Natural Enemy Enhancement and Botanical Insecticide Source - A Review of Dual Use Companion Plants
Natural Enemy Enhancement and Botanical Insecticide Source - A Review of Dual Use Companion Plants
Natural Enemy Enhancement and Botanical Insecticide Source - A Review of Dual Use Companion Plants
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13355-018-00602-0
REVIEW
Received: 6 November 2018 / Accepted: 20 December 2018 / Published online: 18 January 2019
© The Author(s) 2019
Abstract
Intensive agriculture, which is associated with heavy inputs of synthetic insecticides, has serious ecological impacts, lead-
ing to loss of vital ecosystem services including insect-mediated pest suppression. In recent years, efforts have been made
towards obtaining safer options to chemical insecticides for sustainable pest management. Habitat manipulation is a part
of conservation biological control which aims at providing floral resources, alternative prey and shelter to predators and
parasitoids to enhance and sustain natural pest suppression. The use of plant extracts as botanical insecticides is also an
important provisioning ecosystem service. Selection of plant species for habitat manipulation has focused mainly on plants
with suitable floral qualities to support natural enemies. To increase the benefits, habitat manipulation plants that can provide
multiple ecosystem services in addition to floral resources would be an ideal. In this review, we focus on the potential of
achieving the dual ecosystem services of bioinsecticidal source plants in addition to the provision of floral resources from
selected plant species. Our literature search found 283 plants species from 44 plant families that have been involved in habitat
manipulation studies. Fifteen of these plant families have species that have been exploited for their insecticidal properties.
Three families, Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae, have the largest number of species that have been used for both habitat
manipulation and botanical insecticides. Of the four most popular habitat manipulation plants, alyssum Lobularia maritime
(L.) Desv. (Brassicaceae), buck wheat Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (Polygonaceae), coriander Coriandrum sativum L.
(Apiaceae) and phacelia Phacelia tanacetifolia Benth. (Boraginaceae), buckwheat and coriander have been used for insec-
ticidal purposes whilst no records exist of phacelia and alyssum as botanical insecticide species. There is great potential for
identifying plant species that can support natural enemies as well as providing potent plant extracts as botanical insecticides
by selecting species from the Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Lamiaceae families.
Keywords Habitat manipulation · Conservation biological control · Biopesticides · Dual ecosystem services
Introduction
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relying principally on synthetic pesticides, IPM uses non- poor training and equipment, the impacts are especially high
chemical or botanical insecticide measures to suppress (Amoabeng et al. 2017; Williamson et al. 2008).
pest population increase and a range of curative manage- Many plants possess secondary metabolites such as
ment tactics with synthetic pesticide use as last resort alkaloids, phenols and terpenoids that can have insecticidal
(Barzman et al. 2015). The declining availability of many activity such as toxicity, repellency, feeding deterrence
pesticides due to resistance and deregistration, reflecting against insect pests (Koul 2004). Botanical insecticides,
increasing awareness of their environmental and human including extracts and essential oils of these plant species,
health consequences, has driven changes towards ecologi- have been used to protect crops against insect herbivory for
cally based practices (Barzman et al. 2015; Borel 2017; many years (Belmain et al. 2012; Isman 2000, 2008). Syn-
Chagnon et al. 2015; Li et al. 2017; Sumon et al. 2018). thetic insecticides often have lethal and sub-lethal effects
A central part of IPM is biological control in which on natural enemies (Desneux et al. 2007). Biopesticides are
natural enemies including parasitoids, predators and path- considered relatively benign to non-target species owing
ogens are introduced and/or promoted (Bale et al. 2008; to their rapid breakdown, selectivity nature and reduced
Gurr et al. 2000a, 2018). Conservation biological control risk of insecticide resistance as plant extract, particularly
focuses on natural enemies already present in an agroeco- crude extracts have multiple modes of action other than
system and aims to maximize their impact on target pests toxicity, such as repellency (Amoabeng et al. 2013; Dubey
by, for example, reducing the adverse effects of insecticide et al. 2011; Isman 2006; Koul et al. 2008; Tembo et al.
use (Begg et al. 2017; Ehler 1998). Habitat manipulation 2018). Another important benefit of botanicals is that they
works in conjunction with conservation biological con- tend to depend on “suites” of closely related active con-
trol and is used to provide conditions that promote natu- stituents rather than a single active ingredient; this diversity
ral enemies and suppress pest populations (Fiedler et al. may delay or mitigate the development of resistance in pest
2008; Gurr et al. 2000b, 2017). This can include field level populations to most botanicals (Koul 2004). Biopesticides
interventions such as establishing plants to provide floral have been used for centuries as means of managing pests
resources, refuges and alternate hosts for natural enemies until synthetic insecticides replaced plant extracts (Isman
(Griffiths et al. 2008; Gurr et al. 2017). Plants that are 1997). The interest in botanical insecticides is increasing
selected for habitat manipulation have usually been studied but still accounts for less than 1% of crop protectants used
for morphological and physiological floral characteristics globally (Isman 2008, 2017). In developing countries, plant
that provide optimum benefits to natural enemies (Baggen extracts are often prepared from common weed species that
et al. 1999; Balzan et al. 2014). Habitat manipulation tac- grow around the field and obtained freely, with labour as
tics can extend beyond the field to include landscape fea- the only cost, resulting in cheaper pest management option
tures including riparian areas and treelines, although the when compared with synthetic insecticides (Amoabeng et al.
effect of landscape features on crop pests is variable (Karp 2014; Isman 2017).
et al. 2018; Tscharntke et al. 2007). The field of botanical pesticides is highly active [see
Ecologically based pest management tactics such as con- reviews by Boulogne et al. (2012), Isman and Grieneisen
servation biological control have been shown to reduce the (2014), Isman (2017), Yang and Tang (1988)] but this review
use of synthetic insecticides in a variety of cropping systems considers two novel aspects. First, we assess the extent to
whilst maintaining or increasing crop yields and efforts are which the plant species used in conservation biological con-
being made to up scale the practice globally (Pretty et al. trol studies have been the subject of research to determine if
2018; Wyckhuys et al. 2013; Xu et al. 2017). Despite these they have potentially useful biopesticidal properties. Second,
advantages, however, uptake of conservation biological con- we consider the practicalities of using plants that have dual
trol on a wide scale is limited (Gurr et al. 2016). In cases use in promoting biological control and as sources of botani-
where uptake has been strong, the vegetation used in habitat cal pesticides (Fig. 1).
manipulation provides multiple ecosystem services rather
than suppressing pests alone (Khan et al. 2006, 2012). To
date, however, there is a major gap in knowledge about the Conservation biological control plant
possibility of habitat manipulation plants providing botani- species
cal insecticides. This is important because synthetic insec-
ticides present significant risks to human health. Agricul- The identification of plant species studied for habitat manip-
tural workers and consumers are at risk of being negatively ulation purposes began with the published review by Fiedler
affected by insecticide products, tank mixes, drift, residues et al. (2008) and was followed by a search on the online ISI
and breakdown products, especially as a consequence of Web of Science database to from 1989 to 2018 using search
poor registration, storage and misuse (Eddleston et al. 2002). terms: flower* AND “conservation biological control”,
In agricultural areas where there are high illiteracy rates, and flower* AND “natural enemy”,and “habitat management”
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4 Applied Entomology and Zoology (2019) 54:1–19
Table 1 “Gap identification” of plants researched for conservation ties as well as utility in conservation biological control (denoted by
biological control and that have yet to be the subject of work to iden- ‘+’; or more tentatively by a ‘x’ denoting a plant in the same genus
tify scope as sources of botanical insecticides (denoted by ‘o’) and showed insecticidal activity)
plants that constitute “proof of concept” in having insecticidal proper-
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
Apiaceae
Ammi majus L. Bishop’s flower + Lepidoptera 1 *
Ammi visnaga (L.) Lamarck Toothpick ammi + Diptera 2, 3 *
Anethum graveolens L. Dill + Coleoptera, Blattodea, Diptera, 4, 5, 6 *
Lepidoptera
Angelica atropurpurea L. Angelica o *
Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Chervil + Coleoptera, Diptera 7 *
Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoff- Cow parsley + Lepidoptera, Diptera 63 *
mann
Apium graveolens L. Celery + Diptera 8 *
Carumcarvi L. Caraway + Coleoptera 9 *
Conium maculatum Poison hemlock + Thysanoptera, Trombidiformes, 10, 11 10
Hemiptera
Conopodium majus Pignut o 13
Coriandrum sativum L. Coriander/cilantro + Coleoptera 12, 13 13
Daucus carota L. Wild carrot + Diptera, Coleoptera 14, 15 *
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Fennel + Coleoptera 12, 16, 17 *
Heracleum sphondylium L. Eltrot o *
Heracleum maximum Bartr. Cow parsnip x Coleoptera 18 *
Pastinaca sativa L. Wild parsnip + Lepidoptera 19 2
Pimpinella anisum Aniseed + Diptera 20, 21 10
Zizia aurea (L.) Koch Golden alexanders o *
Apocynaceae
Apocynum cannabinum L. Indian hemp o *
Asclepsia syriaca Common milkweed o 22
Asclepias tuberosa Butterfly weed o 22
Asclepias fascicularis Dcne. Milkweed o *
Asclepias incarnata L. Swamp milkweed o *
Asclepias syriaca L. Common milkweed o *
Asclepias tuberosa L. Butterfly weed o *
Asparagaceae
Asparagus acutifolius Wild asparagus o 13
Asteraceae
Achillea millefolium L. Yarrow + Lepidoptera, Coleoptera 22, 24 *
Achillea spp. Yarrow + Lepidoptera, Coleoptera 23, 24 *
Ageratina aromatic Lesser snakeroot x Diptera 25 14
Andryala integrifolia Common andryala o 11
Anthemis arvensis L. Corn chamomile x Lepidoptera 26 *
Artemisia ludoviciana Louisiana wormwood + Hemiptera, Orthoptera 27, 28 16
Aster nova-angliae L. Smooth aster x Lepidoptera 26 *
Aster novi-belgii L. New England aster + Lepidoptera 26 *
Baccharis pilularis DC. New York aster o *
Baccharis viminea DC. Coyotebrush o *
Cacalia atriplicifolia L. H. Rob. Mule fat o *
Calendula arvensis Field marigold x Lepidoptera 29 7
Calendula officinalis L. Calendula + Hemiptera 30 *
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Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
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Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
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Applied Entomology and Zoology (2019) 54:1–19 7
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
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8 Applied Entomology and Zoology (2019) 54:1–19
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
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Applied Entomology and Zoology (2019) 54:1–19 9
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
Myrtaceae
Callistemom citrinus (Curtis) Crimson/common red + Coleoptera 56 3
Leptospermum cv Rudolpd Tea tree o 3
Onagraceae
Clarkia amoena (Lehm.) A. Nels. Farewell-to-spring o *
& J.F. Macbr.
Clarkia concinna (Fisch. & C.A. Red ribbons o *
Mey.) Greene
Clarkia unquiculata Lindl. Elegant clarkia o *
Oenothera speciosa Nutt. Pinkladies o *
Oenotherabiennis L. Evening primrose o *
Paeoniaceae
Paeonia lactiflora Pallas Peony o *
Papaveraceae
Eschscholzia californica Cham. California poppy- o *
Papaver rhoeas L. Common poppy o *
Papaver somniferum Opium poppy + Isoptera 57 17
Stylomecon heterophylla (Benth.) Wind poppy o *
G. Taylor
Plantaginaceae
Penstemon digitalisNutt. ex Sims foxglove beard-tongue o 1
Veronicastrum virginacum o 16
Veronica persicaPoir. Common field-speedwell o 7
Poaceae
Agrostis capillaries L. Colonial bent o 2
Andropogon gerardi Vitman Big bluestem o 16
Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Side oats grama o 16
Torr.
Cynosurus cristatus L. Crested dog’s-tail o 2
Elymus Canadensis L. Canada wild rye o 16
Festuca rubraL. Red fescue o 2
Panicum virgatum L. Switchgrass o 16
Poa pratensis L. Kentucky bluegrass o 2
Schizachyriums coparium (Michx.) Little bluestem o 22
Nash
Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash Yellow Indiangrass o 16
Sporobolus clandestinus (Biehler) Rough dropseed o 16
A.S. Hitchc.
Polemoniaceae
Gilia tri-color Benth. Bird’s eyes o *
Linanthus grandiflorus (Benth.) Mountain phlox o *
Greene
Polygonaceae
Eriogonum compositum Arrowleaf buckwheat o 14
Eriogonum douglasii Douglas’ buckwheat o 14
Eriogonum elatum Dougl. Tall woolly buckwheat o 14
exBenth.
Eriogonum fasciculatum Benth. California buckwheat o *
Eriogonum giganteum S. Wats. St Catherine’s lace o
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10 Applied Entomology and Zoology (2019) 54:1–19
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
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Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name Common name Botanical Order of insects controlled Ref as Ref as
insecticide botanical HM
activity species species
Data set based on the literature published from 1989 to 2018; species with * are from Fiedler et al. (2008) review of conservation biological con-
trol
Plants involved in habitat manipulation from 1989 to 2018. Species with * are from Fiedler et al. (2008)
Reference for habitat manipulation plant species with * are found in Fiedler et al. (2008)
+ Insecticidal activity
– Plant species tested against insects but with less/no activity
O plant species not tested
X Different species in the same genus with insecticidal activity
References for plants for habitat manipulation: 1. (Pellissier and Jabbour 2018) 2. (Campbell et al. 2017) 3. (Pandey et al. 2018) 4. (Haro et al.
2018) 5. (Batista et al. 2017) 6. (Trisnawati and Azis 2017) 7. (Villa et al. 2016) 8. (Tschumi et al. 2016) 9. (van Rijn et al. 2016) 10. (van Rijn
et al. 2016) 11. (Villa et al. 2016) 12. (Hatt et al. 2017) 13. (Nave et al. 2016) 14. (Sivinski 2014) 15. (Balzan et al. 2014) 16. (Gill et al. 2014)
17. (Martinez-Una et al. 2013) 18. (Gontijo et al. 2013) 19. (Diaz et al. 2012) 20. (Walton and Isaacs 2011) 21. (Tuell et al. 2008) 22. (Frank
et al. 2008)
Reference as botanical insecticide. 1. (El-Ghar et al. 1996) 2.(Ebadollahi 2013) 3. (Pavela et al. 2016) 4. (Babri et al. 2012) 5. (Sousa et al. 2013)
6. (Sousa et al. 2015) 7. (Evergetis and Haroutounian 2014) 8. (Khater and Khater 2009) 9. (Lopez et al. 2008) 10. (Chermenskaya et al. 2010)
11. (Gokce et al. 2016) 12. (Pavela and Benelli 2016) 13. (Rani 2012) 14. (Momin and Nair 2002) 15. (Azad et al. 2013) 16. (Koul et al. 2008)
17. (Cosimi et al. 2009) 18. (Alkan et al. 2017) 19. (Berenbaum et al. 1991) 20. (Santos et al. 1998) 21.(Park et al. 2006) 22. (Hasheminia et al.
2011) 23. (Pavela 2010) 24. (Nenaah et al. 2015) 25. (Rajeswary and Govindarajan 2013) 26. (Kumar et al. 2017) 27. (Rizvi et al. 2018) 28.
(Blust and Hopkins 1987) 29. (Medhini et al. 2012) 30. (Alexenizer and Dorn 2007) 31. (Mansour et al. 2014) 32. (Merah and Djazouli 2016)
33. (Tabanca et al. 2010) 34. (Aihetasham et al. 2017) 35. (Mullin et al. 1991) 36. (Padin et al. 2013) 37. (Macedo et al. 1997) 38. (Ahmed et al.
2015) 39. (Vukajlović et al. 2018) 40. (Khater and Khater 2009) 41. (Jbilou et al. 2008) 42. (Sivaraman et al. 2014) 43. (Pavela 2009) 44. (Liang
et al. 2015) 45. (Hossain and Haque 2010) 46. (Meradsi and Laamari 2016) 47. (Guarrera 1999) 48. (Ebadollahi 2011) 49. (Pavela 2004) 50.
(Kumar et al. 2011) 51. (Arnoabeng et al. 2018) 52. (Koul et al. 2008) 53. (Momen et al. 2014) 54. (Amoabeng et al. 2013) 55. (Regnault-Roger
et al. 2004) 56. (Lee et al. 2004) 57. (Ahmed et al. 2011) 58. (Lee et al. 2000) 59. (Sibul et al. 2001) 60. (Pelah et al. 2002) 61. (Morimoto et al.
2002) 62. (Akhtar and Isman 2004) 63. (Kozawa et al. 1982) 64. (Boussaada et al. 2008) 65. (Yeom et al. 2015) 66. (Guillet et al. 1997) 67.
(Raghavendra et al. 2013) 68. (Larocque et al. 1999) 69. (Kim et al. 2003)
Reference for tested plant but less efficacious/no activity: a. (Mohankumar et al. 2016) b. (Pavela 2010) c. (Pascual-Villalobos and Robledo
1999) d. (Pavela 2009) e. (Alexenizer and Dorn 2007) f. (Pavela 2011) g. (Kim et al. 2003) h. (Moreira et al. 2007)
The Apiaceae traits (Christenhusz and Byng 2016). Apiaceae species are
annual, biennial or perennial herbs and woody shrubs and
The Apiaceae (umbellifers) is the 16th largest angiosperm small trees that produce colorful inflorescences that secrete
family with 442 genera and 3575 species in which most of nectar attracting pollinators including bees, moths and bee-
the aromatic flowering plants are found (Christenhusz and tles (Heywood et al. 2007). Their growth habit makes them
Byng 2016). It has a global distribution and many species agronomically suitable as habitat manipulation species
with both habitat manipulation and insecticidal activity (Fiedler et al. 2008). The flat headed morphology of their
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12 Applied Entomology and Zoology (2019) 54:1–19
Fig. 2 Temporal trend in 12
published papers on habitat
manipulation between 2007 and 10
July 2018. Previously published 10
papers on habitat manipulation
Number of publicaons
8 9
(1989 to July 2006 were the
subject of Fiedler et al. (2008))
6 7
6
4 5 5 5 5 5
4
2 3 3
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year published
inflorescence provides easy landing and access to nectaries been exploited for their insecticidal activity against crop and
for natural enemies encouraging visitation (Heywood et al. storage pests (Gbolade et al. 2011) and also against several
2007). pathogenic organisms with success (Del-Vechio-Vieira et al.
Plants in the Apiaceae produce secondary metabolites 2009; Senatore et al. 2004). The chemical composition of
including coumarins, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (Lee some species including Ageratum conyzoides L. (Asteraceae)
and Rasmussen 2000). Essential oils have been tested as has been well described (Chu et al. 2010; de Souza et al.
being acaricidal (Attia et al. 2011), bactericidal (Glisic et al. 2009; Nenaah et al. 2015; Okunade 2002). The insecticidal
2007; Matasyoh et al. 2009) and for medicinal purposes (Lee activity of an aqueous extract of A. conyzoides has shown
and Rasmussen 2000; Maulidiani et al. 2014). Essential oils success rates comparable to chemical insecticides against
from Apiaceae species have been used against stored product diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plu-
pests including the bean weevil Acanthoscelides obtectus tellidae) (Amoabeng et al. 2013; Bhathal et al. 1994).
Say (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) (Regnault-Roger et al. 1993),
the cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricorne (F.) (Coleoptera:
Anobiidae) and wheat flour beetle Tribolium castaneum The Lamiaceae
Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) (Kim et al. 2003). Insec-
ticidal activity against turnip aphids, Lipaphis pseudobras- The Lamiaceae (mints and deadnettles) is characterised by
sicae (Davis) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), pea aphid, Acyrtho- many aromatic species (Heywood et al. 2007).The family
siphon pisum (Harris) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and the green is composed of 7530 species in 241 genera and globally
peach aphid, M. persicae has been reported (Dancewicz distributed (Christenhusz and Byng 2016).The Lamiaceae
et al. 2012; Sampson et al. 2005). includes trees, shrubs, subshrubs and herbs that are annuals
or perennials (Harley et al. 2004). The Lamiaceae has a large
variety of species composed of plants that may bloom early
The Asteraceae (Compositae) family in the season (annuals) and those that would bloom late but
will continue in bloom for longer periods (perennials).
The Asteraceae (daisy) is the second largest plant family Lamiaceae have been used for the provision of ecosys-
after Orchidaceae (Stevens and Davis 2001) with 24,700 tem services such as herbs and spices that provide anti-
species in 1623 genera and a worldwide distribution (Chris- oxidants, flavours and food preservatives (Demo et al.
tenhusz and Byng 2016). Asteraceae species have clusters 1998; Hossain et al. 2008; Vallverdu-Queralt et al. 2014).
of inflorescence that appears to be a single flower often Secondary metabolites from the Lamiaceae have activity
referred to as head (Schmid 2004). The entire flower head against human pathogenic organisms (Baydar et al. 2004;
moves towards the direction of the sun and that maximiz- Karanika et al. 2001) and have been used for their insecti-
ing reflectivity which may enhance the attraction of pol- cidal activity against domestic, storage and field crop pests.
linators and other beneficial insects (Schmid 2004), which Extracts of Origanum vulgare L. demonstrated efficacy
along with their growth habit makes them largely acceptable against P. xylostella and Trichoplusia ni Hübner (Lepi-
for habitat manipulation (Altieri et al. 2005). A larger num- doptera: Noctuidae) in a laboratory bioassay (Akhtar and
ber of plants in the family are herbaceous, with shrubs and Isman 2004). Ocimum gratissimum L. oil and its con-
trees rare (Okunade 2002). Species in the Asteraceae have stituents have fumigant and repellent activity against a
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Applied Entomology and Zoology (2019) 54:1–19 13
number of storage pests (Kim et al. 2003; Ogendo et al. plants for biocontrol enhancement. Future experimental and
2008) as well as malaria vectors Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: meta-analysis papers will be required to identify mechanistic
Culicidae) and Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera) patterns that underpin dual utility.”
(Diptera: Culicidae) (Kamaraj et al. 2008). Realising dual or multiple ecosystem services from
habitat manipulation is an ambitious call to rapidly restore
some lost ecosystem services, but there are other precedents
that suggest it is possible, e.g., Davis et al. (2012). Finney
Outlook and conclusions et al. (2017) studied the delivery of eight ecosystem ser-
vices including pests suppression, nitrogen supply, weed
The current review has shown that the most popular habitat suppression among others from ten cover crops. The study
manipulation plant families are among the top plant families showed that where all the plant species supplied biomass,
that have also been exploited for their insecticidal activity. suppressed weeds and retained nitrogen, there were trade-
Accordingly, many of the species that have shown benefit offs between other ecosystem services among some species.
in habitat manipulation have unrecognized additional value; This underscores the need to develop clear understanding
they could be exploited for the secondary use of harvest- of the intended services to be delivered and selection of
ing plant parts to produce botanical insecticides. Habitat plant species (Gurr et al. 2017). Ultimately, however, the
manipulation and plant extracts make a potentially effective present review suggests that further research is justified to
combination due to the largely benign nature of both tactics fully explore scope for using habitat manipulation plants
on natural enemies. It is widely acknowledged that tactics as a source of botanical insecticides. Among the research
that can provide multiple ecosystem services may prove priorities is field work to assess the phenological and practi-
effective and most likely to be adopted than are tactics that cal issues around duals use. For example, habitat manipula-
provide single benefits in isolation (Gentz et al. 2010). The tion plants normally need to be established early in the crop
tractability of combining two tactics depends on the effect calender so they are blooming early in the season, provid-
of each individual tactic on natural enemy populations. For ing resources to natural enemies and thereby prevent pest
example, an inherent toxicity to natural enemies by a biopes- population build-up. This may be compatible with dual use
ticide would be antagonistic towards conservation biological because harvesting plant parts such as foliage or seed pods
control. However, a combination in which both botanicals for botanical insecticide production could be later in the sea-
and habitat management do not have negative effects on son on a “needs basis” to deal with uncontrolled pest build-
natural enemies will likely result in additive or synergistic up, should biological control falter. On a wider time scale,
effect. A current study using six non-crop plants including habitat manipulation plants could be harvested at the end
A. conyzoides and Tridax procumbens (Asteraceae) with the of the growing season and stored for later processing into
same plant for habitat manipulation and plant extracts was botanical insecticides for use in a subsequent crop. In addi-
successful and cost-effective in managing pests of cabbage tion, ‘non-crop’ species may be cultivated on any spare land
(Amoabeng et al. unpublished data). and harvested for the preparation of botanical insecticides.
Much is currently not known about why some plant fami- This would avoid potential disruption of the conservation
lies have many species useful for both habitat manipulation biological control aspect of the program and might further
(pollen and nectar producing) and botanical insecticides. generate income to individuals who would cultivate plants
However, there could possibly be link between plants with for the extraction of botanical insecticides. Such low-tech
insecticidal activity being attractive to predators and parasi- approaches are particularly appropriate for developing coun-
toids. Secondary metabolites occur in the pollen and nectar try agriculture.
and, at optimum concentration, benefit pollinators, parasi-
toids and predators for example in mediating plant–polli- OpenAccess This article is distributed under the terms of the Crea-
tive Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativeco
nator interaction, protecting nectar from robbery and other mmons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu-
microbial functions such as preserving nutrients in nectar tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate
from degradation and reducing diseases in pollen and nec- credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
tar beneficiaries (Stevenson et al. 2017). It is possible that Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
some plant species in the families producing nectar and with
insecticidal activity have common ecological characteristics.
According to Campbell (2015), plant defence against her-
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