF THE TABLES....................................................................................178

Equipment
Turbines
1. OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this course intended for operators is to enhance their understanding of the
TURBINES and their main auxiliaries.
This course is not intended for Mechanic-turbine technicians or Instrument technicians
who shall refer to the specific documents pertaining to the machines installed in the plant
to which they are attached.
Most of the examples refer to the Nuevo Pignone PGT25+SAC turbine.

Equipment
Turbines
2. TURBINE FUNCTIONS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Turbines are mechanical rotating systems, the "motor" function of which is designed to
drive pumps, compressors or electric generators in the petroleum industry.
Other applications: propulsion in the aircraft, marine, train and automobile industries (Salt
Lake speed record, USA).
Turbines can be used in "stand-by" or "duty" mode.
2.2. EXAMPLES
Figure 1: Example of a turbine driving a generator

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 2: Example of a turbine driving a compressor
Figure 3: Example of a turbine powering a ship

Equipment
Turbines
3. THE MAIN CATEGORIES
3.1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF TURBINE
Turbines can be split into three main categories:
Steam turbine (efficiency 0.70 to 0.80) : The energy available is the steam provided
by boilers that discharge into a steam network. Note that this efficiency only
concerns the turbine alone (Carnot cycle expansion component).
Gas turbines or combustion turbines (CT) which include open cycle turbines
and energy recovery turbines.
Open cycle gas turbine (efficiency 0.15 to 0.30): the combustion energy is
available in gas or liquid form (kerosene, diesel-oil, distillates, etc). Solid fuel
(pulverised coal) is not used as it causes the blades to erode too quickly. In this
case the efficiency is a global efficiency comparing the recoverable mechanical
energy with the calorific value of the fuel.
Gas turbine with energy recovery (efficiency 0.40 to 0.60):
o Combined cycle in which

the residual turbine
exhaust gas energy is
used to produce steam to
generate electricity.
Figure 4: Combined cycle (N.Pignone

2xMS9001)
o Cogeneration cycle in which all or some of the gas is used in series to

recover heat from the process directly, while some is used to generate
steam in a boiler which drives a turbogenerator (extra fuel can be
added in this boiler). Note that the additional supply of energy in the
recovery boiler by post-combustion of the residual oxygen can be
carried out globally for the combined cycle and cogeneration.

Equipment
Turbines
o Regenerative cycle in
which the residual
turbine exhaust gas
energy is used to heat
the air entering the
combustion chamber
(regeneration).
Figure 5: Regeneration (N.Pignone

MS5002)
Notes:
Gas turbines differ according to their manufacturing process. In catalogues, we often

come across "aeroderivative" turbines, referred to as such since they are derived from
aircraft techniques (max. power: approx. 45 MW) and "industrial" turbines resulting
from steam turbine technologies (max. power approx. 265 MW).
The advantages of aeroderivative turbines include light weight and maintenance time
lower than that required for the industrial equivalent (24h of downtime for 12,000H
overhaul), as well as better thermodynamic efficiency (due to the higher compression
rate, up to 30). The only drawback is more limited choice of power on catalogue.
There may only be one turbine rotor

shaft for the gas generator and the
power turbine. In this case, the gas
turbine is referred to as "single shaft",
and "dual shaft" if it has two.
Figure 6: Diagram showing a single shaft

turbine
The single shaft requires

identical air receiver and
compressor speed controlling.
Its application is therefore
restricted to fixed-speed
current generators.
Figure 7: Diagram showing a

dual shaft turbine

Equipment
Turbines
This control system is referred to as a "generator drive" system as opposed to a

"mechanical drive" system that regulates different speeds (pump and compressor).
We sometimes come across the term impulse turbine (expansion in stator) or

reaction turbine (expansion shared in stator and impeller blades). This qualifier
indicates the type of blade fitted. There are fewer stages in impulse turbines (space
and weight savings).
Front Rear
Figure 8: Coupled aeroderivative gas generator (GG) with dual shaft industrial power
turbine (PT), (N.Pignone PGT 25 PLUS SAC)
Figure 9: Industrial turbine (N.Pignone MS6001 single shaft) on baseplate
The assembly design of a turbine engine takes into account maintainability, in order to
minimise the maintenance rate (optimised dismantling and reassembly of the
components).

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 10: Industrial turbine (Man-GHH ex-Hispano-Suiza THM 1304 dual shaft)
Equipment
Turbines
3.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES
For high-power motorization, the turbine replaces the reciprocating motor or the electric
motor, which are limited to approximately 10 MW for TEG or TEK.
Gas turbines can burn a large quantity of very different quality fuels, which makes them
attractive for certain applications.
If the available gas fuel is free and abundant, turbine motorisation is especially
advantageous on account of its reliability and equipment availability. Maintenance
operations are less demanding in terms of time and frequency in comparison to those of a
reciprocating motor (higher reliability and availability).
With a high-flow compressor, the "dual shaft" turbine enables varying speed, therefore
providing for more flexible compressor flow rate in comparison to a motor.
In the petroleum industry, we often come across gas turbines in surface production,
whereas steam turbines are common in refining or complex surface processes, in which
different feedback/control loops for different temperatures are required.
To summarise with respect to other the engines:
Between thermal engine and gas turbine, the power to weight ratio and the
reliability are in favour of the GT. Flexibility of use of various fuels including
natural gas is also in favour of the GT. The variable speed criterion may also be
in favour of the GT dual fuel.
Between electric motor and GT, the availability of the electrical network will be
the choice criterion. Powerful electric motors are available on catalogue (125
MW).
See the following table which shows the applications between steam turbine, industrial and
aeroderivative GT.

Equipment
Turbines
Categories: Power Yield Use Advantages Disadvantages
Gas turbine
On-shore if the price of gas does not Complex system and

Industrial, simple open cycle => 265 MW 20 – 30 % affect the cost of product sold. High power
long major overhauls
Off-shore and on-shore if the price of System less complex than that of
Aeroderivative => 45 MW 20 – 30 % gas does not affect the cost of the industrial turbine and reduced Limited power
product sold. maintenance time.
Regenerative cycle
(preheating of combustion Improved overall efficiency of the
=> 40 %
air) installation (less fuel consumed)
Increased
Combined cycle (steam maintenance
On-shore if the price of gas affects
production for electricity => 50 %
production) the cost of product sold.
Energy savings (energy recovery Higher weight and
is related to the smoke investment
Cogeneration cycle temperature)

(electricity production and => 60 %
preheating of process fluids)
Steam turbine
Very high power.

On-shore if the process requires Little maintenance if the boiler
60 – 80 % Complex system and
=> 1000 MW steam and if the price of fuel affects water line and treatment system
turbine only long major overhauls
the cost of product sold. are good.
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the different types of turbines

Equipment
Turbines
4. TURBINE AND TURBINE AUXILIARY OPERATION
4.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLE (SIMPLE OPEN CYCLE)
The diagram below shows the various operation phases and the main functional parts.
Figure 11: Operation phases and main functional parts
Compression: Work of the rotary compressor (C) that increases the air pressure.
Combustion : Air mixture (A), fuel (Q) and permanent combustion.
Expansion: In the turbine (T) that extracts the energy to drive the compressor (C) and in
the exhaust device.
Reference charts
Items have been numbered to identify flows. Here:
0 1 2 3 4
Upstream Compressor Compressor
Turbine inlet Turbine outlet
Infinite inlet outlet

Equipment
Turbines
Theory of Operation of a Gas Turbine (dual shaft)

The Hispano-Suiza THM gas turbines are dual shaft turbines with a separate power
turbine (free turbine).
The gas turbine cycle, i.e. the sequence of "pressure-temperature" states that characterise
the evolution of the gas (pure air to begin with, then combustion gas), via the different
machine parts, is illustrated below.
Figure 12: Gas turbine cycle
It consists of:
0-1 : Pressure drop in the air filtering system (variable according to filtering type) with
temperature drop (risk of icing at the compressor inlet).
1-2 : Adiabatic compression of the ambient air by an axial compressor (8 stages for
THM 1102 - 9 stages THM 1202 - 1203), followed by a centrifugal stage.
2-3 : “Constant pressure” continuous combustion in two “V” type cannular combustion
chambers for the la TMH). The combustion pressure losses are estimated at 3 % of P2.
3-4 : First expansion of the hot gases in a two-stage high-pressure turbine designed to
drive the compressor (referred to as a GG - gas generator).
4-5 : Second expansion of the gases in a low-pressure turbine providing the power
required for a single shaft (free turbine or PT power turbine).
5-6 : Pressure drop in the exhaust breeching and the stack.

Equipment
Turbines
The compressor, combustion chambers and the high-pressure turbine assembly

constitutes the gas generator, designed to provide pressurised hot gases for the power
turbine.
This operating principle can also be illustrated by means of what we call the "gas flow
diagram", which shows the progress of the following parameters: Pressure P (green),
speed (V) (red), temperature t° (yellow). A diagram of a turbojet is shown below:
Figure 13: Functional diagram of a turbine
The energy supplied by the fuel (100%) is distributed as follows:
Operation of auxiliaries (10%)
Operation of the compressor (50 %)
Work available on the power turbine outlet (30%)
Other losses (suction and exhaust 10%)
A turbine consists of several assembled parts of which the purpose is described in more
detail hereafter:
Compressor
Combustion chamber
Power turbine

Equipment
Turbines
Auxiliaries:
Air suction and turbine cleaning system
Exhaust system
Lubrication oil and control system
Start-up system
Fuel system (gas fuel, diesel oil, dual fuel, etc.)
Cooling and sealing system
Facility frame skids
Main turbine reduction gear on turbo-alternators
Reduction gear for auxiliaries
Couplings
Sound-proof enclosures
Ventilation systems
Oil cooling systems
Control System

Equipment
Turbines
4.2. COMPRESSOR
Its purpose is to provide the quantity of air required for combustion of the gases in the
turbine (according to the load to be supplied), and to supply various cooling systems with
air.
4.2.1. Compressor technology
The compressor assembly comprises one or several stages, each stage with a rotor and a
stator.
Compressors may be axial, centrifugal and occasionally combinations of the two in series.
The rotor is connected to the turbine shaft and is supported by bearings that absorb the
axial and radial stresses produced.
The vanes or blades can be cut from a solid block or fastened using pins, dovetail or fir
tree attachments.
For industrial motors, the light alloys normally used are replaced with steel.
The flow rate of compressed air acts as an oxidizer when taken from the last stages
(30%), and as a cooler when taken from the first stages (70 %).
Example of an axial supercharger
The rotor incorporates wide blades that are either attached, or cut into the disc
mass. An integral part of the rotor, the shaft is fluted to connect to the centrifugal
compressor on one end, and to the reduction gear on the other.
Figure 14: Axial compressor rotor and diffuser
Notes:
To vary the load more easily, certain compressors have inlet gate vanes (IGV),
sometimes coupled with variable stator vanes (VSV) on the PT. Some others are
fitted with bleed valves, used to release excess air into the atmosphere during the
Equipment
Turbines
start-up phase, or to supply compressed air for air de-icing or for the process itself.
This system is often used with the axial compressor, which has a flow rate that
varies very little, regardless of the speed (as opposed to the radial compressor).
The stator comprises two rows of vanes attached between two cylindrical rings.
Example of a centrifugal compressor
The rotor (in one or two sections) comprises the impeller assembly. It is mounted on
the shaft linking the turbine to the compressor.
On certain aeroderivative models, the blades of the axial compressor are fitted into
grooves, and therefore lack rigidity when idle. The overall rigidity is obtained
through centrifugal force.
The stator comprises two diffusers, one fitted radially, the other axially.
Figure 15: Impellers and diffusers of a centrifugal compressor
Compression rates vary between 8 and 30, depending on the type of turbine.
4.2.2. Compressor monitoring parameters
The inlet and outlet pressures and temperatures are monitored to be able to determine the
adequate cleaning dates.
Vibration analysis also enables to determine the condition of the compressor rotors,
particularly on lighter aeroderivative models.

Equipment
Turbines
4.3. COMBUSTION CHAMBER

4.3.1. General
The role of the combustion chamber is to burn a mixture of fuel and air, and to deliver the
gases generated through combustion to the turbine (conversion of the chemical potential
energy in the fuel into heat energy).
For proper combustion, the fuel/air ratio is approximately 1/15 (stoichiometric composition
m).œ This ideal ratio, however, cannot be employed as the resulting temperature would be
too high for the turbine.
The chamber thus bears a much higher ratio (in the region of 1/50) to cool down the burnt
gases to obtain a temperature that the turbines are able to support.
The combustion takes place in an enclosure arranged to ensure the flow of air, the
spraying of fuel, and the expansion of the gases.
The chamber must also ensure proper flame

stability, implementation of a wide flow range
and the possibility to ignite with variable outdoor
conditions.
Figure 16: Combustion chamber
T2 < T3 - P2 > P3 -m = Q/G
4.3.2. Chamber feed
Figure 17: Diagram showing a direct flow Turbomeca combustion chamber (aeronautical
application)
Equipment
Turbines
In the primary zone, the amount of air intake ensures an adequate mixture for good
combustion. Rich zones and recirculation zones are created to maintain the flame
(considering the flow speed is often higher than the deflagration zone velocity).
Note: The associated fuel feed is described on the following pages.
In the secondary zone, the gases are

diluted to reduce the temperature of
the gases before the turbine. The flow
rate of secondary air is 3 to 4 times
higher than the flow rate of primary air.
It is used to optimise atomisation (to
stabilise flame at 5%), to cool the
enclosure for proper temperature
distribution, to cool the walls (40%)
and to dilute the burnt gases (25%).
Figure 18: Diagram showing an

N.Pignone reverse flow
combustion chamber (industrial
application)
Flow within the chamber
The diagrams below illustrate the flow in an annular chamber with centrifugal injection and
a reverse-flow combustion chamber.
Figure 19: Annular combustion chamber with centrifugal injection for liquid combustion
(kerosene)
Equipment
Turbines
"Reverse-flow" annular combustion chamber: This is also an annular chamber, but bent so
as to reverse the flow of air
Figure 20: "Reverse-flow" annular combustion chamber

Equipment
Turbines
4.4. POWER TURBINES
The role of the power turbine is to transform the heat energy provided during combustion
into mechanical energy available on the shaft (of this power turbine).
The power turbine assembly comprises one or several stages, each stage including one
row of fixed vanes (distributor) followed by a row of mobile vanes (turbine wheel).
4.4.1. Distributor
Figure 21: Distributor and turbine wheel of a power turbine
The fixed vanes are usually mounted between two cylindrical rings. The outer ring is
mounted in the turbine casing, or sometimes forms the turbine casing.
The inner ring cases the shaft linking the turbine to the compressor. Furthermore, the first
distributor stage is attached to the rear combustion chamber flange. The distributor vanes
are generally hollow to allow the passage of cooling or pressurization air.
Note that certain manufacturers use distributors with variable vanes that can be
interchanged between GG and PT to provide for a wider range of speed variation (VSV
Variable Stator Vane manufactured by N. Pignone) while preserving correct efficiency at
partial load.

Equipment
Turbines
4.4.2. Turbine wheel
The wheel consists of a disc to the circumference of which two blades are fitted.
The disc is either an integral part of the shaft, or is mounted onto the shaft by means of a
curvic-coupling. To limit the heat conduction, its front and rear sides are cooled by air
circulation. It also comprises balancing weights or cords.
The turbine blades can be cut in the mass or attached using pins or other means. The
most common process used is known as the "fir tree root" technique, which optimises
stress distribution. The mobile blades are arranged to ensure the rotor is statically and
dynamically balanced.
The gap between the end of the blades and the outer casing is of capital importance; it
must be adjusted to optimise efficiency (minimum leakage) without causing the blades to
come into contact with one another.
The stators are often jacketed to the right of the blades by a metal sole that is softer than
the turbine wheels to prevent damage to the rotor (honeycomb structure).
In certain turbines, shoulders are fitted to the end of each blade to form a rotary shield and
to thus reduce the risk of damage by contact. This type of turbine is known as a "shoulder
turbine"
However, in the event of shutdown during full load, there is a risk of friction of the discs
and even of slight buckling of the shaft if the rotor is not removed quickly enough.
Figure 22: Shoulder turbine wheel

Equipment
Turbines
4.4.3. Cooling technique
The cooling of the hot parts is of considerable importance as it allows to increase

component life and efficiency. Cooling is generally performed by circulation of air taken
from the compressor. The distributor vanes, the turbine discs, and in some cases, the
turbine blades are cooled. There are different techniques that can be used to cool the
blades, depending on the way in which the blades are manufactured (for example: casts
blades, pre-formed blades, spark machining).
Figure 23: Cooling the blades

4.4.4. Materials
As the blades are subjected to high stress levels, highly resistant materials are used, and
metallurgical applications continue to be researched in the field.

Equipment
Turbines
4.5. AUXILIARIES
These are all of the parts allowing to deliver the fluids required for operation in accordance
with the standards given by the manufacturer (air, oil, fuels, water etc…)
4.5.1. Air suction
The air suction system must be designed to:
Deliver air free of dust, fumes and hydrocarbon vapours to prevent erosion and
deposits on the blades, and in a quantity that is sufficient to meet the contractual
performance requirements.
Resist the local atmospheric conditions (anti-freeze or cooling system if

necessary, prevention of rainwater penetration)
Respect the ambient noise level limits
Supply the compressor without aerodynamic vibrations
Prevent local nuisances (insects)
Catch falling objects insofar as it is possible
Meet the reliability requirements stipulated in the specifications
The following elements allow for these performances:
filter bank
ducts
silencer
elbows
plenum chamber
bell-mouth (compressor inlet convergent)
To protect the blades from erosion due to suspended solids / dust, the air is filtered in a
filter bank positioned during suction. The air is channelled to a "plenum chamber " before
entering the compressor. The equipment used downstream of the filtering system is made
of stainless steel to prevent suction of rust debris. Likewise, for part attachment, bolts,
spring clamps etc. are avoided.

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 24: Typical diagram of a suction system
Generally, stainless steel netting is used as the last protection before compressor
penetration.
During inspections, personnel must perform checks with empty pockets.
To prevent aerodynamic vibrations at the compressor inlet, the bell-mouth is carefully

designed.
Note:
In the event of complete obstruction of the filters, to prevent the ducts from collapsing, a
vacuum-breaking valve is fitted. As this system is a filter by-pass, the turbine must be
shutdown immediately if the by-pass opens. The pressure switch usually stops the turbine
before the by-pass opens.
4.5.1.1. Filtering
Devices able to filter bigger particles are generally fitted in front of the fine filters
measuring 5 µ m that protect the turbines, to prevent the latter from clogging too quickly.
The upstream portion includes the following:
A bird and insect-prevention grate (10 to 20 mesh) in certain regions.
An inertial filter (fig. 25)
A demister
A primary filter
A coalescer
Equipment
Turbines
Fine filters, incorporating cartridges or similar devices sometimes self-

cleaning
4.5.1.2. Primary inertial filtering
Figure 25: Vane or Dust Louver
Possible pressure loss new 30 mm H2O (300 Pa)
4.5.1.3. Demister
This is used to separate droplets of water bigger than 20 µm with an efficiency rate of over
99%.
Pressure drop new: 3 mm H2O (30 Pa)
Equipment
Turbines
4.5.1.4. Coalescer
This is a glass fibre panel fitted into water-resistant resin to collect and evacuate/drain the
water brought with the air.
Pressure drop negligible.
4.5.1.5. Primary filters
These are used to louver particles of between 10 and 5 µm. These panels, that are similar
to coalescers, may be of the viscous type to delay fine filter clogging and therefore to
reduce turbine downtime.
4.5.1.6. Fine filters
Also called finishing or high efficiency filters, their purpose is to reduce clogging (they
capture particles < 1 µm).
They may be conventional, made of paper with a flat frame, or they may be dihedral.
Finishing filters
Multi dihedral finishing filters
Figure 26: Filter types
They may also be of the self-cleaning cartridge type.

Equipment
Turbines
The characteristics of such a filter cartridge are described below:
Figure 27: Example of filter cartridge characteristics
4.5.1.7. Supporting structure
Examples of a number of hoods are shown below:
3-inlet filtering support hood:
Figure 28: 3-sided air filtering structure

Equipment
Turbines
Rainproof hood and grate/filter support
Figure 29: Rainproof hood
4.5.1.8. Self-cleaning cartridges
Figure 30: Self-cleaning cartridges
As soon as the differential pressure has reached its preset threshold, the differential
pressure transmitter triggers the cleaning sequence. A solenoid valve opens the air to 6 or
7 bg to a Venturi tube, that detaches all of the deposits adhered to the filter wall through
backflow created by a series of impacts.
Air comes from plant air or from a compressor specific to the turbine package, or by
means of turbine air compressor draw-off after cooling.
There are different self-cleaning cartridge banks depending or their arrangement:

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 31: Different self-cleaning cartridge banks
Figure 32: Filtering by vertical self-cleaning cartridges (mounting a)

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.1.9. Choice of filtering system
Table 2: Filtering system composition
In a very corrosive salty atmosphere, it is advisable to use martensitic steels (AISI 400) or
austenitic steels (AISI 300) for the filter supports. In this application, the demister is more
efficient than the fine filters.
4.5.1.10. Silencers
The duct walls and the elbows are coated with rock
wool sandwiched between steel plates.
Figure 33: Silencer under construction

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 34: Silencer element
Figure 35: Cross-section of silencer duct walls (typical)
A silencer with a dampening wall made of stainless steel or aluminium is fitted in parallel to
the filtering system. This wall must comprise an anti-freeze system in very cold areas.
4.5.1.11. Compressor inlet
This changes the direction of the air flow.

The shape of the bell-mouth is specifically
designed to prevent any aerodynamic
disturbance that may cause vibrations.
Figure 36: Air inlet diagram (typical)

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.1.12. Auxiliary systems
Anti-freeze system: With ambient temperatures of between 5 and -10°C, the parts
subjected to cooling points need to be protected. These sensitive parts include the edges
of the filter air inlets and the silencer damper wall inlets.
Figure 37: Diagram of a silencer (typical)
The front edges of the inlet gate vane blades are also subject to freezing.
A de-icing system can be fitted to hot air draw-off from the axial turbine compressor.
The system is automatically triggered according to the ambient temperature and the
relative humidity (RHamb ) indicated by T2 feed-back on the filter air outlet temperature.
Figure 38: Anti-freeze system

Equipment
Turbines
Washing system
When the compressor becomes clogged with various types of fouling, its efficiency
diminishes (and consequently the power supplied by the turbine also diminishes) and it
needs to be cleaned once a certain value has been reached (generally once its
performance has diminished by 5%).
The most common method is the injection of a mixture of water and a cleaning agent
upstream of the IGVs using a circular arrangement of spray nozzles The operator is
required to acknowledge the specific instructions provided by the turbine manufacturer
before starting any washing procedure.
Figure 39: Diagram of a water washing system
For information, in the past, on-line impact cleaning used to be carried out by spraying a
graded powder obtained from walnut or apricot kernels or grains of rice.
There are 2 types of washing technique:
On-line washing
Crank washing or off-line washing
The on-line washing sequence consists in activating the turbine without switching it on and
injecting the washing mixture in preset sequences. When the "cleaner" tank is empty, the
turbine stops and the flushing process begins, using demineralised water in the same
sequences.
Once the flushing process has been completed, the turbine is started up and the timer
maintains it at idle speed until it has dried and is ready for normal use.
As shown in the diagram, on-line washing is 4 times less efficient than off-line washing
(often performed following scheduled maintenance shutdown).

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 40: Washing efficiency
4.5.2. Exhaust system
This is designed with the following criteria:
Respect for the local noise control legislation
Compatibility with the contractual power requested and the fuel-gas rate
Protection of personnel against hot spots
Acknowledgement of corrosion and erosion (according to the quality of the

gases burnt)
Regular flow rate not disturbing the turbine (reduction of turbulence, leaks and
limitation of structural thermal constraints)
Constant static temperature during speed changes to prevent internal thermal

transient.
Reliability and availability equal to the other parts
Maintainability of the critical points to be monitored (easy inspection)
The exhaust system, and particularly the silencer, generate substantial pressure drops
(back-pressure resistance) that jeopardise the turbine performances. The same calculation
formulae as those used for the intake silencer may be applied.

Equipment
Turbines
Equipment:
We often come across exhaust plenums
Exhaust ducts and elbow
Silencers
Exhaust pipe/stack
Expansion bellows
Thermal and acoustic insulation
Walkways and access stairs/ladders
Support structure
Auxiliaries (diverters, seals)
4.5.2.1. Types of exhaust
Vertical
Lateral
Horizontal
Axial (aircraft turbine type)
Figure 41: Vertical exhaust
Figure 42: Lateral exhaust

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.2.2. Noise reduction
Noise limitation standards exist locally. As an example, the ISO NR 50 standard above
shows the Db values authorised for each audible frequency range. The measurement is
taken at 1 m and at the distance defined in the contract
Figure 43: Example of noise level allowed in the USA
Table 3: Noise levels
The noise intensity varies depending on the measurement direction. For the same origin
noise, measurement in line (direct outlet of the exhaust or direct inlet of the turbine
suction) is much greater than the same transversal measurement. The noise can be
reduced by sheathing the air or smoke flow with an insulating material. Insulating louvres
at the suction reduce the in line noise measurement (fig.33).
The elbow and the silencer are the two parts that can reduce the noise level substantially
according to their geometry, the type of material used (inner and outer), and depending on
whether or not they incorporate shutters.

Equipment
Turbines
Generally, the noise reduction is obtained by the use of absorbing materials (rock wool
sandwich in perforated (or not) support plates. See fig.33, 34, 35, 47 and 48).
The silencer is the part that produces the highest back-pressure.
Since the silencer at the turbine exhaust is the part which generates the highest back-
pressure, it is often limited to just an insulating lateral envelope. Sometimes an in-line
device, such as smoke guide louvres, is installed
4.5.2.3. Manufacturing precautions
Protection against temperature
The diffuser, elbow, silencer and duct are subjected to temperatures of between 500 and
600 °C and flow rates of between 40 and 50 m/sec.
The design of the inner lining enables the metal sheets to expand freely and is not affected
when back-pressure increases. If carefully selected (AISI 409 S), it can help to combat
corrosion and erosion efficiently.
The insulation (composite material with rock wool or ceramic) protects the outer duct from
excess temperature. With this design and adequate materials, the duct can reach 550°C
and the outer temperature 360°C, which means carbon steel can be used.
Moreover, this temperature must be in line with the maximum temperature authorised
within the framework of the area classification (in the event of a gas leak).
Figure 44: Cross-section of an exhaust duct
Protection against dynamic vibrations
The speed is limited to 50 m/sec to avoid excessive back-pressure that could jeopardise
machine performance, increase stress on the inner elbows and shutters, and to prevent
vibrations on the silencer parts and the structure.

Equipment
Turbines
Position of fixed points
To limit the relative displacements at the expansion bellows, the fixed points are defined
(see example below)
Figure 45: Fixed points of side exhaust
4.5.2.4. Types of exhaust
Exhaust plenum Right diffuser
Figure 46: PGT10 N.Pignone Figure 47: MS9001FA N.Pignone

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.2.5. Silencer and ducts
Silencers
The noise dampener panels are made of rock wool (100 kg/m2 ) sandwiched between the
perforated metal sheets AISI 400
Figure 48: Silencers
Silencers
These panels must be suspended by means of an appropriate structure enabling

expansion (find photos)
Figure 49: Silencer
Exhaust pipes (stack)
Connected to the silencer by means of a transition part (find photo)

Equipment
Turbines
Expansion joints
To connect the different assemblies such as the duct plenum and the duct silencer
Figure 50: Textile type expansion joint
C glass fibre or rock wool
D composed of the following layers from the outer area to the inner area:
Reinforced glass fibre fabric and PTFE sheet for resistance to external
chemical agents
Glass fibre or ceramic felt for heat insulation
Metal fabrics to absorb expansion and solidify all of the components
Steel strip to ensure the sizing and protection of this assembly

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.2.6. Accessories
These are the parts used in cogeneration or combined cycles.
These include diverters, plug valves, knife-gate valves and blanking plates.
Diverter
This is a 2-way valve used to direct the exhaust to the atmosphere or towards the
cogeneration boiler.
A shutter blade allows to divert the stream from one side to another. Control may be
electro-mechanical or electro-hydraulic.
Figure 51: Diverter diagram
Shutter sealing
To prevent hot gases from seeping out through the edges of the shutter, an air sealing
system has been developed.
Figure 52: Details of shutter sealing

Equipment
Turbines
Plug valves
These are no longer used due to their lack of reliability associated with face damage by
vibration and a rapid increase in leaks due to the hot gases.
Knife-gate valves
The walls are reinforced with an appropriate support structure and the knife-blade plate is
manoeuvred hydraulically.
Figure 53: Knife-gate valves
Blanking plates
Same system as the knife-blade, but without structure reinforcement. The plate is
extremely light (10 mm thick) and can be manoeuvred using a winch.

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.3. Lubrication and control oil systems
An oil system ensures the following: oil storage, pressurised supply, filtering, recovery,
cooling, degassing and operation control.
4.5.3.1. Aeroderivative turbine systems
The aircraft turbines incorporate very small oil systems (often called leakproof box
turbines) Small amounts of oil are carried through the system. The scavenge pumps
recover the drained oil to channel it back to the main unit. As the coolers are compact and
the machine speeds are higher than those of industrial turbines, the oil temperatures are
higher. Therefore, synthetic oil is used as it is more stable and less likely to catch fire. The
oil systems of aircraft turbines are completely separate from the oil system of the machine
driven.
This type of machine is now used to a lesser extent in the petroleum industry in
comparison to industrial turbines (adapted aeroderivative or heavy-duty).
Figure 54: Lubrication circuits
The oil is stored in a tank within the cell.

Equipment
Turbines
Feed is provided by means of a pressure pump. The feed system may be of the regulated
pressure or total rate type. Nozzles are fitted to the end of each pressure line to spray oil
onto the part requiring lubrication.
Filtering is carried out before lubrication by cartridge filters. The filter is usually fitted with
a bypass valve and a fouling indicator.
Oil recovery is usually immediate (leakproof box system) and several pumps are used to
channel the oil to the tank (scavenge pumps).œ Sometimes, the oil flows back by gravity.
Oil cooling is generally carried out by an airflow heater; the temperature can be regulated
by means of a thermostatic bypass valve.
Degassing of the lubricated parts activates an air breather system allowing vapours to
return to the tank.
Operation control is carried out by measuring the pressure and temperature of the
system oil.
Figure 55: Functional diagram of the oil system of an N. Pignone aeroderivative turbine

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.3.2. Industrial machine oil systems
The system provides the oil of the following systems:
Turbine bearings
Machine driven
Different reduction gears (main, auxiliaries, etc)
Power converters, barrier seals
Control systems
Hydraulic pressure systems
Figure 56: Functional diagram of the oil system of an N. Pignone PGT5 and PGT10
Oil tank
This is generally fitted into the baseplate
Its minimum capacity is defined by the retention time, i.e. the time it takes to drain the main
pump in operation without oil return (hypothetical leak).

Equipment
Turbines
The definition of the retention time (8 min for settling, degassing, demulsification) is given
in API 616 and 614. Manufacturers however tend to take into account the working capacity
(5 min between min. level and pump unpriming) by designing the tanks to allow a
residence time of the same order.
A reheating system is installed to maintain the temperature at the minimum value required
for start-up.
Oil pumps
The main oil pump may be driven by a gear pump attached to the auxiliary reduction gear
or to the capacity reduction gear, or by a free-standing pump if the oil sump is separate. It
discharges into the cooler and the filters before feeding the lube and control oil systems.
An electric (A.C) stand-by pump is generally installed to replace the attached pump in the
event of a failure (pressure switch-type start-up system). This pump is used to lubricate the
machine prior to use and during the cooldown procedure.
A third electric (D.C) emergency pump on the network, comprising a battery back-up
system, ensures lubrication is provided until downtime if the normal A.C. electric network is
unavailable. This pump by-passes the cooler to save energy.
Cooler
This is of the oil-air or of the oil-water

type.
A thermostatic valve regulates the

output temperature.
The oil flows out through the filters.
Figure 57: Oil system of an N. Pignone

aeroderivative turbine
Filters
These are usually of the duplex type with a ball valve for transfer in operation and a
pressure control valve to ensure the system is kept pressurized in the event of filter fouling
(also during start-up before the oil has reached the adequate temperature). The parts
usually measure 10µm.
Headers and backflow systems

Equipment
Turbines
Pressure accumulators to stage breakdowns
Control and safety instruments
These include:
Oil tank level alarms and shutdowns (LSL/LSLL, LSH/LSHH)
TSH thermostats on the bearing lube system
TSH thermostats on the oil sump
PSL/PSLL pressure switches on the bearing lube system
PSL/PSLL pressure switches on the discharge end of the main oil pump
Differential pressure switch on the DPSL oil filter
Local and remote pressure indicators
Local and remote temperature indicators
A main system PCV to discharge excess oil in the housing
Oil systems
Control oil system to control the hydraulic valves (control system), that may be
positioned differently in the start-up, normal operation, cool stop and emergency stop
phases. Pressure identical to the lubrication pressure (7 to 8 bg)
Power oil system to manoeuvre/move the fuel-gas, IGV hydraulic motors etc.
In the aeroderivative turbines, both systems have the same operating pressure
(approximately 60 bg). If a safety control hydraulic unit receives a shutdown order from the
generator control panel, it drains the control oil in the tank. the drop in the control pressure
triggers switchover to the servomechanism of the fuel-oil emergency stop valve. The fuel-
oil valve shuts abruptly and the control panel sends a signal requesting lockout.
The same system is used for fuel gas.

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 58: Diagram showing control of the solenoid valve of an N. Pignone aeroderivative
turbine
In the example, we can see the electro-valve controlling the fuel gas in drain position,
therefore in out-of-operation position. This is what happens when the turbine is in idle
mode with the fuel oil solenoid valve remaining operational, while the IGV receives a signal
requesting adjustment of the stator angle.
Figure 59: Simplified hydraulic diagram N.Pignone

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 60: Functional fuel oil diagram N.Pignone
4.5.4. Fuel system
4.5.4.1. General
The turbines can operate with a wide variety of fuels, as long as these are treated
appropriately beforehand.
Natural Gas
LPG (butane, propane)
Refinery gas with a high Hydrogen content.
Gas collected through degassing of carbon and other lean gases
Crude-oil, fuel-oil and other conventional liquids available on the market

Equipment
Turbines
Kerosene
Non-conventional products such as naphtha and gasolines
Residual products such as bunkers
Methanol
Most of the turbines used in the petroleum industry are of the dual-fuel type (diesel-oil and
fuel-gas).
The qualities of natural reservoir gas and methane from processing the gases associated
with the crude fields are often different with much more liquid and various impurities for the
second (same for refinery gases).
Natural gas is readily available and after processing has good properties in terms of
ignition and flame stability. Its rate of nitric oxide and fume residue emission is low, and
therefore easy to control. Generally, its heavy metal content is low, minimising blade wear
in hot parts caused by erosion and chemical attack.
The parameters that need to be controlled are:
The maximum temperature in terms of metallurgical limits of the hot parts
The minimum temperature in terms of the gas "dew-point", which exposed to the
flare (2000°C) would burn the first stages of the hot parts (inlet distributor and
first wheel). As a precautionary measure, the temperature of the fuel-gas must
be maintained 15-20°C higher than the dew point of the heaviest component at
the combustion chamber inlet.
Avoid oscillations of the calorific value of over 10%
Provide for a stable fuel-gas inlet pressure
The atmospheric flammable limit must be 15°C (otherwise the product is too
unstable)
No sodium or potassium (alkaline metals) that attack the hot parts
No solid contaminants (iron, sand, hydrates, etc) that erode the vanes and
blades.
No liquid contaminants (gasolines, condensates) that have the same flare effect
as the fuel-gas dew point.
A correct filtering grade

Equipment
Turbines
Notes:
If we consider the major damages occurring on turbines, 40% are seriously damaged by
flare effect owing to the presence of condensates:
Influx of condensates through the partially obstructed common bleed lines, that
penetrate the turbines during extended shutdowns for maintenance.
Check valve on the common bleed system no longer operational
Inappropriate connection of the condensate bleed systems on manufacture
Isolated bleeder forgotten that fills up with condensates that are aspirated during
start-up following shut-down.
KO drums easily congested during a massive arrival of liquid (e.g. entrainment

of condensates)
Use of a back-up fuel-gas system without considering the change in the

composition of the gas, and therefore without adjusting the reheater outlet
temperature, etc.
30% through rupture of the blade by foreign bodies
4.5.4.2. Fuel-gas regulation
Upstream of the filtering system (demister), there is an SRV (stop pressure regulating
valve) and a GCV (Gas control valve) controlled electrically via the machine control panel.
SRV stop pressure regulating valve
This controls and maintains a constant differential pressure between the GG turbine
compressor air outlet pressure and the fuel-gas pressure read upstream of the GCV. This
allows for good ignition conditions and good combustion in the transient phases.
It acts as the isolating valve during manual or emergency machine shutdown
For safety reasons, an atmospheric bleed valve is fitted between the 2 SRV and GCV
valves. This way, we avoid getting pressurised fuel-gas migrating into the exhaust and
causing untimely explosions during the shut-down and idle phases (namely in the case of
cogeneration).
In the start-up sequence, the SRV only opens when the turbine compressor has reached
20% of its normal speed. This is so that the combustion chamber and the exhaust can be
swept thoroughly. Any gas pockets can therefore be ventilated before flare ignition.

Equipment
Turbines
GCV valve
This controls the quantity of gas sent to the burners according to the load demanded. Its
position is regulated.
The valve internals (determination of the H.p.) are selected according to the fuel-gas
analysis results (molecular mass). Regardless of the valve stroke, the position and Hp
must be proportional.
Figure 61: Fuel-gas regulation
Figure 62: N. Pignone Fuel-gas system

Equipment
Turbines
4.5.4.3. Liquid fuel qualities
Most of the liquid fuel used in the petroleum industry is diesel-oil (light gas oil), used to
start-up the turbines and as fuel-gas back-up.
The main parameters to be monitored for a liquid fuel are:
Minimum pump suction pressure to prevent cavitation
Viscosity versus temperature curve to ensure permanent optimum viscosity on

the burner noses for perfect atomisation (few or no unburnt residues)
Water content
Ash content
Contents of minerals such as Sodium, Calcium, Potassium, Vanadium, Lead, to

prevent hot part corrosion.
Sulphur content that generates sulphur dioxide SO2 and with the Vanadium as a
catalyser of the SO3 , which generates sulphuric acid (dew point 150°C) that
could damage the energy recovery systems (co-generation)
If heavy fuels are used (cracking residues), they need to be treated by adding
magnesium to correct the effect of vanadium pentoxide on the hot parts.
Before the treatment mentioned above, the product needs to be washed and
centrifuged to reduce the sodium content within the recommended limits and
therefore prevent corrosion (sulphates and vanadates).
This treatment also reduces the calcium content. Like sodium, calcium deposits
on the blades can rapidly contribute to a reduction in machine performance.
4.5.4.4. Liquid fuel regulation
There is a filtering system (often duplex) and an emergency fuel stop valve as described in
the paragraph on lubrication 4.5.3.2 (Fig. 59).
Downstream of the valve, there is a fuel flow meter that operates in proportion to the
demanded power and speed.
Generally, the fuel-oil is supplied by a positive displacement pump driven by an accessory

gear or a fixed-speed electric motor. In the case of partial power, a portion of the diesel oil
is recycled by passing through the load control valve of which the position is defined by a
signal issued from the control panel.

Equipment
Turbines
The control panel uses this electrical signal once the load demanded by the operator and
the feed-back of the quantity of fuel passing through the burners (detected by the delivery
transmitter) have been compared.
The delivery transmitter is actually a tachometric pump of which the gears distribute the
fuel evenly in the burner ring in proportion to the load. The speed of this pump is measured
and the signal is sent to the control panel.
By increasing or reducing the fuel delivered, the speed of the pump is increased or
reduced, and the feed-back signal sent to the control panel indicates the variation.
When the signals corresponding to the demanded load and feed-back are equal, the
system stabilises around the fixed value of the fuel delivered, which will inevitably be the
correct value for the load demanded. Equal displacement of each pump allows to distribute
the load evenly between all of the burners.
An efficient filter is fitted between the pump and the burners.
The combustion air comes from the axial turbine compressor and from an air booster
compressor (CA) that is either attached or driven by the electric motor. In the start-up
phase, an additional compressor is operated to make up for any lack of turbine air. A
cooler reduces the turbine air temperature.
Figure 63: Compression of combustion air for fuel-oil burners
Note:
When a dual-fuel system is switched to gas, the pipes carrying liquids are drained between
the GCV and the burner nose to avoid coke slugs.

Equipment
Turbines
Atomizers
These are designed to optimise fuel fragmentation. Mixture with the air is performed by
spiralling in the opposite direction. This optimises ignition and reduces unburnt residues.
4.5.4.5. Dual-fuel regulation
The most common configuration is fuel-gas and diesel-oil.
The turbine can start up using one of the fluids and then switch to the other once the start-
up phase has been completed.
The system also automatically switches to the liquid option in the event of a lack of fuel-
gas pressure. The operator switches back to fuel-gas once he has checked to ensure the
supply is stable.
Fuel changes are made such that the total amount of energies burnt (decreasing fuel and
increasing fuel) are always equal (+/-10%) during the transfer.
Figure 64: Dual-fuel regulation
4.5.4.6. Multiple fuel-gas systems
Likewise, different types of gases can be used as fuel. In this particular case, different
control systems are required (valve programme and Hp) if the Wobbe coefficient of each
differs by more than 50%.
WI = HV / √ Tg * Sg
WI: Wobbe index
Equipment
Turbines
HV: Gross calorific value of the fuel-gas

Tg: Absolute temperature of the fuel-gas
Sg: Shilling density
4.5.5. Cooling and sealing system
Each manufacturer has its own technological solutions and developments.
The sealing air is necessary to prevent oil leaking from the bearing labyrinth seals onto the
hot parts.
Figure 65: Simplified diagram showing an N.Pignone cooling and sealing air system
The air taken from one or several of the compressor stages is used for:
Cooling:
o The hot parts of the first stages (turbine blades and distributor stators)
o The turbine structures and exhausts
Bearing oil sealing
Compressor surge prevention

Equipment
Turbines
Notes:
The return of foul air from the oil bearing labyrinth seals is recovered in an oil vapour (from
the different systems) recovery system, if any.
The amount of air drawn from the compressor is calculated very accurately to optimise
machine performances.
Figure 66: Diagram showing an N.Pignone oil vapour extractor and bearing sealing air
system

Equipment
Turbines
4.6. TURBO-MACHINE BASEPLATES
The baseplates are used to support the following elements:
Oil tank
Various auxiliary pumps depending on configuration
Start-up system
Shut-down and fuel control system
Oil and fuel filters
Water coolers in the oil tanks
Stand-by and safeguard oil pumps
Instrument panel
Terminal boxes
The baseplate also comprises elements enabling the following:
Tank oil filling points
Draining points for oil change
Maintenance and operation walkways
Hooking/supporting points for baseplate handling operations
Anchorage and centring points for baseplate installation
The baseplate structure comprises

longitudinal and transverse joists
made of carbon steel.
Figure 67: N. Pignone baseplate

structure

Equipment
Turbines
Configuration examples are given below:
Figure 68: Example of an auxiliary baseplate, separated from the turbine baseplate
Figure 69: Example of separate baseplates for the turbine and the exhaust section
Figure 70: Example of baseplates for single turbine

Equipment
Turbines
4.7. START-UP SYSTEMS
Basic principle
This system is necessary to drive the compressor at the minimum speed that delivers
enough air to start the combustion process enabling self-sustained turbine acceleration.
The start-up system may differ according to the machines driven (design, weight, etc.) On
small machines, we often come across hydraulic or electric motors.
On small single-shaft
turbo alternators, the
alternator may act as a
motor during start-up. On
heavy, powerful
machines, diesel motors
or start-up turbines (gas
or steam-powered,
depending on plant
availability) are fitted.
Figure 71: N. Pignone

curve showing the
resisting and drive
torque versus GG
speed during the
start-up phase
a, a’ : Start-up
b, c : Point immediately before ignition (a-b stable oil systems, c-d sweeping)
d, e : Point immediately after ignition (change of starter speed)
f : Maximum resisting torque after ignition (e-f GG air stabilisation completed)
g : Nil resisting torque (self-sustainment)
h : Starter shut-down
To begin with, the resisting torque is at its maximum because the resistance in the
bearings is high until the oil films have been formed. It goes through its minimum value
until the combustion chamber sweeping process begins. As the air flow from the GG
increases, the resistance increases (from a to b).
At point b , the GG speed is stabilised until the sweeping process has been completed.
The start-up motor speed is constant (b,c)

Equipment
Turbines
It needs to be accelerated by changing the starter torque (c,d) to compensate for the
increasing resisting torque.
At point c the sweeping is considered sufficient, the fuel is admitted and the ignitor is
operational.
Igniting the fuel helps the starter

to overcome the decreasing
resisting torque (b,e). Next, during
acceleration, it increases until the
GG air flow is stable (f) before
decreasing once again.
Figure 72: Curve typical of Torque

versus GG RPM (N.Pignone)
As of point (g) the turbine

provides enough air to become self-sustained, and therefore to overcome its own load
losses as well as those of its auxiliary systems. The starter is therefore stopped (h).
The point of self-sustainment varies from one machine to another. It is at approximately 50

to 60 % of the normal GG speed.
The existing starters powered by diesel motors with regulators cannot match the exact
values of the curve shown in fig. 55. We interpose a hydraulic torque variator (fig. 54), of
which we can control operation by modulating the oil intake that changes its efficiency, and
therefore its output speed.
N1 : diesel motor speed / N2 : GG speed
Figure 73: N. Pignone torque converter
The hydraulic control system acts on a set of oil inlet and bleed valves that modulate the
output speed.
Equipment
Turbines
Via the GG speed sensor

signal from the control
panel (starting sequence),
the required speed is
controlled during the
sweep, then the
acceleration sequence is
controlled on ignition.
Figure 74: Diesel motor

start-up system
Figure 75: N. Pignone starter with epicyclic gear
Figure 76: N. Pignone hydraulic motor starter

Equipment
Turbines
4.8. REDUCTION GEARS AND COUPLINGS

4.8.1. Auxiliary reduction gears
The auxiliary gear boxes are used to drive the auxiliary systems (oil pumps, fuel pumps,
etc). There may be several of them on certain aeroderivative turbines (scavenge pumps).
Industrial turbines often have only one auxiliary box with several output shafts used to
drive the various pumps and the starter input shaft.
Figure 77: Diagram of an auxiliary reduction gear
The auxiliaries to be driven include:
Main lube oil pump
Hydraulic oil pump
Fuel pump
Sealing oil pump (if gas generator

driven)
Atomisation air compressor:
Auxiliary generator
Figure 78: Auxiliary reduction gear

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 79: Auxiliary reduction gear
4.8.2. Capacity reduction gear
These are used to drive the machines. They adapt the turbine output speed to that of the
machine (generator, compressor, pump, etc.).
High power turbines (>40-70MW) can run at speeds identical to those of the generators.
With less power, turbines run too quickly

(5000-10000 RPM) and require a speed
reduction gear to run slower (3000-3600 or
1500-1800 RPM corresponding to 50-60 Hz).
Figure 80: Diagram of a reduction gear in

operation
The reduction gears are designed and manufactured to resist the maximum mechanical
stresses associated with electrical operation (coupling, reverse-current and short circuit).
The reduction gear is manufactured with quill shafts with which it is possible to incorporate
shaft diameters that correspond to the maximum stresses calculated. These act as
rupturing fuses in the event of mechanical overload.
The lube oil used for the turbines and generator is that same as that used for industrial
machines. With aeroderivative systems, the reduction gear oil is the same as that of the
alternator (separate oil systems).

Equipment
Turbines
For gas re-injection, it is sometimes necessary to

increase the turbine speed to drive the compressor.
As with the generators, the overgear oil used in

aeroderivative turbines is the same as that used for the
power turbine.
Figure 81: Generator speed reduction gear
The bearings must be protected from high temperatures (TSH / TSHH) and vibrations
(XH / XHH).
The reduction gear casing is made of either cast iron or weld steel. In this last case, the
space between the support bearings is reduced to the minimum.
There are 4 types of gear:
Single helical gear (1), with stoppers (that absorb the side thrust)
Single ring helical gear (2), (that absorbs slight side thrust)
Herringbone gear (3) (its self-

balancing feature allows for high
power for the same flow of oil as with
a single helical gear)
Epicyclic gear (allows for high speed

and power ratio for small overall
dimensions)
Figure 82: Photo of a compressor overgear

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 83: Diagram showing the different types of gear

Equipment
Turbines
4.8.3. Coupling
There are 2 types:
Crowned tooth gear couplings
Elastic diaphragm dry couplings
Crowned tooth gear couplings
These are the most traditional and continue to be used.
Correct operation of these couplings depends on several factors such as correct alignment
with full load, an efficient filtering system (as deposits form through centrifugation), high
precision manufacturing and high quality materials.
The effects of misalignment are

shown for each half-turn.
Figure 84: Diagram of a Crowned

tooth gear coupling
Friction wears the teeth and

poorly filtered oil has an abrasive
effect that accelerates wear.
Figure 85: Effect of misalignment

on a splined coupling
The size of the teeth is

determined by the manufacturer
after having calculated the
maximum axial force.
FMax = f * CMax / D
f= Tooth friction coefficient
CMax = Maximum torque transmitted
D= Pitch diameter of teeth

Equipment
Turbines
Note: When the machines move between cold position and steady state position, the
movement is mandatory and the allowed angular displacement may be greater than that
in diaphragm couplings. However, the characteristic of the teeth is that even with excellent
alignment during operation, the coupling becomes stiff in axial displacement, causing
significant axial thrust on the thrust bearing(s).
Elastic diaphragm dry couplings
These confer the advantage of easy installation as they do not require cooling oil.
Examples of single-disc and multiple-disc couplings are shown below
Figure 86: Diagram of a single-disc coupling
Figure 87: Diagram of a multiple-disc coupling
Wear through friction is eliminated to the detriment of slight axial thrust absorbed by the
flexibility of the discs. This type of coupling can easily support slight misalignment.

Equipment
Turbines
Types of stress/strain supported by this type of flexible coupling:
Axial (Sa) during speed changes ( temperature)
Torsional (τ) depending on the torque transmitted
Centrifugal (Sc) by rotation
Thermal (St) by the heat transmitted via

the shaft
Alternative by angular (Sα) and radial (Sr)

misalignment
Figure 88: Photo of a multiple-disc coupling
The diaphragm design must be determined with

consideration for several misalignment scenarios:
The safety coefficient (Sm) :
Sm = Sa + Sc + St / 2 + √ [ Sa + Sc + St / 2 ]2 + τ2 
The axial stress (Sa) :
(Sa) = (Sα) + (Sr)
We then refer to the Goodman table to

determine the appropriate safety
coefficient value
Depending on the corrosiveness of the

environment, either stainless steel of the
300 series or a nickel alloy IN718 can be
used.
Figure 89: Diagram design

Equipment
Turbines
4.9. ELECTRICAL CABLES AND BOXES
This is the entire system used to connect the turbine and its auxiliary systems. It includes
the cables, ducts, external cable ducts and terminal boxes for:
All instrumentation (F&G protection, sensors, FF system etc …)
All electricity (lighting and power)
It complies with the safety standards applicable within the plant.
Equipment exposed to ambient temperature
Figure 90: Electrical equipment and instrument exposed to ambient temperature
Materials are selected according to ambient temperature resistance properties and if

possible the most favourable location is selected for sensors (ventilation air)
Equipment subjected to vibrations
All of the attachment parts on ducts or chutes must be secured to prevent them from
coming undone during operation.
Figure 91: Self-locking bolt

attachment system for
ducts

Equipment
Turbines
Installation of inner machine sensors
This is the case with the GG compressor pressure measurement pressure switch, the oil
temperature thermometer, etc.
A special stuffing box enables

the compression of a plastic seal
(B) that clamps the cables (E) in
the passage orifices (D), and
with the seal clamped between
the nut (A) and the lantern ring
(C), the interior fluid is isolated
from the exterior fluid.
Figure 92: Electric stuffing box
In explosion-proof (Eex)e
conditions, the cables in the
ducts are sealed with an
approved resin each time they pass through the boxes.
Electrical connections
These conform to the international electrical standards associated with the certification
requested.
The cables and junction boxes are numbered according to the manufacturing and pre-
commissioning specifications - see Fig. 72.
The junction boxes are logically grouped around the turbine and differ in terms of
instrumentation signals, A.C., D.C., electrical power supply, lighting, etc.
Figure 93: Example of instrument cable numbering

Equipment
Turbines
4.10. ENCLOSURES AND ASSOCIATED AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
4.10.1. General
The machine rooms are used to:
Provide protection against exterior aggressions (poor weather conditions,

polluted ambient air, etc.)
Reduce the exterior ambient noise levels
Confine fire risks
4.10.2. Types of enclosure
There are 3 different types of enclosure:
Machine enclosure fixed to the baseplate (compact, and therefore very common
in off-shore applications)
Noise-protection enclosure fixed to the floor
Hangar
In each case, these devices are designed to enable full machine maintenance.
Figure 94: Example of a machine enclosure fixed to the baseplate

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 95: Example of a noise-protection enclosure fixed to the floor
Figure 96: Example of a noise-protection enclosure fixed to the floor with machine
enclosure on baseplate

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 97: Example of a hangar (arrangement 1)
Figure 98: Example of a hangar (arrangement 2)

Equipment
Turbines
4.10.3. Enclosure auxiliaries
These include:
Electrical system (see paragraph 4.9)
Ventilation system
Lighting system
Fire fighting system
Fire detection system
Heating system
Ventilation system
The purpose of the ventilation system is to maintain an adequate temperature for both
equipment and personnel before start-up and during operation.
For this, the enclosure may be pressurized (as with outdoor installation) or vacuumed in
the case of fuel-gas turbine installation under a hangar (this is because the pressurised
ventilation air discharged under a hangar creates a risk area, and therefore a classified
area).
Figure 99: Example of pressurized enclosure

Equipment
Turbines
For protection against external nuisances, the amount of air required is taken downstream
of the turbine filter and distributed through several specifically sized vents located in the
areas to be cooled. The discharge orifices and their ducts incorporate noise-protection
features.
Figure 100: Example of a depressured enclosure
Lighting system
A normal and backed-up lighting system is set up in line with the points to be inspected.

Equipment
Turbines
Fire fighting and fire detection
The system conforms to the required standards (NFPA, etc…)

Generally, fire is extinguished using bottles of CO2 (low capacity pressure 200%) arranged
in a temperate room in hot regions to avoid overpressure
Bottle discharge is controlled by a thermostat or a photoelectric cell that detects high

temperatures.
The initial discharge opens a number of the bottles and generates a high concentration
of CO2 in the compartment. Meanwhile, the same signal that triggered the bottles
activates the cylinders to close the inlet and outlet shutters of the compartment openings.
To compensate for leaks through the shutters and to maintain the CO2 pressure, the
remaining bottles are automatically discharged gradually.
Fire detection consists in a gas detection system that sounds an alarm and shuts down the
machine. This is usually a voting system.
Heating system
This is required in cold regions. It prevents excess condensation during extended

downtime. It comprises oil tank heating resistors and the ambient heaters fitted into the
enclosures.

Equipment
Turbines
4.11. OIL COOLING
The oil is heated by friction when in contact with the bearings and by conduction on
contact with the hot parts. They therefore need to be cooled constantly.
The process is as follows:
Oil-water open-circuit cooling
Oil-water closed-circuit cooling
Oil-air cooling
Oil-water open-circuit cooling
The cooler is placed either inside or outside the oil tank. The cooling water comes from
outside of the plant (river, sea, etc.) The oil pump P flows against the water stream. The
temperature of the oil is regulated by the 3-way valve within the water system via the
sensor fitted to the cooler oil outlet.
With an open circuit, the water is discharged into the immediate environment (it is rarely
cooled in a condensation tower before being discharged).
Figure 101: Oil-water open-circuit cooling
Oil-water closed-circuit cooling
This device is commonly used in temperate and cold regions.
Regulation is identical to the previous.

Equipment
Turbines
It allows to maintain constant cooling water temperature.
During cold periods, the water must be kept from freezing by using chemical additives
(glycol) or by reheating.
In this case, it is advisable to use alarms.
Figure 102: Oil-water closed-circuit cooling
Oil-air cooling
An oil air cooler is used as a cold point. Regulation is ensured by a 3-way valve as
previously.
Figure 103: Oil-air cooling

Equipment
Turbines
4.12. CONTROL, REGULATION AND PROTECTION SYSTEM
Each manufacturer has a local control panel to control, regulate and protect the machines
(SPEEDTRONIC for N.Pignone/GE, ALLEN BRADLEY for SOLAR/Caterpillar etc…).
This system is programmed to carry out several functions required for all machine
operations.
To complete these functions, the system manages a series of parameters in the form of
input/output signals. These are the signals from the turbine or external machine
transmitters (pressure, temperature, valve position, fire detection transmitters etc.) that are
sent through the turbine terminal boxes and other system input/output interface terminals.
They also include control and protection signals from the plant.
From an operational point of view, the control panel is split into sub-systems:
Control and sequence system
Protection system
These systems perform the following functions:
Fuel flow control, auxiliary operations during the machine start-up and shut-
down phases and during emergency shut-downs and the turbine cooldown
sequence.
Alternator synchronisation and coupling
Fuel and exhaust gas control during operation
Control of protective measures in the event of a fault
Recording of all of the turbine and auxiliary operation parameters with history.

Equipment
Turbines
The figure shows the functional diagram of the Speedtronic system.
Figure 104: Functional control system diagram (Speedtronic)
This diagram shows that the local control panel exchanges information with the plant and
the control room from where "ON, OFF, stop, emergency shut-down" instructions can be
sent to the turbo-machine.
The fuel flow rate is controlled by means of signals processed by the local control panel
according to the load demanded (or the speed, depending on the type of regulation
required - either alternator networked, standalone / Droop or Iso etc.).
The signal is sent to the servo-motor of the fuel valve as described in paragraph 5.5.4.

Equipment
Turbines
4.13. CONTROL AND SEQUENCE SYSTEM
A diagram of a typical fuel-gas control system is given below:
Figure 105: Fuel control diagram
The request is made either by the operator (increase/decrease) or via the automatic
network control system (main load).
The diagram shows:
The start-up sequence
Speed control before the alternator is connected to the network, or load

control after coupling.
Exhaust temperature control (which stops the load if the max. authorised
temperature has been reached).
The secondary systems such as the fume emission control system have been deleted
from the diagram to simplify this course.

Equipment
Turbines
Start-up sequence controller
This controls the quantity of fuel during the start-up phases from when the start-up
command has been issued until zero load synchronization.
The quantity of fuel varies with the sequence progress according to the curve shown.
Once the start-up system needs to be ready for an operation (diesel starter motor warm-
up, for example), the starter motor needs to be accelerated to the correct speed and the
combustion chamber sweeping completed. Also, the fuel control valve must be correctly
positioned to be able to deliver the correct amount of fuel required for ignition (stroke
control). Once the flame has stabilised, the fuel must be decreased momentarily to be able
to heat the turbine hot parts very gradually, and therefore avoid thermal shock. Once the
turbine heating time has elapsed, the turbine can be accelerated by increasing the
temperature to a certain extent, until the GG speed has reached 100% (without load).
At this point, the sequence is complete and the turbo-generator is ready to be coupled
after synchronization.
The starter sequence controller stores all of the basic sequences as well as the start and
end times of each.
Figure 106: Turbo-generator start-up sequence

Equipment
Turbines
Speed controller (load)
This system is activated at the end of the previous start-up sequence when the alternator
is coupled to the network. We saw how the alternators were coupled in the electrical
course.
Generally, in a plant with several coupled alternators, only one is set to "Isochrone"'
position (control of speed and therefore of network frequency), and the others are set to
"Droop' (load control).
Only one machine on the network is in ISO, the other machines are in Droop. A turbo-
machine that is added to an existing network is in Droop, and when the operator increases
the load, the fuel controller opens the fuel valve on the machine further, and the controller
of the machine in Iso will decrease its amount of fuel to regulate the network frequency.
Exhaust temperature controller (limiting device)
This system limits thermal stress on the hottest parts (first wheel spaces and distributors)
to preserve their service life. The system is permanently activated. It consists of means of
measuring the exhaust temperature using several sensors (the number of which includes
several back-up units to ensure reliability as these sensors are fragile).
This value is constantly compared to the reference limit that depends on the GG
compression ratio and the ambient temperature (see ISO calculation in paragraph 5.5).
Figure 107: Operating limits of fuel flow
The figure is a thermodynamic representation of entropy versus temperature, in cases with

operating limits, with ambient temperatures corresponding to the maximum and minimum
of their contractual values. Under these conditions, the limit is essentially shown by the
temperature TLIMISO that must not be exceeded to ensure the normal service life of the hot
parts is maintained.

Equipment
Turbines
When the ambient temperature drops from TISO to Tmin , the rate of GG compression
increases as the density of the air increases. The thermodynamic cycle becomes that
shown by the dotted line. To avoid exceeding the ISO limit temperature (TLIMISO), the limit
temperature of the exhaust must be changed from TLIM2 to TLIM3
The fuel flow control system recalculates the new limit values for temperature and fuel
quantity sustainable in these conditions by using the thermodynamic algorithms entered
into the controller programme.
The same applies to the upper temperature limit that is greater than TISO in which case the
exhaust temperature rises to TLIM4. The thermodynamic temperature becomes that
shown by the thin line. To avoid exceeding the ISO limit temperature (TLIMISO), the limit
temperature of the exhaust must be changed from TLIM2 to TLIM4
When the ambient temperature drops from TISO to Tmin, the GG compression rate
increases and the turbine inlet pressure increases. If the permitted temperature at the
exhaust is not corrected, since the expansion rate is higher and the temperature at end of
expansion is the same, the temperature at the start of expansion will be higher. However,
the aim of the exhaust temperature control regulation is to control the temperature at the
start of expansion to protect the turbine.
The regulated exhaust temperature must therefore be corrected to stabilise the

temperature at start of expansion when the exhaust temperature loop is the machine
control loop. This is always the case on a turbo-alternator for example, the load setpoint is
the base load or peak load coupled to the network.
Consequently, when the ambient temperature drops, the exhaust temperature setpoint
also drops and it can rise if the ambient temperature rises with a maximum limit. This
correction is carried out with the P2 measurement (compressor pre-delivery).
The above also applies to temperatures between TMAX and Tmin
If these ambient temperature limits have been reached and the operator attempts to
increase the load, the machine will not respond. This means the machine has reached its
maximum performance capabilities for these ambient conditions. We could say that "we
control the exhaust temperature (T5)".
The theory mentioned above applies to all control parameters (speed, acceleration, etc.)
but is based on the principle that the safety limits are never to be pushed during fuel valve
control.
This applies to the MINIMUM logic shown in figure.
For example, in the start-up sequence following ignition, if the system is not able to provide
100% of its capacity (case of a breakdown), acceleration would be lower than shown on
the reference curve, and there would be a higher fuel demand to compensate. The flow of
air would be decreased and the fuel increased. The maximum exhaust temperature may

Equipment
Turbines
be reached. In this case, the exhaust temperature limit takes priority and regulates the
degree of fuel valve closing until the temperature is back to normal.
Generally, the reference temperature values are recorded in the form of curves in the local
controller logic that includes:
The control curve
The alarm curve
The block/shut-down curve
Evidently, these values are greater for peak loads than for base load service.
4.14. PROTECTION SYSTEM
This system, integrated into the local control panel, protects the turbine from:
High temperatures
Strong vibrations
Overspeed
Flame failure
Abnormal lubrication, control and hydraulic oil pressure
Abnormal fuel feed and injection pressure
Protection for the functions related to the driven machine
These systems are based on system redundancy (duplication or triplication) to optimise

machine reliability. An on-line instrument monitoring system is also available. If one of the
two (or two of the three) instruments have failed, the machine does not need to be shut
down immediately. This advantage increases equipment availability. The operator can
decide on the most adequate time to shut the machine down for instrument repair. The
system is able to detect and acknowledge true faults, in which case it shuts down
automatically.
This type of command has been designed for the Speedtronic by a programme called
SIFT (Software Implemented Fault Tolerance).

Equipment
Turbines
4.15. CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Figure 108: Control and protection system configuration
The characteristics of this system are:
16-bit microprocessors with multiple redundancies
For all of these critical control or safety parameters, the sensors are connected
to the dual voting 2/3 logic.
The SIFT programme protects against system faults and error spreading,
increasing machine reliability and availability by analysing the data acquired by
the protection and control system processors.
Main operating data stored in a history.
The HMI comprises a screen and a keyboard that provide all information concerning the
current operating data. A printer enables users to transcribe the data stored.
The operator enters the commands using the mouse or the touch-screen.
The communication data between the operator interface and the controller are transmitted
via an interface processor I, connected to the central processing unit C, which is
connected to three identical redundant processors R, S, and T.

Equipment
Turbines
The following table shows the redundant arrangement of the critical parameter sensors for
the control and protection systems.
Figure 109: Redundant sensors
Some sensors are dedicated to one of the 3 processors.
Others, such as the exhaust thermocouples, are shared by all 3 processors. The
processors are therefore able to exchange the same data and calculate the relative
temperature value independently.
Each processor processes the data gathered; the data values pass through the SIFT
programme. The final value is sent to the algorithm programme of the sequence and
command controllers, which perform the requested actions (IGV or fuel actuator
command, for example).
This chain of data transfer is illustrated in the diagram showing the electronic control in
position of the fuel control servo valve.
The position of the servo valve is controlled by 3 processors (R, S, T) and by the position
feedback from the 2 variable transformers (LVDT). Each processor compares the 2
feedback signals and selects the highest (the other is considered deficient). This position
signal is compared to the processor output signal on a summer. The difference (error
signal) transits via a transfer function to a digital/analogue converter and then to a current
amplifier that feeds one of the 3 coils driving the electronic control. Each converter feeds
its own coil and the valve moves in the requested direction.
Equipment
Turbines
If one of the processors fails, the 2 others remain operational and increase their current
flow to compensate for the losses incurred.
Figure 110: Diagram of electric control in position of the fuel control servo-valve
The processor C carries out the following operations:
It collects the monitoring data and displays this data using the interface I
It controls the alarm buffer memory
It generates diagnosis data
It collects data from processors R, S, T, validates them (contributes to control by

voting), indicates the presence of any anomalies, and displays them via the
human-machine interface I to enable the operator to decide whether or not to
carry out maintenance or repair procedures.
To control the "machine protection" logic (overspeed, flame, synchronisation), this

configuration is provided with a separate tri-redundant module P (modules X, Y and Z that
receive the signals from the dedicated sensors as described at the beginning of the
paragraph).
Voting is carried out by the trip board associated with this module; this board controls the
shut-down system that activates the 20HD solenoid valve belonging to the hydraulic
control oil system (draining section).

Equipment
Turbines
An optional DCS interface can be installed to exchange plant data and functions (control or
alarms).
Figure 111: Function available for the operator interface and the DCS
Functions available for the operator
The operator is provided with a colour VGA screen, a keyboard and a printer. The
functions he is able to access are the same as those of the DCS interface (see figure 77).

Equipment
Turbines
5. TURBINE OPERATING PARAMETERS
5.1. BRAYTON CYCLE
The Brayton cycle must be fully understood to be able to comprehend turbine operation
and the effect of the operating parameters. The cycle is shown in figure 11 of chapter 4. Its
representative curves (Pressure vs Volumes and Enthalpy vs Temperatures) are shown
below.
Definition of abbreviations:
W Useful power on the driven machine shaft
Wc Specific compression work from point 1 to point 2 in KgJ/Kgair asp
WT Specific expansion work from point 3 to point 4 in KgJ/Kggas
Q1 Heat generated by the combustion chamber from point 2 to point 3 in KgJ/Kggas
Q2 Heat lost through exhaust from point 2 to point 3 in KgJ/Kggas

Specific heat at constant pressure (mean of the values between extreme
Cpm temperatures of the operating points considered).
HR Specific consumption (KJ/KWh) inverse to thermodynamic efficiency (η)
Ggas Mass flow of hot gas at GG turbine inlet
Garia Mass flow of air at air compressor inlet

η Thermodynamic efficiency (KWh/KJ)
Definition of the combustion chamber outlet temperatures:
This criterion is important as it determines the maximum energy that the machine can
consume (and therefore its power).
TA turbine inlet temperature (mean

temperatures plan A)
TA firing temperature (mean plan B)
TA ISO firing temperature (mean plan

C)
Figure 112: Combustion chamber

outlet temperatures

Equipment
Turbines
TC is calculated according to procedure ISO 2314 (heat balance according to air and fuel
flow rates)
TA is the mean of the temperatures measured at combustion chamber outlet
TB is the mean of the temperatures measured at the first wheel inlet. This is point 3 of the
Brayton cycle.
Brayton Cycle
From point 1 to point 2: air compression work corresponding to 1 kg of air (kJ/kg)
Wc = Cpm(T1-T2) * (T2 -T1 )
From point 3 to point 4: smoke expansion work corresponding to 1 kg of smoke (kJ/kg)
WT = Cpm(T3-T4) * (T4 -T3 )
From point 2 to point 3: heat brought to combustion chamber
Q1 = Cpm(T2-T3) * (T3 -T2 )
From point 4 to point 1: heat lost through exhaust
Q2 = Cpm(T4-T1) * (T4 -T1 )
When Q1 , Q2 , W1 , and W2 are determined, the following important parameters can be

calculated:
- η : thermodynamic efficiency = (Q1 - Q2) / Q1

- W : work available on shaft line = Ggas * WT - Gair * Wc
We can see that

the thermodynamic
efficiency (η)
increases if Q2
diminishes, i.e. if
less calories are
dispersed into the
atmosphere.
Figure 113:
Brayton Cycle

Equipment
Turbines
Effect of thermodynamic efficiency and compression ratio on available power
The Brayton cycle (P, V and S, T) can be used to show the effects of different pressures,
temperatures, specific heat, polytropic exponents, etc., but other curves using different
parameters are also interesting:
Firing temperature T3
Compressor ratio of air compressor
Thermodynamic efficiency
Specific power (inverse to specific consumption)
These are shown in the figure, and reveal:
For the same firing temperature T3:
The maximum efficiency can be reached by increasing the compression ratio
The maximum efficiency does not correspond to the maximum specific power
Figure 114: Effect of thermodynamic efficiency and compression ratio on available power

Equipment
Turbines
The more the firing temperature T3 is increased at the same time as the compression ratio,
the more power we get on the shaft line. However, the efficiency does not necessarily
improve on turbines without an energy recovery system on the exhaust, as the rate of
suction air lost through friction and exhaust losses increases.
The value of T3 is limited by the blade technology (approximately 1300°C).
With a constant compression rate, constant specific power and constant temperature T3,
the efficiency can double if the energy is recovered at the exhaust outlet. Therefore, the
consumption rate decreases.
5.2. PERFORMANCE
The manufacturer catalogue shows the range of turbines available, and describes the
performances of each under ISO conditions (see below).
The manufacturer shows the operating curves corresponding to the specific conditions of
the site as defined in the contract (site rated power):
Shaft outlet power versus shaft speed
Each curve incorporates the maximum and minimum ambient temperature

values.
In each case, several curves could represent the thermal efficiency, the exhaust
temperatures, the power turbine speeds (case with dual shaft), etc. for each
shaft speed, and therefore the value of the PT torque output.
Correction factor curves for power versus altitude or atmospheric pressure could also be
represented.
ISO conditions
Ambient air inlet temperature: 15°C (59°F)
Total ambient air pressure: 1013,3 mb a (14,693 psia)
Relative humidity: 60%
Static pressure at exhaust: 1013,3 mb a (14,693 psia)
The nominal power is measured at the power turbine shaft outlet for driven machines other
than the generators (pumps, compressors, propulsion, etc) or at the reduction gear or
speed expander outlet. For generators, the power is measured on the current outlet
terminals.

Equipment
Turbines
5.3. EFFECT OF EXTERNAL FACTORS
These include the following parameters:
Ambient Temperature
Altitude or barometric pressure
Relative humidity
Effect of ambient temperature
Figure 115: Effect of ambient temperature
The figure shows the effects. As the ambient temperature increases, the density of the
aspirated air (γ) decreases, and therefore the flow of aspirated air, the flow of exhaust air
and the power decrease as the specific consumption HR (kJ/kWh) increases.

Equipment
Turbines
Effect of altitude
With altitude, the

pressure of the
aspirated air drops,
and therefore the
density of the
compressed air (γ)
drops, and
consequently, the
power decreases by
the correction factor
indicated.
Figure 116: Effect of

altitude
Effect of ambient humidity
As the relative humidity increases, the density of the aspirated air (γ) decreases, and
therefore the flow of aspirated air, the flow of exhaust air and the power decrease as while
the specific consumption HR (kJ/kWh) increases.
This effect is very low (the

power changes by 0.5 % and
the Heat Rate by less than 1
%)
Figure 117: Effect of ambient

humidity

Equipment
Turbines
5.4. EFFECTS OF INTERNAL FACTORS
The internal factors include:
Drop in suction pressure at air compressor inlet
Pressure drop at turbine exhaust
Effect of fuel
Air draw-off from axial compressor
Steam injection
Water injection
Cooling by evaporation
5.4.1. Suction pressure drop
The parts fitted upstream (air filters, duct blanking/control shutters etc) may cause the
pressure to drop, and therefore lower the density of the air entering the GG. This reduces
the available power and increases the specific consumption as mentioned earlier.
5.4.2. Pressure increase at exhaust (or increase in back-pressure)
The pressure drop is caused by the parts fitted downstream of the PT (silencer, length of
ducting and diverters in the case of energy recovery systems, etc.) The purpose of this is
to increase resistance by friction, and therefore to generate back-pressure to reduce PT
expansion and thus power, to increase the specific consumption.
The following table is an example. The figures are specific to each machine.
Table 4: Values of power, specific consumption and temperature variation versus suction
and exhaust pressure

Equipment
Turbines
5.4.3. Effect of fuel
Using natural fuel-gas rather than diesel-oil results in better performances.
As the PT output power is brought to ISO-level performances, in the same operating

conditions (environment, pressure drops, etc), it is optimised by 2%, and the specific
consumption drops by between 0.7 and 1%, depending on the type of machine.
These performances are even more remarkable when we compare them to those resulting
from heavy fuels or bunker C fuel oils.
This is due to the fact that natural gas offers better combustion properties as the carbon
and hydrogen content is far higher, and the quantity of water contained is vaporized on
combustion, providing higher calorific efficiency.
Furthermore, with liquid fuel, atomisation is not always excellent so combustion is not as
efficient as with gas.
Low BTU gases that have a calorific value lower than natural fuel-gases affect turbine
performances. As the calorific value decreases (kJ/Nm3), the mass flow of the fuel
demanded increases to be able to provide the same amount of energy (kJ/h).
Even though it is not compressed, this additional fluid weight generates an increase in
power and a decrease in specific consumption:
The increase in the weight of the gas increases the volume of the fluid in the
combustion chamber, and therefore increases the expansion rate (useful work)
and the compression rate within the compressor, which almost reaches the
surge limit.
This increase in fuel-gas flow rates required feed ducts of greater diameter. This
fact may be heightened if the gas is hot (production using hot carbon).
Low BTU gases are often saturated with steam in anti-pollution processes,
which improves the heat conduction properties of the exhaust smoke, and
consequently increases the temperature of the smoke ducts.
Notes:
For fuel-gas, the quantity of condensates (gasolines) authorised in 1000Ft3 (28,3 m3) of
fuel is 0,1 gal (0,37 l) in ISO conditions. It is advisable to operate 50°F (27.7°C) above the
dew point, whilst maintaining a temperature of over 300°F (148.8°C).
For liquid fuel, the filtering must be 20 µm absolute . The chemical composition is given for
each manufacturer.

Equipment
Turbines
5.4.4. Draw-off from axial compressor
This air may be required for pipe blowing in the manufacturing phase, or for production
processes in the chemical industry.
With the exception of machines manufactured for the aviation industry, it is possible to
extract/draw off 5% air without affecting performances.
As long as the piping, casing and control system have been designed well, 6 to 20% of the
air can be extracted, depending on the types of combustion chamber.
The curve shows how draw-off affects the output power and the specific consumption
(heat rate), in accordance with the ambient temperature.
Notes:
The quality of the burnt air must meet the following requirements:
- 95% must have less than 0,004 grain/1000Ft3 or 0,0003g/28,3 m3
- 5% must have less than 0.04 grain/1000Ft3 or 0.003g/28,3 m3
- In a marine atmosphere, the mean value of the sodium at the inlet must be less
than 0,00045 ppm and 0,003 ppm maximum at peak level.
- The maximum amount of admissible water is 0.5% of the mass flow of the air
aspirated at 42°F (5°6C). No water is admissible at a temperature lower than
42°F (5°6C).
% Heat rate
% Power
Figure 118:Effect of draw-off on power and specific consumption

Equipment
Turbines
5.4.5. Injection of steam and injection of water
The purpose of this type of injection is:
To increase the power
To reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) discharges
Reduction of NOx levels
This technique was launched in the 1970's. Injection is only possible in combustion
chambers incorporating a special arched chamber. Injection is limited to avoid disturbing
the combustion process, but must be sufficient to reduce NOx emissions substantially.
The quantity of water or steam injected is proportional to the amount of NOx measured
and monitored by the controller. This process increases the turbine power on account of
the increase in fluid within the turbine.
With steam injection, the specific consumption (heat rate) also decreases, which is not the
case with water injection, as water evaporates.
In "peak" condition (for N.Pignone model SP 25 PLUS, 1250 h/year authorised), the water
injection technique can be used, but increases maintenance frequency (which reduces
equipment availability). Maintenance frequencies vary according to machine models.
Please note that each manufacturer may issue different water or steam quality
specifications.
Power increase
The steam injection technique

has been practised for the past
30 years.
The figure shows the effect of

steam injection on power
Figure 119: Effect of steam

injection on power
Injection is carried out at the air

compressor outlet to avoid a
lack of air in the combustion
chambers. The steam must be
overheated to avoid the
presence of water (at least
25°C hotter than the air) at a
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Turbines
pressure greater than the air pressure of 4bg maximum.
The quantity of steam injected is the amount needed to reduce NOx, as stipulated by the
controller, at the current power rate. When the NOx value is correct, authorization is
granted to increase the amount of steam injected to increase the power.
Note :
Some turbine models are difficult to modify to ensure an efficient NOx controller. Before
any type of up-grade is made, the "end-users" of these same turbines, and particularly of
those already modified, need to be consulted The main disadvantages are:
Minor control reliability
Decreasing equipment availability (increased maintenance)
Quicker fouling of the compressor blades
5.4.6. Air cooling
Air cooling by water evaporation
The figure clearly shows the effect of suction temperature on performances: Power and
efficiency increase while the temperature decreases.
Figure 120: Cooling by evaporation

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Turbines
This temperature may be artificially lowered by evaporating water in front of the suction
filters. The water droplets form a film of liquid on the trays of an evaporator through which
the suction air passes. The evaporator water takes its heat of vaporisation from the air,
thereby lowering the temperature. In turn, the relative humidity of the air increases. The
cooling possibilities are illustrated on figure 121, the exchange taking place along the
constant enthalpy curve. The temperature at end of exchange depends on efficiency of the
evaporator. These counter-flows allow for an adiabatic-isenthalpic exchange (see figures
121 and 122).
A demister extracts the water to prevent the formation of deposits on the blades.
The benefits of cooling the air are clearly visible: The power increases as the suction
temperature decreases, and the specific consumption (heat rate) decreases.
This is a highly interesting technique since the increased temperature loss is much greater
than the loss due to the increased humidity.
Unfortunately, these systems are useful in deserts where water is rare.
Air cooling using a chiller
In atmospheres in which the relative humidity exceeds 60% and temperatures are not too
high, chillers are very useful.
Figure 121: Cooling using a chiller

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Turbines
The air is cooled during a closed cycle of a process by absorption. This way, the relative
humidity and temperature limits of the previous evaporation-based system are no longer
applicable. This system is illustrated in figure 100.
A closed cold water system cools the air in a blade-exchanger. The steam is used in the
regeneration phase by absorption. The demister is needed to separate the residual water
in the start-up phases.
A comparison of these two systems is shown in psychrometric curves in figure 101.

The line a-d shows the operation of the water evaporator: the relative humidity can be
altered without energy exchanges, and the temperature drops from Ta to Td.
Line a-b-d represents cooling using the chiller. the relative humidity can be altered by
cooling and condensing all of the moisture. From Ta to Tb, we simply increase the relative
humidity. The condensates only appear when cooling from Tb to Tc, moving Kgwater/Kgair
to a lower level.
Figure 122: Comparison between water evaporator and chiller

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Turbines
5.5. TURBINE CAPACITIES
Capacities are developed according to the API standard 616 within the framework of site
contractual performances (site rated power) corresponding to the site rated conditions.
Site condition rated values
Maximum ambient temperature
Minimum inlet/suction pressure
Power required for maximum exhaust pressure
Range of barometric variations and temperature within the area
Inlet/outlet duct conditions (noise levels and skin temperature)
Range of fuel composition
Power rated conditions
This is the power developed on the driven machine (generator or reduction gear outlet for
a compressor) when the turbine is operated with parameters required by the site rated
conditions (see list above) and the following conditions required within the framework of
the manufacturer contract:
Firing temperature
GG speed
Thermal efficiency
Notes
Thermal efficiency:
Energie à la sortie arbre de turbine

η=
Energie du combustible à l ' entrée ( pouvoir calorifique inf érieur )
The energy is calculated on the basis of the "low heating value' of the fuel-gas, which is
calculated as follows:
The calorific value is the value of the fuel energy measured once fully burnt in the
Standard conditions (60°F or 15°C and 14,696 psia or 101,325 kPa).

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Turbines
The LHV (low heating value) or NHV (net heating value) assumes the water contained is
burnt and evacuated in the form of steam at the exhaust. Its energy is not accounted for.
When this value is calculated for the Standard volume (Sm3 or Scf), the gas is considered
to be ideal, with a compressibility factor of Z = 1. To determine the LVH for real gas, the
following method must be applied:
H = x1H1 + x2H2 +…..+ xnHn
where
x1 , x2 … fractions of gas component moles
H1 , H2 …Ideal LVH given in the tables
The ideal LVH of the gas H can be corrected by dividing it by the compressibility factor Z of
the real gas under Standard conditions. We thus get HR which can be used to determine
the efficiency.
Curves showing the performances usually required from the manufacturer
A set of curves (figures below) show:
The turbine speeds versus the site rated conditions.
Each figure is shown according to the ambient temperature (the entire maximum to
minimum range).
On each figure, several curves should show the thermal efficiency, the exhaust
temperature, the turbine load, the power turbine speed (if dual shaft),...and the shaft
speed/output torque on each turbine.
Two additional figures should demonstrate the power versus altitude or atmospheric
pressure corrections.
On this first figure below, the power is ISO and the example is that of a machine of base
load 31372 kW.

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Figures 123: Turbine performances

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Operating performance checks
Regularly, the condition monitoring department asks the operators to stabilise the process
for 2 hours before launching a performance check that involves:
Fuel sampling
At the same time, recording all of the thermodynamic parameters required to

calculate the turbine performance:
External conditions (ambient temperature, barometric pressure,
relative humidity)
Internal conditions as described in paragraph 6.4 (ambient
temperature T0, suction temperature T1, inlet temperature PT T4 ,
suction pressure, GG outlet air pressure, shaft line speeds, fuel flow).
At the same time, recording all of the parameters of the driven machine:
For alternator, active power, apparent power and cosφ
For a compressor, sampling of gas for analysis, data for flow rate
calculation, pressures and temperatures before and after
compression, compressor or PT speed.
Once the composition of the gas has been determined, the performance can be calculated
for upgrading to ISO conditions and results can be analysed by making comparisons with
the original curves.
As a general rule, the condition (fouling) of the compressor blades can be determined in
"exhaust temperature limit" operation. With a single shaft machine, it reacts as through the
ambient temperature increased (lower air flow and GG compressor rate). The same
situation is observed with a dual shaft machine in max. NGG regulation. Firstly, for fouling
with a pressure drop of less than 5%, the PT inlet temperature does not vary. Once the
excess combustion air diminishes, the temperature rises. In this case, the system needs
to be washed.
It is always interesting to carry out a performance check once a year after full system
washing. This enables operators to check the state of wear of the compressor
(compression versus speed rate performance) and of the hot parts (thermal efficiency), by
calculating the driven machine power values.
If the site instruments are calibrated, despite their inaccuracy, the results will show trends
that will give the maintenance team an idea of the problem area.
Limit value
As already described in paragraph 5, the limit value is the temperature of the combustion
chamber outlet/turbine inlet. According to the manufacturers aware of the GG wheel
pressure loss, this reference temperature may be taken between GG and PT (the
maximum values are diminished by the pressure loss).

Equipment
Turbines
6. OPERATING THE TURBINES

This part of the course describes the general principles associated with turbine engine
operation, but does not; in any case, substitute the documentation provided by the
manufacturer that the operator should be quite familiar with. The figures given are for
information only, and represent an order of magnitude.
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Before operating the turbine engine, the operators should be aware of all of the possible
normal and abnormal (shutdown) scenarios, and the reaction of the control system when
confronted with each. The packager must be thoroughly read and understood. Ensure this
manual contains all of the relevant operating procedures.
The service life of the components and therefore the major overhaul schedule depend to a
large extent on how the turbine engine is operated. A logbook of all of the operating
parameters must be kept so that maintenance scheduling can be optimised.
The contents of the logbook are as follows:
Start-up and shut-down dates and times
Operation time and number of start-ups
Recording of instrument values twice per day at normal process load times
Recording of any load or speed changes
Summary of corrective actions carried out following alarms or shut-downs.
History of modifications, adjustments and replaced consumables (filters, etc)
Preventive maintenance or corrective maintenance performed
Installation or replacement dates and operating hours of main parts with limited
service life that have been replaced (hot part elements such as transition
elements, first stage distributor etc).

Equipment
Turbines
Abbreviations and acronyms
GC Gas compressor
GG Gas Generator
GT / PT Gas turbine / Power turbine
PCS Process Control System
UCP Unit Control Panel
HMI Human Machine Interface
MOS Minimum Operating Speed
ITR Instrument Technical Room
T5.4 GG exhaust temperature
ESD Emergency Shut-down System
TE Turbine enclosure
This chapter includes the list of checks to be carried out during start-up and re-start
procedures, and the actions to be taken in the event of machine shut-down. Studying the
automatic sequences associated with these actions will facilitate troubleshooting
procedures.

Equipment
Turbines
6.2. PREPARATION FOR COMMISSIONING
6.2.1. PRELIMINARY CHECKS
Follow the manufacturer's manual guidelines. The tasks to be completed are summarized
below:
.
Ensure the levels of the oil tanks are normal and that the oil filling system
(reposition) is operational.
Ensure the piping and cooling ducts, the sealing and air ventilation systems are
dust-free and that all of the connections are tightened to the appropriate torque.
If the air suction ducts are inspected, it is very important that a producer
accompanies an inspector during the last check before closing. Each person
must perform his duties with empty pockets and with no equipment except a
torch to ensure nothing could be lost.
Ensure all of the process systems are aligned and the instrumentation
calibrated.
Ensure the PCS of the turbine engine (Speedtronic or Allen Bradley) is powered
so that the safety systems and start-up/ON functions are in service.
Ensure that no alarms are activated on the enclosure safety devices.
o All F&G detection sensors
o Ventilation loss
o Moisture drainage
In the UCP, reset the F&G system to be able to perform the following tasks:
o Open the fire-prevention dampers at the inlet and outlet of the ventilation
system on the machine enclosures by actuating the corresponding solenoid
valves.
o Reset the enclosure ventilation systems via the control room. These will
automatically re-start if they have not been locked-out. If they do not re-start
automatically, check the shut-down points and remove any inhibitions
identified.
The DC fan will not start until the end-of-cooling timer (of the PCS cool-down
sequence) has exceeded the preset time (approx. between 30 and 60 min).
o Machine enclosure sweeping: Once the one or several fans have been
started-up, a timer controls the drain time by means of a flow meter
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Turbines
(differential flow), and sets a minimum flow rate to ensure proper ventilation.
The start-up sequence does not continue until this task has been completed.
Check for proper operation of the oil and air cooling systems (if any)
Check to ensure all of the oil feed valves are open and that the lubrication oil
flow is normal by checking the bearing warning lights.
Check to ensure all of the sensor temperatures are almost equivalent to the
ambient temperature value. If they are not, inform the Maintenance personnel.
Check the entire fuel system: that the fuel control valves are in closed position,
and that the liquid fuel draining system is operational (if liquid fuel start-up
system). The fuel metering valves should be in start-up position. The fuel-gas
ventilation/bleed valves should be adjusted for gas start-up.
Check to ensure the IGVs and the SVSs are correctly positioned.
Check the process parts influencing alarms, lock-out of start-up sequence.
Notes:
As soon as the A.C. supply has been established, the PCS starts up and triggers D.C.
auxiliary shut-down.
The machine safety position is PCS ON, cooldown sequence completed and machine
ready for re-start.
Lock-out or shut-down phenomenon may be triggered by the driven machine. For a

compressor with a dry mechanical seal, for example, the oil system cannot be started-up
unless the seal nitrogen system is operational, to prevent system oil from contaminating
the packing.
All of the HMI alarms and locks need to have been reset.
6.2.2. Motoring procedure for crank mode
This procedure is mandatory for commissioning and it is also recommended to follow this
procedure after major overhaul, or after a "hot start" emergency shut-down.
Once the preliminary checks mentioned above have been completed, for simple
commissioning, de-energise the ignition system and close the shut-off valves
manually. This is not necessary for normal operating procedures.
Launch the sequence. The turbine will start up until a stable GG speed has been
reached (approx. 2200 RPM) for 3 minutes of sweeping. Meanwhile, check the oil
pressure values. If the pressure is too low, loosen the piping to drain the air and
reinstate normal oil pump operation.
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Turbines
Once this check has been completed, the machine is set to normal service mode.
For commissioning, it is essential to test the GG and PToverspeed and all of the
automatic programme sequences.
Note:
The machine should be checked with all of the operating EPIs (protection against noise,
contact burns, oil projection risks, etc).

Equipment
Turbines
6.3. AUTOMATIC OPERATING MODE SEQUENCES (Principles)
To be able to study concrete examples, the attached documents have been extracted from
N. Pignone documentation.
Each motor or solenoid valve has a manual screen control system (HMI). This can be
accessed by selecting it on the PCS programmes configured on the control screen. The
default setting is "Automatic" control.
The operating modes can be selected via the Maestro Selector, which is the selection
programme available on the HMI screen. The default setting for this selector is "OFF".
6.3.1. "OFF" mode
This sequence may be selected when the turbo-machine is shut-down and the cooldown
sequence has been completed.
Once the "OFF" command has been acknowledged, the turbo-machine cannot be started
up via the UCP.
All of the manual control and monitoring functions of the turbo-machine systems and of its
auxiliaries are available if their safety conditions have been fulfilled.
6.3.2. "Crank" mode
The "Crank" mode can only be selected once the GG has stopped running.
If the turbo-machine is started-up in "Crank" mode, the GG starts up and runs until it
reaches the combustion chamber "crank"/"bleed" sweep speed. Depending on the type of
turbine, this corresponds to approximately 2000 RPM and a sweep time determined by the
timer (approx. 3 min).
The GG stabilizes at this speed until the operator has activated the STOP command.
If the Maestro Selector is switched from CRANK mode to IDLE, AUTO or MANUAL mode
during or after the sweep, the unit will pursue its start-up sequence.
If the unit is re-started in start-up mode after a "hot-start" alarm, it will maintain a speed of
approximately 2000 RPM until the operator switches to IDLE, AUTO or MANUAL mode.

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Turbines
6.3.3. Idle mode
The auxiliary systems are in normal service, the fuel-gas and ignition systems have been
reset and are operational.
The starter is powered and the speed ramp at 2000 RPM follows the normal
start-up sequence.
The ignition timer (5 min) is activated. The combustion chamber and exhaust
sweep takes place during this time (3 min)
If the ignition takes place within the given time, the GG remains at idle speed (
6800 RPM).
If the ignition does not take place during the start-up sequence, the following automatic
sequence is launched:
The starter continues its sweep sequence (2000 RPM for 5 min).
Starter shut-down
Shut-down of start-up auxiliaries (compressor oil pump and enclosure fans)
During start-up, only the TAHH protection at the PT inlet is inhibited until the flame has
been detected.
This mode is mainly used to check that the start-up sequence runs smoothly.
If the turbo-machine is started-up in "Idle" mode, the GG stabilises at the idle speed for 30
min. After 20 min, an alarm is activated and shut-down is triggered 10 minutes later.
If the Maestro Selector is switched to AUTO mode during this time, the turbo-machine
pursues its start-up cycle.
Note:
After extended maintenance, the idle mode is essential to be able to check the entire
turbo-machine system before switching to AUTO mode. For this check, operators are
required to have a hot work permit, and to ensure the TE doors lock-out systems are
inhibited. It is then possible to check for any leaks on the pressurised systems, and to
ensure there are no vibrations (also check the bearing values) or abnormal noise, and that
the oil temperature at the bearing outlet is normal (23°C max between bearing inlet and
outlet), before authorising acceleration with the TE doors closed.
During acceleration, it is interesting to check the maximum vibration value when the critical
speed has been exceeded.

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Turbines
6.3.4. "Auto" mode
In this mode, the PT reaches its maximum speed, and the start-up process is complete.
If the machine is started up in AUTO mode, the PT reaches its maximum speed, and the
load is then transferred automatically. On an "ISO" mode generator, the speed would be
regulated automatically. On a "droop" mode gas generator, the load would be regulated,
on a compressor, the discharge pressure would be regulated.
In MANUAL mode the start-up sequence is launched until the maximum PT speed has
been reached. Connection to the network and load transfer, however, are performed
manually via the HMI.
Note:
The operator must continue to check the same parameters as those monitored during the
idle phase, and check any alarms triggered.
6.3.5. Permissives to start
The examples below (Fig. 106) show the automatic checks that take place before the
programme initiates turbo-generator start-up. Detailed recommendations are given in each
manufacturer's technical documentation which should be read thoroughly. They are
specific to each machine, even if globally the philosophy remains the same.
The permissives have been split into two lists - turbine and process.
Preliminary conditions for turbines:
"Master Selector" OFF
GG and PT speeds nil
T5.4 less than 400°C
Fuel-gas valves closed
Oil system in service
Normal oil tank levels
Enclosure doors closed
Air filtering unit doors closed

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Turbines
Preliminary conditions for the process:
Normal voltage on back-up batteries
No vibration sensor activated
No emergency DC ventilation fault
No emergency DC oil pump fault
No motor starter fault
No F&G system fault
No heat detector fault
No gas detector fault
Enclosure ventilation dampers positioned correctly
Process valves positioned correctly
Dry seal nitrogen system in service

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Turbines
Figure 124: Preliminary conditions for start-up
6.3.6. Trip protections
The system lock-out conditions and their influence on the programmes are demonstrated
in the figure of operating limits shown below.
These lock-out commands are issued by the following programmes/sequences:
Cool stop
Deceleration to minimum load
Idling
Emergency machine shut-down without process depressurisation
Emergency machine shut-down with process depressurisation

Equipment
Turbines
The immediate actions include:
Alarm, then display of actions on HMI
Lockout of permissive programmes ("to start", "to run", "to crank", "to wash")
Lockout of fuel-gas valves (head-lock, the 2 shut-out valves and the

intermediate bleed valve, flow control valve)
Launching of sequences or commands (deceleration, start-up command lockout,

ignition inhibition, oil cooldown sequence launched, post-run sequence of
enclosure ventilation launched).
On process (suction, disch. and pressurization valves closed, recirculation

valves opened, suction and disch. bleed/blowdown)
6.3.7. Operating limits
The table below shows the limits for the PT wheel stages (maximum temperatures
according to the materials used), oil temperature and pressure on bearings (maximum
according to the quality of the bearing anti-friction metal), bearing vibrations (according to
shaft diameter and gap).
Table 5: Operating limits of the PGT25+SAC

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Turbines
6.4. START-UP SEQUENCE IN OPERATION
6.4.1. Normal Start-Up
Before and during the start-up sequence, certain alarms and trips are inhibited to prevent
them from being displayed on the HMI:
PALL GG lube oil (before the GG speed reaches 4500 RPM)
Loss of signal from PT speed sensor before ignition
Loss of flame
Temperature fault T5.4
As long as the conditions listed in 6.3.1. have been fulfilled, the sequence can be started
by selecting the "Start" command on the HMI screen.
The start-up operations are detailed in the following document.
Note:
For commissioning or after a major overhaul, it is vital to carry out a physical check of the
operation of all of the turbine and process valves, their end of stroke position, their position
indicator, as well as the system sealing, whether inside or outside of the enclosure. In this
case, the off-load start-up sequence must be launched (see paragraph 6.5.3) with the
enclosure door trips inhibited, and an inspection must be carried out (hot work permit may
be required).
The normal start-up phases are as follows:
Starter engaged
GG runs and stabilises at 1700 RPM
After 2 min, the ignition sequence is launched
The fuel valves open
After 5 sec, the flare ignites
The PT starts up before the GG reaches the idle speed
At idle speed, the starter stops

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Turbines
5 min of warm-up before accelerating
Check the parameters (Table 6)
Accelerate at the required load progressively
Keep checking the parameters (Table 6)
Use the troubleshooting tables to eliminate faults

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Turbines
Figure 125: Start-up sequence (1)

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Table 6: Minimum parameters to be checked
6.4.2. Hot start alarm
During start-up, the average exhaust temperature is stored in the system memory. If the
temperature is >621°C, a "hot start" alarm is triggered and an hour timer is activated. The
operator must consider the risk of thermal friction. In one of the cases listed in fig. 115, do
not start up before further investigation, and ensure the causes of the alarm/shut-down
have been determined and the remedies established.

Equipment
Turbines
For the next 2 hours, the machine can only be re-started once a monitoring procedure for
the "motoring" crank mode has been carried out (paragraph 6.3.2). If all is normal, the
operator can switch the machine to AUTO mode.
After 2 hours of shut-down (timer), the machine can be re-started directly in AUTO mode.
Note:
A hot start results from a faulty starter (lack of speed), excess fuel during start-up, an
excessive dose of fuel during the acceleration ramp, or variable stator vanes (VSD)
opened to an excessive degree. Refer to the manufacturer's troubleshooting table.
6.5. STOP SEQUENCES
In abnormal operating conditions (deviation from operating limits), there are three action
levels:
Alarm (the operator remedies the fault)
Alarm and machine idling (power cutback), and if fault not remedied, normal
shut-down
Shut-downs
Shut-down is considered to be normal when it is commanded by the operator for reasons

associated with the process or with machine anomalies that have not yet been detected by
the automatic control system.
Shut-down is considered to be of the "emergency" type when it is triggered automatically

by the system, or by the operator if he judges the machine or personnel may be at risk.
The automatic control system comprises 5 different sequences:
Cool stop (GG crank authorized)
Emergency shut-down (GG crank not authorized)
Fast step-down to idle then shut-down (STI)
Slow step-down to idle then shut-down (SDML)
Start-up aborted, then shut-down

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Turbines
Table 7:Cause and effect chart (1)

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Turbines
6.5.1. Normal shutdown (crank authorized)
The normal stop sequence passes through a step-down/cooldown speed before the fuel-
gas valves are closed. Generally, the step-down speed is twice as a fast as the step-up
sequence on industrial machines.
Shut-down can be commanded by the operator (HMI software STOP button), or

automatically, for one of the following reasons:
VSV regulator fault logic
Turbine wheelspace temp. High (T5.4)
Fuel metering valve null shift high high
2 or more ventilation dampers detected closed
With one of these commands, the following sequence is triggered:
The PT pressure drops to the minimum load: The GG speed decreases to idle at
7600 RPM with pre-set deceleration ramp (3 min). The anti-surge/by-pass valve
is open during this sequence (on compression process) while the load drops
through transfer of power and decoupling (on electrical network).
Once the decoupling signal has been emitted, the GG reaches the idle speed of
6800 RPM, and a timer (5 min) monitors the sequence time. The normal
load/speed can be reinstated at any time during these 5 minutes (normal re-start
via HMI).
After 5 minutes, the fuel control valve is set to zero and the 2 fuel-gas shut-down
valves close. The anti-surge valve solenoid de-energizes.
Once the sequence has been completed, the main AC terminal is stopped to prevent oil
from penetrating the dry packings.
Notes:
A shut-down sequence can cause friction (heat blockage) as a result of the materials
contracting. The blade edges may touch the stator shroud. To avoid this, the idling time
must be controlled. It is advisable to run the machine in idle mode for 5 minutes.
For dual or liquid fuel turbines, it is advisable to bleed the liquid-fuel manifold before each
start-up procedure to prevent overheating (and therefore heat blockage). Ventilation of the
enclosure is maintained.

Equipment
Turbines
6.5.2. Emergency shut-down (crank not authorized)
This action may be initiated automatically or by the operator. All of the shut-off and
metering valves are closed, the low speed and oil pressure alarms are by-passed and the
ventilation and bleed valves are opened according to the corresponding sequence.
It is impossible to reset a start-up sequence until the GG speed has been reduced to 400
RPM.
The idle sequence, the crank, if any, or the crank procedure (motoring procedure 6.2.2 or
6.3.2) must be triggered without delay.
If the emergency shut-down is caused by one of the alarms listed in the table shown in fig.
116, further investigation must be carried out before re-starting.
Figure 131: List of alarms to be checked before re-starting

Equipment
Turbines
Notes:
On industrial machines, the risks of rotor friction are high on account of the contracted
materials and the bending shaft. Friction is usually eliminated after a few hours (4 to 5
hours).
Before start-up, it is essential to ensure the machine rotates freely, either manually or
using the cranking procedure (paragraph 6.2.2.).
On turbines fitted with NOx control systems, the water manifold must be isolated at the
same time as the fuel, as the combustion chamber may cool down too abruptly, which may
cause damage. It must be bled before re-starting.
If possible, it is better to opt for the "fast step-down to idle then shut-down" sequence
6.5.3. SDML Slow Deceleration to Minimum Load
This is triggered by the following alarms:
TDALL temperature differential Low heater input/output
T2 sensor fault
Too many failed T5.4 sensors
PT distributor vane displacement variation nil
PALL low gas supply
High turbine oil backflow temperatures
Fuel-gas valve displacement variation nil
One of the enclosure ventilation dampers closed
Deceleration (SDML) command from compressor suction
TAHH and TALL turbine oil temperature
When the turbine is in normal operation and the SDML is activated ("power cutback
function" signal), the PT load setpoint reduces to the MOS, which is 70% of the design
speed.
The SDML signal remains displayed on the screen until the fault is corrected and the
operator has reset the start-up sequence and the operating speed has been reached.
If the operator has requested the shut-down of this sequence, the machine stops for 10
seconds after having reached the idle speed. The fuel shut-off valves are closed, the GG
Equipment
Turbines
low speed safety and oil pressure systems by-passed and the bleed and ventilation
systems opened.
6.5.4. Idle mode (STI step to idle)
It is advisable in one of the following conditions:
Stator vane position signal error (high differential)
Fuel-gas TAHH
VSV regulator fault logic
PDAHH air filter differential (suction)
PDAHH attached pump oil filters
When the turbine is in normal operation and the STI is activated, the GG speed is stepped
down to idle as quickly as possible. This sequence enables faster deceleration than the
previous. A 30-min timer enables the operator to remedy the fault. Once this time has
elapsed, the shut-down procedure is initiated. This takes place after 10 seconds of hold-
time to enable the system to bring the machine into a stable operating range (IGV and
VSS servo-motors). The fuel shut-off valves are closed, the GG low speed safety and oil
pressure systems by-passed and the bleed and ventilation systems opened. After 10
seconds, the machine stops.
The STI signal remains displayed on the screen until the fault is corrected and the operator
has reset the start-up sequence and the operating speed has been attained. Otherwise,
pressurised shut-down occurs after 30 minutes.

Equipment
Turbines
6.6. SHUT-DOWN OF PRESSURIZED TURBO-COMPRESSOR
This may be triggered for the following reasons:
Turbine control system shut-down conditions
Process safety systems for compressor suction scrubber (LAHH, PAHH, PALL)
High temperatures of GG and PT inlet exhaust gas
Differential pressure of lube oil filters very high
Excessive vibrations or displacement of GG, PT shaft, machine driven
High temperatures on GG, PT bearings, machine driven
Shut-down command from UCP or ESD
Level of hydraulic watch on turbine air filtering plenum (LAHH)
KO drum fuel gas (LAHH)
Back-up battery voltage (over 5 min with minimum voltage)
Incorrect valve position
Oil distributor (PALL)
Loss of main AC supply
Status of fuel-gas flow meter motor
TAHH temperatures of compressor discharge
TAHH starter oil
TAHH difference between exhaust temperatures and mean value of high

temperature sensors
Starter motor overspeed, GG, PT

Equipment
Turbines
When one of these conditions has been detected, the pressurized shut-down sequence is
initiated:
The fuel-gas control system is reset to zero and the two system shut-off and
bleed valves are actuated. To prevent untimely alarms from being triggered
during the step to idle process, certain alarms are inhibited or forced.
Temperatures at exhaust
Loss of flame
GG and PT speeds
Lube oil pressure when GG is above 4500 RPM
The selected sequence timers are reset
When the system is shut down, the mean exhaust temperature value is saved in
the memory. If the temperature is >621°C, as soon as the GG speed reaches
<200RPM, the "hot start" sequence timer is triggered. For the next 2 hours, the
machine can only be re-started once a monitoring sequence (crank mode) has
been carried out.
On the process, the following actions are launched by deactivating the

corresponding solenoid valves:
Anti-surge valve closed
Suction, discharge, trim valves closed
HP fuel-gas line valve closed
By-pass valve open
Scrubber draining system closed
Fuel-gas bleed system open
When the PT speed is nil, the "cooldown" sequence is initiated. At the end of
this sequence, the AC oil pump is stopped.
Note:
In cases in which the fuel-gas is used to pressurize the seals and is taken from the
compressor rather than the network, partial bleeding is carried out, the system is
depressurised to a pressure lower than that of the fuel-gas.

Equipment
Turbines
6.7. DEPRESSURISED TURBO-COMPRESSOR SHUT-DOWN
This may be triggered for the following reasons:
Shut-down using push button (ESD or UCP system)
Fire detection within machine enclosure
Sparkling system triggered
Detection of gas at fan suction of machine enclosure
Detection of gas within the machine enclosure
High gas flow rate in seals (first boom)
Shut-down /loss of enclosure ventilation
Gas process bleed valve poorly positioned with compression ON
TALL first dry packing boom (D.E. and N.D.E.)
Local shut-down from turbine skid
PALL of dry packing nitrogen
When one of these conditions has been detected, the depressurised shut-down sequence
is initiated:
The fuel-gas control system is reset to zero and the two system shut-off and
bleed valves are actuated. To prevent untimely alarms from being triggered
during the step to idle process, certain alarms are inhibited or forced.
Temperatures at exhaust
Loss of flame
GG and PT speeds
Lube oil pressure when GG is above 4500 RPM
The selected sequence timers are reset
When the system is shut down, the mean exhaust temperature value is saved in
the memory. If the temperature is >621°C, as soon as the GG speed reaches
<200RPM, the "hot start" sequence timer is triggered. For the next 2 hours, the
machine can only be re-started using the "hot re-start" sequence

Equipment
Turbines
On the process, the following actions are launched by deactivating the

corresponding solenoid valves:
Anti-surge valve open
Suction, discharge, trim valves closed
HP fuel-gas line valve closed
By-pass valve open
Scrubber draining system closed
Fuel-gas bleed system open
If the compressor suction valve is closed, the depressurisation valve is

opened
After a certain amount of time, set on the timer, the BDV inlet valve is
opened
When the PT speed is nil, the "cooldown" sequence is initiated. At the end of
this sequence, the AC oil pump is stopped.
Note:
If there is a lack of nitrogen on the compressor seals (PALL), the AC lubrication pump is
stopped and the DC pump remains operational on the turbine only until the system has
cooled down, to prevent oil from penetrating the compressor.

Equipment
Turbines
6.8. WINDMILL EFFECT
On a GG, a turbine may be driven naturally by the vacuum effect between the suction and
exhaust, and on a PT, by reverse rotation.
The reverse rotation that may occur on the PT if the process system check valves are no
longer impermeable is very serious, as the lubrication system shuts down, causing
damage to the bearings and reduction gear.
Rotation on the GG is less detrimental. At less than 100 RPM, 15 days of rotation following
normal turbine operation is acceptable. However, between 100 and 1000 RPM, this effect
should not last longer than 5 minutes between 2 periods of normal operation. With higher
speeds, the lubrication system must be kept operational.

Equipment
Turbines
6.9. SURGING
6.9.1. Turbine compressor surging
"Surging" phenomenon
"Surging" is a phenomenon that is a result of unstable operation that affects not only the
GG compressor, but the entire machine assembly.
It arises in the compressor when air streams deviate to the blades.
Description of the phenomenon
The compressor "discharges in a system" consisting of the combustion chamber, the

turbine and the exhaust device. This system is illustrated below.
Figure 132: Surging phenomenon
If the downstream system pressure increases to above the compressor discharge

pressure, gas expansion takes place not only backwards, but also forwards. In this case,
the flow rate becomes nil, the chamber pressure drops and the compressor discharges
once again until the initial condition is reinstated. This phenomenon occurs in a cyclic
manner (cycles per second) and may have detrimental consequences.
Causes of surging
Compressors are generally designed to operate in their intended field of use without
surging. To prevent surging, the compressors are designed for excess discharge at a low
speed. Atmosphere draw-off systems are often installed for this type of operating range. In
this case, it is extremely rare to operate within a surging range. However, surging ranges
may be reached when operating within the limits, or in the event of an anomaly.

Equipment
Turbines
Surging can originate from the upstream system (e.g. obstructed air inlet, damaged
compressor), or from the downstream system (reduction of outlet, damaged chamber or
turbine).
Surging may also occur as a result of sudden acceleration, or, in the case of an associated
turbine, as a result of an overload and a drop in N.
Consequences of surging phenomenon
Temperature increases that may damage the turbines.
Excessive vibrations that may damage the bearings.
Abnormal and violent noises, flame emission, extinction...
Since surging cause sudden torsion overloads on the compressor stators,

manufacturers request that the blades undergo inspection and dye penetration
testing after a certain number of surges.
Protection systems and procedures
The motor protection systems (air inlet filter clogging, vibrations, etc) are designed to stop
the motor in the event of an anomaly.
However, if surging occurs, the motor must be stopped and checked, and its environment
must be inspected.
A surge counting system is fitted on most turbine enclosures, as well as anti-surge valves.
On ex-Hispano Suiza THMs, anti-surge valves (bleed valves) are fitted at the air
compressor delivery to move away from the surge operating range (see next curve P1/P2
versus air flow rate).
6.9.2. Driven compressor surging
Likewise, at reduced speed, the process compressor may be in an operating range

proximate to surging. The control system opens a flare exhaust to avoid the surging range
that can damage the compressor sealing (see figure 133).
Also, on process compressors, there is an anti-surge system that maintains the

compressor within a stable operating range, ensuring a suction capacity that is higher than
the surge point/rate regardless of the compression rate, as it incorporates an anti-surge
valve. This valve is operating up to a PT speed of 70%.

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 133: Rolls-Royce turbine start-up sequence

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Turbines
Figure 134: Example of a Hispano-Suiza turbine anti-surge curve

Equipment
Turbines
6.10. OFF-LINE COMPRESSOR WASHING SEQUENCE
This sequence is launched locally. The washing skid is often connected temporarily (by
hoses for water and by electrical connections for pumps and sequence). Only the GG
washing solenoid valve is controlled during the sequence.
Preliminary conditions:
GG speed = 0 RPM
GG start-up conditions satisfactory
T5.4 temperatures lower than 100°C
No F&G alarm activated
Washing sequence:
The operator selects the sequence on the HMI screen. The UCP programmer triggers the
start-up ramp from 100 to 1200 RPM while the water solenoid valve begins its
opening/closing cycles. The sequence involves:
Sequence timer operational (30min)
Hydraulic starter valve operational
After 10 sec. Speed control valve (hydraulic) operational to adjust speed to 1200
RPM.
When the GG is at 100 RPM, the water valve opens, and at 1200 RPM, the
valve closes and the system slows down to 100 RPM.
Repetition of the sequence for 30 minutes
During the last sequence, the GG speed control valve signal is cancelled and
the starter shut-down valve is triggered after 10 seconds.

Equipment
Turbines
6.11. OPERATOR ACTIONS
The operator is required to seek the causes of any alarms and to determine the
appropriate corrective actions using troubleshooting procedures if necessary.
For any alarm, he must:
Confirm acknowledgement
For alarms only, he must remedy the cause to reinstate the initial conditions
After a "power cutback", he must solve the problem before reinstating the initial
conditions or shut the system down to solve the problem.
To re-start the system, the operator is required to follow the procedures

explained in this chapter and to update the logbook.
6.11.1. Special constraints
Certain limits may be exceeded during start-ups, without alarms being triggered:
T5.4 temperature
Low oil pressure
GG rotor-stator friction during certain surge rate
Start-up after full-load shut-down
PT speed nil during re-start after full-load shut-down
6.11.2. T5.4 limit
The operator must note any limits exceeded so that the maintenance team can take them
into consideration (modification of the service life of the hot parts).
6.11.3. Low oil pressure
The operator must measure and record temperatures and correct them in accordance with
the manufacturer's "pressure versus GG speed" curves. He must communicate any limits
exceeded that may jeopardize the bearing service life.

Equipment
Turbines
6.11.4. GG rotor-stator friction during surge (seizure)
If the GG reaches critical speed and surging occurs, schedule a boroscopic inspection of
the compressor blades during a shut-down.
6.11.5. GG re-start after on-load shut-down
To be able to re-start before the 2 hours of shut-down triggered by the timer, a 5-minute
monitoring procedure (crank mode) must be programmed to cool the blades down as
much as possible before re-starting.
6.11.6. PT speed nil during re-start
The PT wheel may rub against its stator and not be able to start up in acceleration
position. In this case, put the system in start-up position, then idle and stop after 30
seconds. Repeat this procedure. This sequence will cool down the PT wheel faster. If it
starts up, maintain the idling for a while to warm the system up, then check the
performances.

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 135: Fuel-gas system

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 136: Gas compressor anti-surge system

Equipment
Turbines
6.12. FIRST LEVEL MAINTENANCE
Cleanliness: Cleanliness ensures optimum system conditions, and makes it easier to

detect problems such as leaks.
Levels: make-up.
Fuels and combustibles : fill-up and filter replacement.
Lubrication, sampling, checks.
Compressor cleaning
The air system (and particularly the compressor), is supplied by air that may contain
erosive or corrosive elements. For example, erosive elements in a sandy atmosphere,
corrosive elements in a salty atmosphere.
In these conditions, it is advisable to carry out treatment or cleaning procedures that

involve spraying an appropriate decontaminating mixture into the air inlet during a mock
operation sequence.
This cleaning is initiated once the GG air outlet pressure has dropped (approx. 5%), and
the T5.4 temperature has started to rise. If the delay is too long, the load regulation system
may reach the T5.4 limit.
Oil sampling for analysis
Oil samples are taken to analyse the dilution rate, or for spectrometric analysis.
Samples must be taken in the appropriate conditions (for example, 30 minutes after shut-
down in a hot point), and must be labelled before being dispatched to a laboratory.
Oil filter inspection and cleaning
The oil filters, generally of the metal cartridge type, must be examined and cleaned on a
regular basis. Refer to the maintenance manual for information on the dismounting and
inspection procedures. Note that if there are deposits or metal particles on the filter, the
motor will need to be examined, or overhauled. The particle analysis results help to
determine the parts subjected to deterioration.
Magnetic plug check
If the motor is fitted with magnetic detectors, these must be examined on a regular basis
and in some cases, particles must be sampled for further analysis.
Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-FR
Equipment
Turbines
6.13. SAFETY ADVICE
Protection against heat:
If it is necessary to enter the machine compartment, wear cotton long-sleeved clothing and
gloves, as not all of the hot parts are insulated.
Protection against noise:
If it is necessary to enter the compartment when the machine is idling, wear hearing
protection devices (safety earmuffs), as the noise levels exceed the safety limits.
Protection against the projection of objects :
When inspecting a machine in operation, do not stand facing the rotating parts as these
are dangerous (compressor and turbine blades). Wear safety goggles.
Protection against pressurized jetting:
When inspecting a compartment during the start-up phase, no not stand around the
hydraulic systems on the starter motor (if the starter is hydraulic). Wear safety goggles.
Intervention on air inlet in operation:

This type of intervention should be avoided. If strictly necessary, do not carry any kind of
jewellery or other object that may get aspirated or swallowed by the machine.
Extinction system discharge:
Should this occur during a compartment inspection, evacuate immediately and take the
necessary measures if the product is ingested.
If the system is triggered on LEL, ventilate the compartment before entering, and repair the
leak before re-starting.
Steps to be taken before performing tasks in the compartment of a machine in

operation:
Shut down the machine, or put it in idle mode
Deactivate the extinction system in accordance with the packager's instructions

Equipment
Turbines
The secondary ventilation system must be shut down as excess pressure in the
enclosure prevents the doors from opening and closing.
Wait for the cooldown process to be completed (5 minutes) before entering, and
take all of the precautions mentioned above.
Steps to be taken with machine stopped:
Tag the outer part of the machine to alert passing personnel. Mark out a safety area if
necessary.
Tag the electrical equipment or instruments inside the machine that are not be touched.
Avoid opening a powered electric circuit unless voltage testing/measurements are
required.

Equipment
Turbines
7. TROUBLESHOOTING
Each manufacturer encodes the different system alarms to be able to identify them in the
troubleshooting procedure tables.
The following example has been extracted from N. Pignone troubleshooting procedure
documents
Figure 137:N.Pignone troubleshooting procedure

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 138: N.Pignone troubleshooting procedure

Equipment
Turbines
7.1. ALARM CODING TABLE
Figure 139: Index of systems for troubleshooting

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Turbines
Figure 140: Reference tables for troubleshooting

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Turbines

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Turbines
7.2. ALARM SPECIFICITIES
Figure 143: Troubleshooting notes

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 144: Troubleshooting notes

Equipment
Turbines
7.3. NUMBERING OF PROCEDURES
Figure 145: Example of procedure numbering

Equipment
Turbines
7.4. TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES
Figure 146: Example of troubleshooting procedure
7.5. TABLE OF CAUSES AND EFFECTS
These tables help users to understand the causes of any shut-downs or idle sequence
commands, etc.

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 147: Causes and effects (2)

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Turbines

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Turbines

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Turbines

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Turbines

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Turbines
8. GLOSSARY

Equipment
Turbines
9. SUMMARY OF THE FIGURES
Figure 1: Example of a turbine driving a generator ..............................................................6

Figure 2: Example of a turbine driving a compressor...........................................................7
Figure 3: Example of a turbine powering a ship...................................................................7
Figure 4: Combined cycle (N.Pignone 2xMS9001) ..............................................................8
Figure 5: Regeneration (N.Pignone MS5002)......................................................................9
Figure 6: Diagram showing a single shaft turbine ................................................................9
Figure 7: Diagram showing a dual shaft turbine...................................................................9
Figure 8: Coupled aeroderivative gas generator (GG) with dual shaft industrial power
turbine (PT), (N.Pignone PGT 25 PLUS SAC)............................................................10
Figure 9: Industrial turbine (N.Pignone MS6001 single shaft) on baseplate ......................10
Figure 10: Industrial turbine (Man-GHH ex-Hispano-Suiza THM 1304 dual shaft) ............11
Figure 11: Operation phases and main functional parts ....................................................14
Figure 12: Gas turbine cycle ..............................................................................................15
Figure 13: Functional diagram of a turbine ........................................................................16
Figure 14: Axial compressor rotor and diffuser ..................................................................18
Figure 15: Impellers and diffusers of a centrifugal compressor..........................................19
Figure 16: Combustion chamber........................................................................................20
Figure 17: Diagram showing a direct flow Turbomeca combustion chamber (aeronautical
application) .................................................................................................................20
Figure 18: Diagram showing an N.Pignone reverse flow combustion chamber (industrial
application) .................................................................................................................21
Figure 19: Annular combustion chamber with centrifugal injection for liquid combustion
(kerosene) ..................................................................................................................21
Figure 20: "Reverse-flow" annular combustion chamber ...................................................22
Figure 21: Distributor and turbine wheel of a power turbine...............................................23
Figure 22: Shoulder turbine wheel .....................................................................................24
Figure 23: Cooling the blades ............................................................................................25
Figure 24: Typical diagram of a suction system.................................................................27
Figure 25: Vane or Dust Louver.........................................................................................28
Figure 26: Filter types ........................................................................................................29
Figure 27: Example of filter cartridge characteristics .........................................................30
Figure 28: 3-sided air filtering structure..............................................................................30
Figure 29: Rainproof hood .................................................................................................31
Figure 30: Self-cleaning cartridges ....................................................................................31
Figure 31: Different self-cleaning cartridge banks..............................................................32
Figure 32: Filtering by vertical self-cleaning cartridges (mounting a) .................................32
Figure 33: Silencer under construction ..............................................................................33
Figure 34: Silencer element ...............................................................................................34
Figure 35: Cross-section of silencer duct walls (typical) ....................................................34
Figure 36: Air inlet diagram (typical) ..................................................................................34
Figure 37: Diagram of a silencer (typical) ..........................................................................35
Figure 38: Anti-freeze system ............................................................................................35
Figure 39: Diagram of a water washing system .................................................................36
Figure 40: Washing efficiency............................................................................................37

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 41: Vertical exhaust ................................................................................................38

Figure 42: Lateral exhaust .................................................................................................38
Figure 43: Example of noise level allowed in the USA.......................................................39
Figure 44: Cross-section of an exhaust duct......................................................................40
Figure 45: Fixed points of side exhaust .............................................................................41
Figure 46: PGT10 N.Pignone.............................................................................................41
Figure 47: MS9001FA N.Pignone ......................................................................................41
Figure 48: Silencers ...........................................................................................................42
Figure 49: Silencer.............................................................................................................42
Figure 50: Textile type expansion joint ..............................................................................43
Figure 51: Diverter diagram ...............................................................................................44
Figure 52: Details of shutter sealing ..................................................................................44
Figure 53: Knife-gate valves ..............................................................................................45
Figure 54: Lubrication circuits ............................................................................................46
Figure 55: Functional diagram of the oil system of an N. Pignone aeroderivative turbine .47
Figure 56: Functional diagram of the oil system of an N. Pignone PGT5 and PGT10 .......48
Figure 57: Oil system of an N. Pignone aeroderivative turbine ..........................................49
Figure 58: Diagram showing control of the solenoid valve of an N. Pignone aeroderivative
turbine.........................................................................................................................51
Figure 59: Simplified hydraulic diagram N.Pignone ...........................................................51
Figure 60: Functional fuel oil diagram N.Pignone ..............................................................52
Figure 61: Fuel-gas regulation ...........................................................................................55
Figure 62: N. Pignone Fuel-gas system.............................................................................55
Figure 63: Compression of combustion air for fuel-oil burners...........................................57
Figure 64: Dual-fuel regulation...........................................................................................58
Figure 65: Simplified diagram showing an N.Pignone cooling and sealing air system.......59
Figure 66: Diagram showing an N.Pignone oil vapour extractor and bearing sealing air
system ........................................................................................................................60
Figure 67: N. Pignone baseplate structure.........................................................................61
Figure 68: Example of an auxiliary baseplate, separated from the turbine baseplate........62
Figure 69: Example of separate baseplates for the turbine and the exhaust section.........62
Figure 70: Example of baseplates for single turbine ..........................................................62
Figure 71: N. Pignone curve showing the resisting and drive torque versus GG speed
during the start-up phase............................................................................................63
Figure 72: Curve typical of Torque versus GG RPM (N.Pignone)......................................64
Figure 73: N. Pignone torque converter .............................................................................64
Figure 74: Diesel motor start-up system ............................................................................65
Figure 75: N. Pignone starter with epicyclic gear...............................................................65
Figure 76: N. Pignone hydraulic motor starter ...................................................................65
Figure 77: Diagram of an auxiliary reduction gear .............................................................66
Figure 78: Auxiliary reduction gear ...................................................................................66
Figure 79: Auxiliary reduction gear ....................................................................................67
Figure 80: Diagram of a reduction gear in operation..........................................................67
Figure 81: Generator speed reduction gear .......................................................................68
Figure 82: Photo of a compressor overgear.......................................................................68
Figure 83: Diagram showing the different types of gear ....................................................69
Figure 84: Diagram of a Crowned tooth gear coupling ......................................................70
Figure 85: Effect of misalignment on a splined coupling ....................................................70

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 86: Diagram of a single-disc coupling .....................................................................71

Figure 87: Diagram of a multiple-disc coupling ..................................................................71
Figure 88: Photo of a multiple-disc coupling ......................................................................72
Figure 89: Diagram design.................................................................................................72
Figure 90: Electrical equipment and instrument exposed to ambient temperature ............73
Figure 91: Self-locking bolt attachment system for ducts...................................................73
Figure 92: Electric stuffing box...........................................................................................74
Figure 93: Example of instrument cable numbering...........................................................74
Figure 94: Example of a machine enclosure fixed to the baseplate...................................75
Figure 95: Example of a noise-protection enclosure fixed to the floor ...............................76
Figure 96: Example of a noise-protection enclosure fixed to the floor with machine
enclosure on baseplate...............................................................................................76
Figure 97: Example of a hangar (arrangement 1) ..............................................................77
Figure 98: Example of a hangar (arrangement 2) ..............................................................77
Figure 99: Example of pressurized enclosure....................................................................78
Figure 100: Example of a depressured enclosure .............................................................79
Figure 101: Oil-water open-circuit cooling..........................................................................81
Figure 102: Oil-water closed-circuit cooling .......................................................................82
Figure 103: Oil-air cooling..................................................................................................82
Figure 104: Functional control system diagram (Speedtronic)...........................................84
Figure 105: Fuel control diagram .......................................................................................85
Figure 106: Turbo-generator start-up sequence ................................................................86
Figure 107: Operating limits of fuel flow.............................................................................87
Figure 108: Control and protection system configuration...................................................90
Figure 109: Redundant sensors.........................................................................................91
Figure 110: Diagram of electric control in position of the fuel control servo-valve .............92
Figure 111: Function available for the operator interface and the DCS ............................93
Figure 112: Combustion chamber outlet temperatures ......................................................94
Figure 113: Brayton Cycle .................................................................................................95
Figure 114: Effect of thermodynamic efficiency and compression ratio on available power
...................................................................................................................................96
Figure 115: Effect of ambient temperature.........................................................................98
Figure 116: Effect of altitude ..............................................................................................99
Figure 117: Effect of ambient humidity ..............................................................................99
Figure 118:Effect of draw-off on power and specific consumption...................................102
Figure 119: Effect of steam injection on power ................................................................103
Figure 120: Cooling by evaporation .................................................................................104
Figure 121: Cooling using a chiller...................................................................................105
Figure 122: Comparison between water evaporator and chiller.......................................106
Figures 123: Turbine performances.................................................................................111
Figure 124: Preliminary conditions for start-up ................................................................122
Figure 125: Start-up sequence (1) ...................................................................................126
Figure 131: List of alarms to be checked before re-starting .............................................136

Equipment
Turbines
Figure 132: Surging phenomenon ...................................................................................144

Figure 133: Rolls-Royce turbine start-up sequence.........................................................146
Figure 134: Example of a Hispano-Suiza turbine anti-surge curve ..................................147
Figure 135: Fuel-gas system ...........................................................................................151
Figure 136: Gas compressor anti-surge system ..............................................................152
Figure 137:N.Pignone troubleshooting procedure ...........................................................156
Figure 138: N.Pignone troubleshooting procedure ..........................................................157
Figure 139: Index of systems for troubleshooting ............................................................158
Figure 140: Reference tables for troubleshooting ............................................................159
Figure 143: Troubleshooting notes ..................................................................................161
Figure 144: Troubleshooting notes ..................................................................................162
Figure 145: Example of procedure numbering.................................................................163
Figure 146: Example of troubleshooting procedure .........................................................164
Figure 147: Causes and effects (2)..................................................................................165

Equipment
Turbines
10. SUMMARY OF THE TABLES

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the different types of turbines ........................13
Table 2: Filtering system composition................................................................................33
Table 3: Noise levels .........................................................................................................39
Table 4: Values of power, specific consumption and temperature variation versus suction
and exhaust pressure ...............................................................................................100
Table 5: Operating limits of the PGT25+SAC ..................................................................123
Table 6: Minimum parameters to be checked ..................................................................132
Table 7:Cause and effect chart (1) ..................................................................................134


EXP-PR-EQ140-EN-R0 - 2 - Turbines

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EQUIPMENT

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

4.5.3. Lubrication and control oil systems .................................................................46

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

6.3.4. "Auto" mode ..................................................................................................120

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Figure 1: Example of a turbine driving a generator

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Figure 2: Example of a turbine driving a compressor

Figure 3: Example of a turbine powering a ship

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

3. THE MAIN CATEGORIES

3.1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF TURBINE

Turbines can be split into three main categories:

Gas turbine with energy recovery (efficiency 0.40 to 0.60):

o Combined cycle in which

Figure 4: Combined cycle (N.Pignone

o Cogeneration cycle in which all or some of the gas is used in series to

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Figure 5: Regeneration (N.Pignone

Gas turbines differ according to their manufacturing process. In catalogues, we often

There may only be one turbine rotor

Figure 6: Diagram showing a single shaft

The single shaft requires

Figure 7: Diagram showing a

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

This control system is referred to as a "generator drive" system as opposed to a

We sometimes come across the term impulse turbine (expansion in stator) or

Figure 9: Industrial turbine (N.Pignone MS6001 single shaft) on baseplate

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

3.2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES

To summarise with respect to other the engines:

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Categories: Power Yield Use Advantages Disadvantages

On-shore if the price of gas does not Complex system and

Cogeneration cycle temperature)

Very high power.

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the different types of turbines

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

4. TURBINE AND TURBINE AUXILIARY OPERATION

4.1. GENERAL PRINCIPLE (SIMPLE OPEN CYCLE)

Figure 11: Operation phases and main functional parts

Combustion : Air mixture (A), fuel (Q) and permanent combustion.

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Theory of Operation of a Gas Turbine (dual shaft)

Figure 12: Gas turbine cycle

5-6 : Pressure drop in the exhaust breeching and the stack.

The compressor, combustion chambers and the high-pressure turbine assembly

Figure 13: Functional diagram of a turbine

The energy supplied by the fuel (100%) is distributed as follows:

Operation of auxiliaries (10%)

Operation of the compressor (50 %)

Work available on the power turbine outlet (30%)

Other losses (suction and exhaust 10%)

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ140-EN

Air suction and turbine cleaning system

Lubrication oil and control system