PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

Course Module 1
MECHANICS 1

COURSE UNIT 1.

KINEMATICS
Rev. 01

DARIUS L. FAJARDO, MAT

Faculty, DMS

March 3, 2023

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page no.
COVER PAGE 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS 2
LIST OF EXERCISES 2
LIST OF APPENDICES 2
CHECKLIST 3
UNIT EXPECTED OUTCOMES (UEOs) 3
REQUIRED READINGS 3
STUDY GUIDE 4
1.1 SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 4
1.2 MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 22
1.3 FREE-FALLING BODIES 30
1.4 PROJECTILE MOTION 37
1.5 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 40
FURTHER READINGS/EXPLORATION 41
UNIT TASK 41
REFERENCES 42
Photo/image credits 42

LIST OF EXERCISES

Page no.
Exercise no. 1 6
Exercise no. 2 9
Exercise no. 3 15
Exercise no. 4 25
Exercise no. 5 29
Exercise no. 6 36
Exercise no. 7 39
Exercise no. 8 41

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page no.
Problem Set no. 1 43

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ENGINEERING PROGRAM
PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK
1 1 1-2
KINEMATICS

CHECKLIST
⧠ Acquire all learning materials from google classroom or through USB.
⧠ Read the course unit module prior to class attendance
⧠ Attend on-line class for live lecture session via google meet (for
synchronous on-line)
⧠ View recorded lecture session via google classroom (for asynchronous
on-line)
⧠ Watch pre-recorded lecture via USB or google classroom (for
asynchronous off-line)
⧠ Participate in classroom discussion by answering assigned exercises
(for synchronous on-line only)
⧠ Write down all important formulas on index car
⧠ Answer and submit problem set no. 1 on specified date.

UNIT EXPECTED OUTCOMES (UEOs)

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. distinguish between distance and displacement;
2. distinguish between speed and velocity;
3. apply the equations of motion with constant acceleration, free fall, projectile motion and uniform circular motion in
solving problems; and
4. create and interpret motional graphs such as position-time and velocity-time graphs.

REQUIRED READINGS
This course module.
STUDY GUIDE
1.1 SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

1.1.1 Motion

Motion is the progressive change of position of a body.

Each object in the universe moves relatively with one another. A
body which is moving to one observer may be at rest as seen by the
other observer. When the relative distance between the object and
observer is changing then motion can be observed. The two objects
are at rest (or no motion) when there is no relative change in
distance between them.

1.1.2 Kinematics

The phenomenon of motion can be learned by studying kinematics, a branch of mechanics that deals with the
description of motion of bodies. It involves various physical quantities such as position, distance, displacement, time, speed,
velocity, and acceleration. These quantities are actually related to other quantities such as force, work and power which will
be discussed in unit 2.

1.1.3 Position

The position (x or y) of a body is defined in terms of a frame of reference. It is our choice of coordinate axes that
defines a starting point (or origin O) for describing motion or any other quantity. For one dimensional motion, frame of
reference may be either x- or y-axis. Horizontal motion uses x-axis while vertical motion uses y-axis. Projectile motion, a two-
dimensional type of motion, uses both axes in describing position.

1.1.4 Displacement and distance

Once motion takes place in a body, its position has changed. This change in position is described by the quantity
called displacement. In one-dimensional motion, displacement is denoted by ∆𝒙 (for horizontal motion) or ∆𝒚 (for vertical
motion). Mathematically, it is written as:

∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 (motion along x-axis)

∆𝒚 = 𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝒊 (motion along y-axis)
Where:
𝑥𝑖 (𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑖 ) − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥𝑓 (𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑓 ) − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Displacement is independent on the actual path of

the body and depends only on the initial position and final
position. It is a straight line segment directed from initial
position (or starting point) to final position (or end point)
regardless of the path the body moved while distance d is
the total length of the path a body actually travelled.

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EXAMPLE – DISPLACEMENT AND DISTANCE
PROBLEM NO. 1
In the figure below, a car moves horizontally (x-axis). The position of the car at each point are indicated by letters. What is
the displacement and distance traveled by the car from point a to point b? from point c to point d? from point d to point f?
from point a to point e? from point b to point g? and from point f to point g?

Given:
Position at each point
𝑥𝑎 = 0 𝑥𝑒 = 0
𝑥𝑏 = 30 𝑚 𝑥𝑓 = −30 𝑚
𝑥𝑐 = 50 𝑚 𝑥𝑔 = −50 𝑚
𝑥𝑑 = 40 𝑚
Required:
Displacement, ∆𝑥 and distance 𝑑
∆𝑥𝑎𝑏 , 𝑑𝑎𝑏
∆𝑥𝑐𝑑 , 𝑑𝑐𝑑
∆𝑥𝑑𝑓 , 𝑑𝑑𝑓
∆𝑥𝑎𝑒 , 𝑑𝑎𝑒
∆𝑥𝑏𝑔 , 𝑑𝑏𝑔
∆𝑥𝑓𝑔 , 𝑑𝑓𝑔
Solution:
For displacement, we will use the formula ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖

For ∆𝑥𝑎𝑏 , 𝑑𝑎𝑏

∆𝑥𝑎𝑏 = 𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 = 30 𝑚 − 0
∆𝑥𝑎𝑏 = +30 𝑚 (The sign indicates the direction of the car. Positive sign indicates that the car moves to the
right from a to b)
In the figure, distance ab is
𝑑𝑎𝑏 = 30 𝑚 (The displacement and distance are numerically equal since the direction of the car from a
to b does not changed.)
For ∆𝑥𝑐𝑑 , 𝑑𝑐𝑑
∆𝑥𝑐𝑑 = 𝑥𝑑 − 𝑥𝑐 = 40 𝑚 − 50 𝑚
∆𝑥𝑐𝑑 = −10 𝑚 (Negative sign indicates that the car moves to the left from c to d)
In the figure, distance cd is
𝑑𝑐𝑑 = 10 𝑚 (Distance is a scalar quantity. It has no direction and it only measure the length of path.)
For ∆𝑥𝑑𝑓 , 𝑑𝑑𝑓
∆𝑥𝑑𝑓 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑑 = −30 𝑚 − 40 𝑚
∆𝑥𝑑𝑓 = −70 𝑚 (Negative sign indicates that the car moves to the left from d to f)
In the figure, distance df is
𝑑𝑑𝑓 = 40 𝑚 + 30 𝑚 (The car has traveled 40 m from d to e then another 30 m from e to f.)
𝑑𝑑𝑓 = 70 𝑚

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 For∆𝑥𝑎𝑒 , 𝑑𝑎𝑒
∆𝑥𝑎𝑒 = 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑥𝑎 = 0 𝑚 − 0 𝑚
∆𝑥𝑎𝑒 = 0 𝑚 (Zero displacement means that the car returns to initial position or original position.)
In the figure, distance ae is
𝑑𝑎𝑒 = 50 𝑚 + 50 𝑚 (The car has traveled 50 m from a to c then another 50 m from c to e.)
𝑑𝑎𝑒 = 100 𝑚
For ∆𝑥𝑏𝑔 , 𝑑𝑏𝑔
∆𝑥𝑏𝑔 = 𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑏 = −50 𝑚 − 30 𝑚
∆𝑥𝑏𝑔 = −80 𝑚 (Negative sign indicates that the car moves to the left from b to g.)
In the figure, distance bg is
𝑑𝑏𝑔 = 20 𝑚 + 50 𝑚 + 50 𝑚 (The car has traveled 20 m from b to c, 50 m from c to e and another 50 m from e
to g.)
𝑑𝑏𝑔 = 120 𝑚
For ∆𝑥𝑓𝑔 , 𝑑𝑓𝑔
∆𝑥𝑓𝑔 = 𝑥𝑔 − 𝑥𝑓 = −50 𝑚 − (−30 𝑚)
∆𝑥𝑓𝑔 = −20 𝑚 (Negative sign indicates that the car moves to the left from f to g.)
In the figure, distance fg is
𝑑𝑓𝑔 = 20 𝑚

CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!

Exercise no. 1
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

Using the information in problem no.1, determine the displacement and distance traveled from point a to point c;
from point b to point e; and from point a to g.

(Begin your solution here)

1.1.5 Average Speed

To describe how fast a body moves, average speed is computed. Average speed S is the distance a body moves in a
given unit of time. Regardless different of paths travelled by a body, total distance d (or path length) are measured and divided
to the total time elapsed (or time interval) ∆t. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

𝒅
𝑺=
∆𝒕

Where:
𝑑 − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
∆𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑆 − 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

Distance travelled and time interval are always

positive values, so as with speed. The SI unit of speed is m/s.
Other units are km/hr (or kph), feet/min. (or fpm), miles/hr (or
mph).

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 The magnitude of speed varies with the ability of the object to move. A man can walk at an average speed of 1 m/s
while a car can travel greater than 25 m/s. Modern cruise ships can travel on waters about 30 knots (55 kph). Modern
airplanes and jet planes can travel as much as the speed of sound (300 m/s). Mach is a unit used to measure the speed of
these vehicles. A Mach means a speed equivalent to the speed of sound (about 300 m/s). Mach 2 represents a speed twice
that of sound. The earth’s equator is actually moving at around 460 m/s.

EXAMPLE – AVERAGE SPEED

PROBLEM NO. 2
In the figure below, a car has traveled a distance of 60 m on the indicated path in 3 s. What is the average speed of the car?
Given:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑 = 60 𝑚
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙, ∆𝑡 = 3 𝑠
Required:
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑆
Solution:
𝑑 60 𝑚
𝑆= =
∆𝑡 3𝑠

𝑆 = 20 𝑚/𝑠

1.1.6 Average Velocity

Another important kinematic quantity, which is sometimes synonymously compared to speed, is the average
velocity. Average velocity 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 is time rate at which the displacement occurs (see figure below). Mathematically, velocity is
expressed as:

∆𝒙 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = = (average velocity along x-axis)
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊

∆𝒚 𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝒊
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = = (average velocity along y-axis)
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊

Where:
𝑥𝑖 (𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑖 ) − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥𝑓 (𝑜𝑟 𝑦𝑓 ) − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∆𝑥 (𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑦) − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
∆𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

The value sign of the velocity depends on the sign of the displacement. Although displacement can be a positive
value or a negative value, time interval is always a positive value. Furthermore, the direction of the velocity is the same as
the direction of the displacement. For one dimensional motion, it is sufficient to use + or – for directions. The SI unit of velocity
is m/s but customary unit such as ft/s, cm/s, km/hr and others may be use.

1.1.7 Speed vs. Velocity

Since speed and velocity are synonymous compared with each other, it is important to note that the magnitude of
velocity maybe equal or less than the numerical value of speed.
If the magnitude of displacement is less than the total distance travelled by a body, the magnitude of the velocity is
less than speed’s magnitude (see figure below).

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 For one-dimensional motion, the magnitude of displacement and distance are equal, therefore the magnitude of
velocity and speed are also equal (see figure below).

Velocity is zero when the body returns from starting point while the its speed is greater than zero (see figure below).

EXAMPLE – AVERAGE SPEED VS. AVERAGE VELOCITY

PROBLEM NO. 3
The figure below shows the position x of the car as a function of time t. Find the average velocity and average speed of the
car in figure below between time interval 0 s to 12 s.

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Given:
𝑡𝑖 = 0; 𝑥𝑖 = 0 𝑚
𝑡𝑓 = 12 𝑠; 𝑥𝑓 = −30 𝑚
Required:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑆
Solution:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒

∆𝑥 −30 𝑚 − 0
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 12 𝑠 − 0

𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −2.5 𝑚/𝑠 (Negative value of velocity means that the car moves to the left or towards –x-axis during
the 12-s time interval.)

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑆
𝑑 50 𝑚 + 50 𝑚 + 30 𝑚
𝑆= =
∆𝑡 12 𝑠

𝑆 = 10.83 𝑚/𝑠 (The average speed is greater than the magnitude of the average velocity since the
distance traveled during this time interval is 130 m which is higher than the magnitude of
displacement of 30 m)

CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!

Answer the following questions now. Strictly follow the general instructions in exercise no. 1

Exercise no. 2
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

1. Using the information in problem no.3, determine the average speed and average velocity between time interval
(a) 0 s to 10 s; and (b) 12 s to 15 s.

2. In a car racing competition, two cars A & B are approaching the finish line. Car A & B move in a straight line at
constant speeds of 30 m/s and 25 m/s, respectively. If car A & B respectively are 100 m and 60 m away from the
finish line, which car gets to the finish line first & by how much time ahead?

(Begin your solution here)

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1.1.8 Position-time Graph

We have learned earlier that the position of an object is a function of time. As time advances, the position may
change depending on how a body moves. With this relationship, we can investigate motion graphically. Here we are going to
learn two motional graphs: the position-time graph and the velocity-time graph.
Position-time graph (x-t or y-t graph) is a graph of body’s position as a function of time. It is composed of two
coordinates: vertical and horizontal coordinate. The vertical coordinate represents body’s position while horizontal
coordinate represents time. The figure below shows how the position of moving car relative to stop sign is being translated
to the position-time graph. The shape of the curve is determined on the actual positions of the car between time 0 s to 2 s.

Position-time graph of the car

If we connect points i and point f of the graph with a diagonal line, the slope (rise over run) of this line represents
the average velocity.

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 ∆𝒙
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒕 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 = 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
∆𝒕

EXAMPLE – POSITION-TIME GRAPH

PROBLEM NO. 4
The figure below shows the position x of the car as a function of time t. (a) Sketch the position-time graph of the car (assume
that the maximum and minimum positions are 50 m and -50 m, respectively. (b) Referring to the graph, determine the average
velocity of the car between time interval 2 s to 5 s; 5 s to 12 s; and 0 s to 10 s.

Required:
(a) position-time graph
(b) average velocity (2 s to 5 s; 5 s to 12 s; 0 s to 10 s)
Solution:
(a) position-time graph
Using a graphing paper, plot the position of car at each indicated time. Then connect the plotted point with a smooth
curve. It should look like this.

(b) average velocity (2 s to 5 s; 5 s to 12 s; 0 s to 10 s)

Connect the points on each required time interval, then compute the slope of each line by dividing its rise to its run.

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 For 2 s to 5 s
50 𝑚 − 30 𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
5𝑠−2𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = +6.67 𝑚/𝑠 (Positive slope means positive value of velocity)

For 5 s to 12 s
−30 𝑚 − 50 𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
12 𝑠 − 5 𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −11.42 𝑚/𝑠 (Negative slope means negative value of velocity)

For 0 s to 10 s
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0 (Since the slope of horizontal line is zero.)

1.1.9 Instantaneous Velocity and Instantaneous Speed

Average velocity does not describe the velocity of a body at a given period of time. So we introduce another type of
velocity called instantaneous velocity. It indicates what is happening at every point of time. The magnitude of the
instantaneous velocity is what you read on a car’s speedometer. In succeeding sections, when we use the term “velocity” we
always mean instantaneous velocity.
Mathematically, instantaneous velocity v is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval becomes
infinitesimally short, or as the time interval approaches zero. It is also the first derivative of the position with respect to time
dx/dt.

∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Using the position-time graph, we can

determine instantaneous velocity at any time by
constructing a line tangent to the curve at a specific
time. The slope of this tangent line represents the
instantaneous velocity at that time.

Lastly, instantaneous speed S is defined as the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity.

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EXAMPLE – INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS SPEED
PROBLEM NO. 5
A particle moves along the x axis. Its position varies with time according
to the expression 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡, where x is in meters and t is in seconds.
The position–time graph for this motion is shown in the figure. Because
the position of the particle is given by a mathematical function, the
motion of the particle is completely known. Notice that the particle
moves in the negative x direction for the first second of motion, is
momentarily at rest at the moment t = 1 s, and moves in the positive x
direction at times t > 1 s. (a) Determine the displacement of the particle
in the time intervals t = 0 to t = 1 s and t = 1 s to t = 3 s. (b) Calculate the
average velocity during these two time intervals. (c) Find the
instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed of the particle at time
t = 2.5 s.
Given:
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡
Required:
(a) ∆𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑠
∆𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠
(b) 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑠
𝑣 𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠
(c) 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑆 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 2.5 𝑠
Solution:
(a) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑠
First thing we need to do is to determine the initial and final positions for specified time interval (from 0 s to 1 s). If
we refer the position-time graph we see that
𝑥𝑖 = 0
𝑥𝑓 = −2 𝑚
In absence of graph or if you find difficulty in reading the exact value of the position, we can solve the positions using
position equation by substituting the values of time t
𝑥𝑖 = 2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 = 2(0 𝑠)2 − 4(0 𝑠) = 0
𝑥𝑓 = 2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 = 2(1 𝑠)2 − 4(1 𝑠) = −2 𝑚
Now we are ready to solve for ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = −2 𝑚 − 0
∆𝑥 = −2 𝑚

𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠

Referring the graph, we get

𝑥𝑖 = −2 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 5 𝑚 (you can check these values using position equation
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 5 𝑚 − (−2 𝑚)
∆𝑥 = 7 𝑚

(b) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑠

∆𝑥 −2 𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 1 𝑠 − 0 𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −2 𝑚/𝑠

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣 𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠

∆𝑥 7𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 3 𝑠 − 1 𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 3.5 𝑚/𝑠

13
 You can also use calculus-based approach as alternative solution. The first derivative of the position equation x with
respect to time t will give velocity equation.
𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 4𝑡 − 4 (velocity equation)
Then we solve the value of v at specified time interval, let say from 0 s to 1 s
𝑣𝑖 = 4𝑡 − 4 = 4(0 𝑠) − 4 = −4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 4𝑡 − 4 = 4(1 𝑠) − 4 = 0 𝑚/𝑠
Lastly we solve the average velocity by simply “averaging” vi and vf
4𝑚
𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑠 − 0
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
2 2
∆𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −2 𝑚/𝑠 (This result conforms with the answer using 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = . Try this method for time interval 1
∆𝑡
s to 3 s.)

(c) 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 2.5 𝑠

There are two ways to do this: using position-

time graph and using velocity equation.

From the position-time graph, draw a tangent

line with the curve at time t = 2.5 s. The slope of
this tangent gives the instantaneous velocity at
this time. Just be more cautious in estimating the
tangent line to the values of rise and run more
accurate.

Now we have the values of rise and run, we can

solve for v
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 6 𝑚
𝑣= =
𝑟𝑢𝑛 1𝑠
𝑣 = 6 𝑚/𝑠 (instantaneous velocity of the particle at 2.5 s)

Therefore, the instantaneous speed S is

𝑆 = 6 𝑚/𝑠
It seems that graphical approach is tedious but don’t worry we have an easier approach. We can use the velocity
equation, we constructed earlier from the first derivative of position equation, and then we solve for v at time t =
2.5 s.
𝑣 = 4𝑡 − 4 = 4(2.5 𝑠) − 4
𝑣 = 6 𝑚/𝑠
Hence,
𝑆 = 6 𝑚/𝑠

14
CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!
Answer the following questions now. Strictly follow the general instructions in exercise no. 1

Exercise no. 3
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

Using the position-time graph of a particle shown below, determine the following:
(a) The average velocity from point A to B;
(b) The instantaneous velocity at time t = 10 s; and
(c) The instantaneous velocity at time t = 40 s

(Begin your solution here)

1.1.10 Average Acceleration

Maybe you experience change in speed or velocity, especially when you are riding a car, either when the car is
speeding up or slowing down at time goes by (see figure below). We may say that the car is accelerating or decelerating. In
physics, this change in velocity as a function of time is called acceleration. In this section we will consider average acceleration
and instantaneous acceleration.
Average acceleration 𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒆 is the time rate of change of the velocity (or instantaneous velocity). Mathematically is
expressed as,

∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊

Where:
𝑣𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑡𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∆𝑣 − 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
∆𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

15
 The SI unit of acceleration is m/s². It is also expressed, in other unit systems, as cm/s², or ft/s². The car in the figure
moves initially at a velocity of 10 m/s accelerates to 25 m/s in a time interval ∆t of 3 s. The change in velocity ∆v at this time
interval is 15 m/s. Therefore, the car accelerates at +5 m/s 2. It means that the car is speeding up by 5 m/s in every 1 second.
If the car continues at this acceleration after another second of movement its velocity becomes 30 m/s.
Acceleration is a vector quantity. In one dimensional motion, positive or negative (+ or – ) is enough to denote its
direction. The sign of acceleration a and the initial velocity vi will dictate whether the object is accelerating or decelerating.
You may consider the following points:
1. When the initial velocity vi and acceleration a are in the same direction (either both positive or both negative), then
the object is accelerating.
2. When the object’s initial velocity vi and acceleration a are in the opposite directions (different signs), the object is
said to be decelerating.
3. Beware that negative value of acceleration does not necessarily mean the object is slowing down. If the acceleration
and initial velocity are both negative, then the object is speeding up.
4. The initial velocity 𝑣𝑖 is zero when the body is initially at rest while the final velocity 𝑣𝑓 is zero when the body has
stopped.

1.1.11 Velocity-time Graph

Another useful motional graph that we are going to consider is the velocity-time graph (𝒗 − 𝒕 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉). It is a graph
of body’s velocity as a function of time. Using the graph, we can easily determine the velocity of a body at specific point in
time. For instance, in figure below, we can estimate that at 2 s the car is moving at a velocity of around 16 m/s.

If we connect points i and point f of the graph with a diagonal line, the slope (rise over run) of this line represents
the average acceleration.

∆𝒗
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗 − 𝒕 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 = 𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
∆𝒕

16
1.1.12 Instantaneous Acceleration

The type of acceleration we have discussed in previous section is only the average acceleration at certain time
interval ∆𝑡. We do not know yet the acceleration of at any specific time 𝑡. Now we are ready to explore another type of
acceleration called instantaneous acceleration.
Instantaneous acceleration 𝒂 is the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval goes to zero. It is also the
first derivative of the velocity with respect to time 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡.

∆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒂 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Using the velocity-time graph, we can determine

instantaneous acceleration at any time by constructing a line tangent
to the curve at a specific time. The slope of this tangent line
represents the instantaneous acceleration at that time.
In next section, we shall see a constant instantaneous
acceleration, which is represented by a diagonal line on 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph
rather than a curve line. When the instantaneous accelerations are
always the same, then object is undergoing uniformly accelerated
motion (UAM).

EXAMPLE – AVERAGE ACCELERATION, VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH AND INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION

PROBLEM NO. 6
An astronaut has left an orbiting space shuttle to test a new maneuvering unit. As she moves along a straight line, her partner
on board the shuttle measures her velocity every 2.0 s, starting at time 1.0 s, as follow:

Time, 𝑡(𝑠) 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0

Velocity, 𝑣(𝑚/𝑠) 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.2 – 0.4 – 1.0 – 1.6 – 0.8

(a) Draw the velocity-time graph of the astronaut.

(b) Find the average acceleration, for each of the following time intervals: 1.0 s to 3.0 s; 5.0 s to 7.0 s; 9.0 s to 11.0 s; and
13.0 s to 15.0 s. Describe also whether the astronaut is accelerating or decelerating at each time interval.
(c) Using the constructed graph estimate the instantaneous acceleration at time 14 s.

17
Required:
(a) 𝑣 − 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
(b) 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 for time intervals 1.0 s to 3.0 s; 5.0 s to 7.0 s; 9.0 s to 11.0 s; and 13.0 s to 15.0 s
(c) instantaneous acceleration at time 𝑡 = 14 𝑠.
Solution:
(a) 𝑣 − 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ

(b) 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 for time intervals 1.0 s to 3.0 s; 5.0 s to 7.0 s; 9.0 s to 11.0 s; and 13.0 s to 15.0 s

From
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

For 1.0 s to 3.0 s

𝑚 𝑚
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 1.2 𝑠 − 0.8 𝑠
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 3𝑠−1𝑠
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.2 𝑚/𝑠 2 The astronaut is accelerating (since vi = +, a = +)

For 5.0 s to 7.0 s

𝑚 𝑚
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 1.2 𝑠 − 1.6 𝑠
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 7𝑠−5𝑠
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −0.2 𝑚/𝑠 2 The astronaut is decelerating (since vi = +, a = –).

For 9.0 s to 11.0 s

𝑚 𝑚
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 −1.0 𝑠 − (−0.4 𝑠 )
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 11 𝑠 − 9 𝑠
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = −0.3 𝑚/𝑠 2 The astronaut is accelerating (since vi = –, a = –)

For 13.0 s to 15.0 s

𝑚 𝑚
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 −0.8 𝑠 − (−1.6 𝑠 )
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 15 𝑠 − 13 𝑠
2
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.4 𝑚/𝑠 The astronaut is decelerating (since vi = –, a = +)

18
 (c) instantaneous acceleration at time 𝑡 = 14 𝑠.

From the v-t graph we have constructed in part (a), we draw a line tangent to the curve at 14 s. Then we determine the
rise and run as shown in figure below

Finally, we get,
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 0.8 𝑚/𝑠
𝑎= =
𝑟𝑢𝑛 2𝑠
𝑎 = 0.4 𝑚/𝑠 2 (acceleration a 14 s).

1.1.13 Interpretation of Motion Graphs

Now that we have presented in previous sections motion graphs such as displacement-time (𝑥 − 𝑡) and velocity-
time (𝑣 − 𝑡) graphs, the next step is to have a clear understanding on how we interpret these graphs. We will take a look on
the shape of the lines that can be generated at different situations:
1. When the body is at rest (or no relative motion)
2. When the body is moving at constant velocity (𝑣 = 𝑐)
3. When the body is accelerating at constant rate (𝑎 = 𝑐); and
4. When the body is decelerating at constant rate (𝑎 = 𝑐).
No motion or at rest
A body is at rest when its position
does not change relative to some frame of
reference. Imagine a person standing still and
there is a tree which acts as the reference origin.
If the person is standing beneath the tree we
can say its position relative to the tree is zero.
As long as he is not moving his position remains
zero as time goes by. So we see a horizontal line
on the time line of 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph. When the
person is standing still 10 m right of the tree, this
line will be a horizontal line at 10 m (which is
above the time line). If the person is standing on
the opposite side of the tree, then the
horizontal line will be below the time line (at x =
- 10 m). In case of 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph, since the person
is standing still and therefore its velocity is zero

19
at any time t, we see a horizontal line on the
time line regardless on the position of person
relative to the tree.

Uniform Motion/Constant Velocity

A body is moving uniformly or at constant velocity when the distances it moves are equal for equal time intervals.
The 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph below describes that the car is traveling 5 m in every 1 s. Therefore, its velocity is constant 5 m/s (or – 5 m/s
if it moves toward –x-axis. If a body is traveling towards +x-axis the line is sloping upward while a downward slope means
that the body is moving towards –x-axis. For 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph, a horizontal line above or below the time line of 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph
represent this type of motion.

Accelerating at constant rate

A body is accelerating when the distances it moves are increasing during equal time intervals. The 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph
shows a parabolic curve with increasing slope of the tangent line while the 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph shows a diagonal line which is sloping
away from the time line.

Decelerating at constant rate

A body is decelerating when the distances it moves are decreasing during equal time intervals. The 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph
shows a parabolic curve with decreasing slope of the tangent line while the 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph shows a diagonal line which is sloping
towards the time line.

20
EXAMPLE – INTERPRETATION OF MOTION GRAPHS
PROBLEM NO. 7
The position of an object moving along x axis varies with time as shown in the figure. (a) Determine the type of motion in
each time interval (indicated by letters) and tell whether the object is moving towards +x-axis or –x-axis. (b) In what point/s
the instantaneous velocity is zero. (c) Sketch the velocity versus time graph for the object.

Required:
(a) Type of motion in each time interval
(b) Point/s where 𝑣 = 0
(c) 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph
Solution:
(a) Type of motion in each time interval

Referring to the given 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph and applying what we have learned from the previous section, we tabulate our
answers for clarity.

Time interval Type of motion Direction of motion

a–b Accelerating at constant rate Towards + x-axis
b–c Uniform Motion/Constant Velocity Towards + x-axis
c–d Decelerating at constant rate Towards + x-axis
d–e Accelerating at constant rate Towards – x-axis
e–f Decelerating at constant rate Towards – x-axis
f–g No motion or at rest Not moving

21
 (b) Point/s where 𝑣 = 0
We try to observe the 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph wherein the slope of the tangent line is zero, hence zero velocity (see figure
below). We can observed four points with 𝑣 = 0, points a, d, f & g. At these points the object is momentarily at rest.

(c) 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph

The corresponding 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph, based on

𝑥 − 𝑡 graph, is shown in the figure. Take note
that this is only a sketch and we cannot
determine the value of velocity at each point
since we do not have enough information on
the values of position 𝑥 from 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph.

Later on we will see that the area under this

graph may represent the displacement and
the total distance traveled.

1.2 MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

1.2.1 Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Uniformly accelerated motion is a type of variable

motion in which the velocity of a body changes at the same
rate throughout the motion. The car in the figure shows this
type of motion. At time 0 s, the car is initially at rest (𝑣 = 0)
accelerates to 5 m/s 1 s later, 10 m/s in 2 s and 15 m/s in 3 s.
The velocity of the car is increasing at a constant rate of 5 m/s
in each section, therefore its acceleration is 5 m/s 2.
Furthermore, uniform acceleration means that the average
acceleration between any time intervals is constant. This
average acceleration is also the instantaneous acceleration 𝑎
at any time 𝑡.

1.2.2 Equations for Uniformly Accelerated Motion

22
 The general equations for this type of motion are actually derived from the equations of average velocity 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 and
average acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 .
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
(Applicable only for uniformly accelerated motion)
We transform these equation by
allowing 𝑡𝑖 = 0 and 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑡 which means the time 𝑡 is any later time from 0 s. We also change the average acceleration 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒
to instantaneous 𝑎 since the acceleration is constant.
𝑥 −𝑥
(Equation A) 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑓 𝑖
𝑡
𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖
(Equation B) 𝑎=
𝑡
1
(Equation C) 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )
2

Now from these 3 basic equation, we will derive five specific equations to be used in dealing with motion with constant
acceleration. From equation B, final velocity 𝑣𝑓 can be expressed as:

① 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕

If we combine equations A and B, the displacement 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 can be derived as:

𝟏
② 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 = (𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 )𝒕
𝟐

In absence of the value of acceleration 𝑎, equation 2 is helpful especially when solving the final position 𝑥𝑓 with known
velocity 𝑣𝑓 at any later time. On the other hand, with known value of acceleration 𝑎 and without knowing the value of final
velocity 𝑣𝑓 , by combining equations 1 and 2, final position 𝑥𝑓 is expressed as:
𝟏 𝟏
③ 𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 or 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

Likewise, in terms of final velocity 𝑣𝑓 and without requiring the value of initial velocity 𝑣𝑖 , final position 𝑥𝑓 can be expressed
as:
𝟏 𝟏
④ 𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 𝒕 − 𝒂𝒕𝟐 or 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒗𝒇 𝒕 − 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

Lastly, if we solve for time 𝑡 from equation 1 and substituting to equation 2, we can derived the expression:
⑤ 𝒗𝒇 𝟐 = 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 )

This equation is very helpful especially when dealing with problems wherein time 𝑡 is not given.
Before using these equations in a particular problem, the first thing you need to do is to analyze carefully the
problem, properly identify given information and quantities to be solved then select the most appropriate and simplest
formula that will give shortest solution as possible. It is also suggested to consider the following:
1. Set 𝑣𝑖 = 0 if the body is initially at rest.
2. Set 𝑣𝑓 = 0 if the body stops moving.
3. Acceleration 𝑎 is constant at any time 𝑡 but the final velocity 𝑣𝑓 varies with time.
4. Let 𝑥𝑖 = 0 unless otherwise specified in the problem.
5. If the velocity is constant, that is 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣, you can set 𝑎 = 0, then the five equations are reduced to:
𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒗𝒕 or ∆𝒙 = 𝒗𝒕

23
1.2.3 Graphical Interpretation of Equations

To have a clear understanding on these equations, let us

consider a 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph, shown in the figure, of a body moving initially
at 𝑣𝑖 then accelerates at constant rate 𝑎 which is represented by the
slope of the line. At later time 𝑡 the velocity has changed by 𝑎𝑡. It is clear
seen from the graph that if we add 𝑣𝑖 and 𝑎𝑡 the result will be the final
velocity 𝑣𝑓 which agrees with equation 1.
In addition, the area under this line represent the
displacement ∆𝑥 of the body at later time 𝑡. As you can see in the figure
below the trapezoidal area can be divided into a square and a right
1
triangle having areas of 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 and 𝑎𝑡 2 , respectively and adding these two
2
areas will be the body’s displacement ∆𝑥. This is in consonance with
equation 3.

EXAMPLE – MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

PROBLEM NO. 8
A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at a speed of 140 mi/h (≈63 m/s). (a) What is its acceleration (assumed constant) if its stops
in 2.0 s due to an arresting cable that snags the jet and brings it to a stop? (b) If the jet touches down at position xi = 0, what
is its final position? (c) If the overall length of the aircraft carrier 100 m, do you think the jet landed safely?
Given:
𝑣𝑖 = 63 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠
𝑣𝑓 = 0
𝑥𝑖 = 0
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟, 𝑙 = 100 𝑚
Required:
(a) Acceleration 𝑎
(b) Final position 𝑥𝑓
(c) Verify if the jet landed safely (if 𝑥𝑓 < 𝑙)
Solution:
(a) 𝑎
Based the given information, we can use equation 1.
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
Solving for 𝑎
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 0 − 63 𝑚/𝑠
𝑎= =
𝑡 2.0 𝑠
𝑎 = −31.5 𝑚/𝑠 2
(b) 𝑥𝑓
Use equation
1
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡
2
24
 1 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = (63 + 0) (2 𝑠)
2 𝑠
𝑥𝑓 = 63.0 𝑚

(c) Verify if the jet landed safely

Since the final position of jet 𝑥𝑓 (63.0 m) is less than the length of the aircraft carrier 𝑙 (100.0 m), therefore the jet
landed safely. Good thing there is arresting cable!

CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!

Answer the following questions now. Strictly follow the general instructions in exercise no. 1
Exercise no. 4
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

A car moves with an initial velocity of 15 m/s accelerates at a constant rate of 4 m/s2. (a) How much time it takes to
travel 200 m? (b) What is its velocity after this time?

(Begin your solution here)

EXAMPLE – MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION (CONTINUED)

PROBLEM NO. 9
A car traveling at constant speed of 45.0 m/s passes a trooper on a motorcycle hidden behind a billboard. One second after
the speeding car passes the billboard, the trooper sets out from the billboard to catch the car, accelerating at a constant rate
of 3.00 m/s2. How long does it take the trooper to overtake the car?

25
Given:
𝑣𝑐𝑎𝑟 = 45.0 𝑚/𝑠 (constant)
𝑥𝑖 = 0
Initial velocity of trooper, 𝑣𝑖 = 0
Acceleration of trooper, 𝑎 = 3.00 𝑚/𝑠 2 (1 s later after the car passes the billboard)
Required:
Time for the trooper to overtake the car, 𝑡
Solution:

In order for the trooper to overtake the car, its position must be equal to the position of the car at later time 𝑡 after the
trooper started to move from rest. Mathematically,

𝑥𝑓 (𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟) = 𝑥𝑓 (𝑐𝑎𝑟)

Since the trooper is accelerating at constant rate, we use equation 3 for the position of trooper at later time 𝑡,
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1 2
𝑥𝑓 (𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟) = 𝑎𝑡
2
Since the trooper has just started moving 1 s later after the car passes the signpost, it means that the car has travelled
𝑚
(45.0 ) (1𝑠) = 45.0 𝑚 and an additional (45.0 𝑚/𝑠)𝑡, therefore the position of car at later time 𝑡 is
𝑠
𝑥𝑓 (𝑐𝑎𝑟) = 45.0 𝑚 + (45.0 𝑚/𝑠)𝑡

Combining these two equations and substituting know values gives

1 2
𝑎𝑡 = 45.0 𝑚 + (45.0 𝑚/𝑠)𝑡
2
1
(3.00 𝑚/𝑠 2 )𝑡 2 = 45.0 𝑚 + (45.0 𝑚/𝑠)𝑡
2

It appears that this is a quadratic equation so we transform this to standard form and omitting the units for a while for
simplicity.
1.50𝑡 2 − 45.0𝑡 − 45.0 = 0

Finally solving for 𝑡 using quadratic formula

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −(−45) ± √(−45)2 − 4(1.5)(−45)
𝑡= = , (𝑢𝑠𝑒+)
2𝑎 2(1.5)

𝑡 = 31.0 𝑠 (It took 31.0 s for the trooper to overtake the car.)

26
PROBLEM NO. 10
The performance of new model car is being tested as it moves straight along a horizontal ground. The car, initially at rest,
accelerates to 10 m/s for 3 s. It moves at constant velocity for 5 s and accelerates at a constant rate of 6 m/s2 for 6 s. It moves
again at a constant speed for 1 min. Then it comes to rest for 10 s. (a) Find the total distance travelled for the entire trip. (b)
What is the average speed for the whole journey? (c) What is the maximum velocity attained by the car? (d) Draw the 𝑣 − 𝑡
graph for the whole journey and verify your answer in part (a) using this graph.

Required:
(a) Total distance traveled, 𝑑
(b) Average speed, 𝑆
(c) Maximum velocity, 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
(d) 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph
Solution:
(a) Total distance traveled, 𝑑

The figure below represents the type motion happening in each time interval. We also indicate the known values of
velocities, time and acceleration.

Since the car is moving along a straight line therefore the total distance traveled 𝑑 is the same as the magnitude of the
car’s displacement ∆𝑥

𝑑 = ∆𝑥

By knowing the initial and final velocities at each type of motion, we solve for the distance traveled ∆𝑥𝐴 , ∆𝑥𝐶 , and ∆𝑥𝐸
1
using the equation ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡. For ∆𝑥𝐵 and ∆𝑥𝐷 , we use ∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 since they involved constant
2
velocity motion.

For ∆𝑥𝐴
1 1 𝑚
∆𝑥𝐴 = (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡 = (0 + 10 ) (3 𝑠)
2 2 𝑠
∆𝑥𝐴 = 15 𝑚
For ∆𝑥𝐵
𝑚
∆𝑥𝐵 = 𝑣𝑡 = (10 ) (5 𝑠)
𝑠
∆𝑥𝐵 = 50 𝑚
For ∆𝑥𝐶
We solve first for the final velocity 𝑣 using the equation 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡.
𝑣 = (10 𝑚/𝑠) + (6 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(6 𝑠)
𝑣 = 46 𝑚/𝑠
Then,
1 1 𝑚
∆𝑥𝐶 = (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡 = (10 + 46𝑚/𝑠) (6 𝑠)
2 2 𝑠
∆𝑥𝐶 = 168 𝑚

27
 For ∆𝑥𝐷
𝑚
∆𝑥𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 = (46 ) (60 𝑠)
𝑠
∆𝑥𝐷 = 2,760 𝑚
For ∆𝑥𝐸
1 1 𝑚
∆𝑥𝐸 = (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡 = (46 + 0) (10 𝑠)
2 2 𝑠
∆𝑥𝐸 = 230 𝑚

Now we’re ready to solve for the total distance,

∆𝑥 = ∆𝑥𝐴 + ∆𝑥𝐵 + ∆𝑥𝐶 + ∆𝑥𝐷 + ∆𝑥𝐸 = 15 𝑚 + 50 𝑚 + 168 𝑚 + 2760 𝑚 + 230 𝑚
Therefore, the total distance traveled by the car is
𝑑 = 3,223 𝑚

(b) Average speed, 𝑆

The car took a total time of 84 s to travel 3,223 m distance, therefore its average speed is
𝑑 3,223 𝑚
𝑆= =
∆𝑡 84 𝑠
𝑆 = 38.4 𝑚/𝑠

(c) Maximum velocity, 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥

Based on our solution in part (a), the car has reached a maximum velocity of
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 46.0 𝑚/𝑠

(d) 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph

The area under the graph represent the displacement (or total distance) traveled by the car. We see that each
displacement has a shape either a triangle, rectangle or trapezoid and applying the formula of geometric area of these
shapes will give a total area of
1 1 1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (3)(10) + (5)(10) + (6)(10 + 46) + (60)(46) + (10)(46)
2 2 2
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 3,223 𝑚
As expected, this value is the same as our answer in part (a) for the total distance.

28
CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!
Answer the following questions now. Strictly follow the general instructions in exercise no. 1

Exercise no. 5
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

The velocity-time graph, shown in figure below, of a robotic rover is being plotted in the laboratory as it moves
along a straight path for a period of 30 s. (a) In what time intervals the robot is accelerating and decelerating? (b)
Determine the average acceleration in time intervals 10 s to 12 s, 22 s to 24 s, and 28 s to 30 s. (c) In what time
intervals the rover is moving at constant velocity? (d) What is the rover’s average speed and average velocity for
the entire 30-s period? [Hint: Solve for the area above and below the time line. Total distance traveled is equal to
the sum of these two areas while total displacement is also equal to the sum but the area below the time line should
be a negative value.]

(Begin your solution here)

29
1.3 FREE-FALLING BODIES

1.3.1 Free Fall

In previous section, we have solved several problems involving uniformly accelerated motion along x-axis. In this
section we will be discussing about free fall that also employs motion with constant acceleration along y-axis.
Free fall is a type of motion with constant
acceleration due to the influence of the earth’s gravitational
attraction. This gravitational attraction (or gravity) is exerted
on all bodies and this attraction is nearly pointing to the earth’s
center. Some examples of free fall are throwing a ball straight
up on the air and a diver jump from a diving board.
In the 4th century BC, Aristotle (384-322BC), a Greek philosopher, thought that a given body fall faster that lighter
ones. This was accepted as fact until the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) conducted his
experiment with two objects of the same material but different weights dropped from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. His
experiment concluded that all bodies initially having the same height would fall to the earth’s surface at the same time.

Although the result of Galileo’s experiment on falling bodies is accepted, influences besides gravitation are
unavoidable. Air resistance in the earth’s atmosphere, distance of the falling object from the earth and the earth’s rotation
are the three major things that affects falling body (see figures below). Therefore, he pointed three assumptions to make his
experiment valid:
1. Air resistance is neglected
2. The effect of earth’s rotation can be neglected.
3. The height of fall is very less than the earth’s radius

30
1.3.2 Kinematics of Free Fall

In small region near the earth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity 𝑔 is uniform in both direction and magnitude
and is equal to:
𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 (in SI unit system)
𝒈 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝟐 (in English unit system)
However, if we take a look on larger and farther regions, the magnitude decreases with increasing elevation.

A free fall may be in two scenarios: falling and rising. The magnitude of the velocity of a falling body is increasing by
9.8 m/s for every second. It means that when you release an object from rest, the magnitude of its velocity becomes 9.8 𝑚/𝑠
1 second later, 19.6 m/s 2 seconds later, and so on. In terms of the magnitude of vertical displacement, we see that it is
increasing in each second. On the other hand, a rising body is decelerating at the constant rate of 9.8 m/s for every second
and the magnitude of its vertical displacement is decreasing in each second until such time the body reaches the maximum
height of flight wherein its velocity momentarily dropped to zero (see figure below).

31
 To analyze free fall in more detail, we can use the established equations from our discussions in uniformly
accelerated motion:
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )𝑡
2
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 )
From these equation, we simply change the horizontal position 𝑥 to y-position 𝑦 and acceleration 𝑎 to the negative of
gravitational acceleration −𝑔) in order to arrive general equations for free fall as follows:
① 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 − 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
② 𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝒊 = (𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 )𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
③ 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
④ 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
⑤ 𝒗𝒇 𝟐 = 𝒗𝒊 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈(𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝒊 )

Aside from the understanding free fall equations, keep in mind the
following important points:
1. The initial velocity 𝑣𝑖 = 0 if the body is initially at rest and drops freely.
2. The final velocity 𝑣𝑓 = 0 if the body has reached the maximum height of
flight during rising.

32
 3. When a body is thrown vertically upward, it will reach the maximum
height at a time equal to the time it took from the maximum height to its
original position.

EXAMPLE – FREE FALLING BODIES

PROBLEM NO. 11
You throw a ball vertically upward from the roof of a tall building. The ball leaves your hand at a point even with the roof
railing with an upward speed of 15.0 m/s; the ball is in free fall. On its way back down, it just misses the railing. At the location
of the building, g = 9.80 m/s2. Find (a) the position and velocity of the ball 1.0 s and 4.0 s after leaving your hand; (b) the
velocity when the ball is 5.0 m above the railing; (c) the maximum height reached and the time at which it is reached.
Given:
𝑣𝑖 = +15.0 𝑚/𝑠
𝑔 = 9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑦𝑖 = 0
𝑡 = 1.0 𝑠
𝑡 = 4.0 𝑠
Required:
(a) 𝑦𝑓 and 𝑣𝑓 at 1.0 s and 4.0 s
(b) 𝑣𝑓 when 𝑦𝑓 = 5.0 𝑚
(c) Maximum height, 𝑦𝑓 and time 𝑡 when 𝑣𝑓 = 0
Solution:
(a) 𝑦𝑓 and 𝑣𝑓 at 1.0 s and 4.0 s

We use equations ① and ③ for 𝑣𝑓 and 𝑦𝑓 , respectively.

At 1.0 s
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
𝑦𝑓 = 0 + (+15.0 𝑚/𝑠)(1.0 𝑠) − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(1.0 𝑠)2
2
𝑦𝑓 = +10.1 𝑚 (Positive value means that the ball is located above the railing 1.0 s after throwing the
ball.)
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = +15.0 𝑚/𝑠 − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(1.0 𝑠)
𝑣𝑓 = +5.2 𝑚/𝑠 (Positive velocity indicates that at time 1.0 s the ball is still moving upward.)

At 4.0 s
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
𝑦𝑓 = 0 + (+15.0 𝑚/𝑠)(4.0 𝑠) − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(4.0 𝑠)2
2
𝑦𝑓 = −18.4 𝑚 (Negative value means that the ball is located below the railing 4.0 s after throwing the
ball.)
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = +15.0 𝑚/𝑠 − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(4.0 𝑠)
𝑣𝑓 = −24.2 𝑚/𝑠 (Negative velocity indicates that at time 4.0 s the ball is falling.)

33
(b) 𝑣𝑓 when 𝑦𝑓 = +5.0 𝑚

We use equation ⑤
𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 − 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 )

𝑣𝑓 = √𝑣𝑖 2 − 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 ) = √(+15.0 𝑚/𝑠)2 − 2(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(5.0 𝑚)

𝑣𝑓 = ±11.3 𝑚/𝑠

We have two answers,±, because the ball we reach the 5.0 m above the railing. One is when the ball is still rising (+11.3
m/s) and the other is when the ball is falling (– 11.3 m/s) (see figure below).

(c) Maximum height, 𝑦𝑓 and time 𝑡 when 𝑣𝑓 = 0

We use equations ⑤ and ① for 𝑦𝑓 and 𝑡, respectively.

From 𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 − 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 ), solve for 𝑦𝑓
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2 0 − (+15.0 𝑚/𝑠)2
𝑦𝑓 = =
−2𝑔 −2(9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝑦𝑓 = 11.5 𝑚

From 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡, solve for 𝑡

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 0 − 15.0 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡= =
−𝑔 −9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 = 1.53 𝑠

34
PROBLEM NO. 12
A hot-air balloonist, rising vertically with a constant velocity of magnitude 5.0 m/s, releases a sandbag at an instant when the
balloon is 40.0 m above the ground. After it is released, the sandbag is in free fall. (a) Compute the position and velocity of
the sandbag at 0.500 s and 2.0 s after its release. (b) How many second after its release will the bag strike the ground? (c)
With what magnitude of velocity does it strike? (d) What is the greatest height above the ground that the sandbag reaches?
Given:
𝑣𝑖 = 5.0 𝑚/𝑠
𝑦𝑖 = 40.0 𝑚
𝑡 = 0.5 𝑠
𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠
Required:
(a) 𝑦𝑓 & 𝑣𝑓 𝑎𝑡 0.5 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.0 𝑠
(b) Time 𝑡 to reached the ground (𝑦𝑓 = 0)
(c) 𝑣𝑓 at the ground (𝑦𝑓 = 0)
(d) 𝑦𝑓 if 𝑣𝑓 = 0
Solution:
(a) 𝑦𝑓 & 𝑣𝑓 𝑎𝑡 0.5 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.0 𝑠

Before we proceed, take note that we do not set the

initial position to zero because we choose the ground
(which is fixed) as origin o, therefore it is more
appropriate to set 𝑦𝑖 = 40.0 𝑚.

We use equations ① and ③ for 𝑦𝑓 and 𝑣𝑓 , respectively.

At 0.5 s
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
𝑦𝑓 = 40.0 𝑚 + (5.0 𝑚/𝑠)(0.5 𝑠) − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(0.5 𝑠)2
2
𝑦𝑓 = 41.275 𝑚 (above the ground)
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = 5.0 𝑚/𝑠 − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(0.5 𝑠)
𝑣𝑓 = 0.1 𝑚/𝑠 (Positive velocity indicates that at time 0.5 s, the sandbag is still rising)

At 2.0 s
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
𝑦𝑓 = 40.0 𝑚 + (5.0 𝑚/𝑠)(2.0 𝑠) − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(2.0 𝑠)2
2
𝑦𝑓 = 30.4 𝑚 (above the ground)
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = 5.0 𝑚/𝑠 − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(2.0 𝑠)
𝑣𝑓 = −14.6 𝑚/𝑠 (Negative velocity indicates that at time 2.0 s the sandbag is already falling.)

You can see figure below to visualize this answers.

(b) Time 𝑡 to reached the ground (𝑦𝑓 = 0)
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
0 = 40.0 𝑚 + (5.0 𝑚/𝑠) 𝑡 − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 ) 𝑡 2
2
4.9𝑡 2 − 5.0𝑡 − 40.0 = 0

35
 −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −(−5.0) ± √(−5.0)2 − 4(4.9)(−40.0)
𝑡= = , (𝑢𝑠𝑒+)
2𝑎 2(4.9)
𝑡 = 3.41 𝑠

(c) 𝑣𝑓 at the ground (𝑦𝑓 = 0)

𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 − 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 )
𝑣𝑓 = √(5.0 𝑚/𝑠)2 − 2(9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(0 − 40.0)
𝑣𝑓 = −28.4 𝑚/𝑠

(d) 𝑦𝑓 if 𝑣𝑓 = 0

𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 − 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 )
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2 0 − (5.0 𝑚/𝑠)2
𝑦𝑓 = + 𝑦𝑖 = + 40.0 𝑚
−2𝑔 −2(9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝑦𝑓 = 41.28 𝑚 (maximum height from the
ground reached by the sandbag)

CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!

Answer the following questions now. Strictly follow the general instructions in exercise no. 1
Exercise no. 6
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

1. A ball is dropped freely from the top of a building. It is found that the ball hits the ground after 6 s. (a) How tall is
the building? (b) What is the ball’s velocity as it strikes the ground? (c) If the ball is thrown vertically downward at
10 m/s from the top of this building, how long does it take to reach the ground and what is the ball’s velocity at
the ground?
2. Answer part (c) of the previous problem except that the ball is thrown vertically upward at 10 m/s.
3. Merlinda throws a ball vertically upward giving it a velocity of 5 m/s. (a) How high does the ball go? (b) How long
will it take for the ball to reach the maximum height of flight? (c) What is the ball’s velocity as it returns to the
thrower’s hand? (d) What is the total time of flight?

(Begin your solution here)

36
1.4 PROJECTILE MOTION

1.4.1 Projectile

Projectile is a body that is given an initial velocity and then follows a path determined entirely by the effects of
gravitational acceleration and air resistance. It is a combination of horizontal and vertical motions. In our discussion, we will
consider the following assumptions:
1. The projectile moves vertically with constant
acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m/s 2).
2. The projectile moves horizontally at constant
velocity when the effects of air resistance is
negligible.
With these two assumptions, basically a projectile
is a two-dimensional free fall which has a trajectory (a path
of a projectile) of parabola.
Depending on the direction of the initial
velocity 𝜃𝑖 , a projectile may be in different types as
shown in figure.

1.4.2 Kinematic Equations for Projectile Motion

Since projectile motion is a two-dimensional type of motion, it is convenient to analyze separately its kinematic
quantities in terms of horizontal and vertical components. The position of a projectile, as a function of time 𝑡 is described by
its x- & y-coordinates (𝑥𝑓 , 𝑦𝑓 ). The initial velocity 𝑣𝑖 should be resolved into components 𝑣𝑖𝑥 and 𝑣𝑖𝑦 using the initial angle of
flight 𝜃𝑖 . This is usually the preliminary step in order to solve other quantities such as the position and the final velocity 𝑣𝑓 of
a projectile at any later time 𝑡.
∆𝑥
Keep in mind that a projectile moves horizontally at constant velocity, hence the equation (𝑣 = ) is valid while it
∆𝑡
moves vertically with constant acceleration, therefore free fall equations can be used. These equations are summarized
below.

37
x- & y-components of initial velocity 𝑣𝑖
𝒗𝒊𝒙 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊
𝒗𝒊𝒚 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒊 (𝒗𝒊𝒚 = 𝟎, for type II projectile)

The position of a projectile can be described by its coordinates 𝑥𝑓 and 𝑦𝑓 at later time 𝑡
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒊 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒊 𝒕 (horizontal position)
𝟏
𝒚𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊𝒚 𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐 (vertical position)
𝟐
𝟏
𝒚𝒇 = (𝒗𝒊𝒚 + 𝒗𝒇𝒚 )𝒕 (vertical position)
𝟐

x- & y-components of final velocity 𝑣𝑓

𝒗𝒇𝒙 = 𝒗𝒊𝒙 = 𝒗𝒇 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒇
𝒗𝒇𝒚 = 𝒗𝒊𝒚 − 𝒈𝒕 (𝒗𝒇𝒚 = 𝟎, at maximum height 𝒉 for type I projectile)
𝒗𝒇𝒚 = 𝒗𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒇
𝒗𝒇𝒚 𝟐 = 𝒗𝒊𝒚 𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒚𝒇

The magnitude and direction of initial velocity 𝑣𝑖 and final velocity 𝑣𝑓 can be computed as follows:
𝒗𝒊 = √𝒗𝒊𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒗𝒊𝒚 𝟐 (magnitude of 𝒗𝒊 )
𝒗𝒇𝒚
𝜽𝒊 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( ) (direction of 𝒗𝒊 )
𝒗𝒊𝒙

𝒗𝒇 = √𝒗𝒇𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒗𝒇𝒚 𝟐 (magnitude of 𝒗𝒇 )

𝒗𝒇𝒚
𝜽𝒇 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( ) (direction of 𝒗𝒇 )
𝒗𝒇𝒙

For type I projectile, we can measure its range 𝑅 and maximum height ℎ using the following derived formulas

𝒗𝒊 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝜽𝒊 )
𝑹=
𝒈
𝟐
𝒗𝒊 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽𝒊 (𝒗𝒊𝒚 )
𝒉= =
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

We see that range 𝑅 of a type I projectile is a function

of the sine of initial angle 2𝜃𝑖 . The figure shows a projectile fired
at different angle. It shows that a projectile launched at 45° gives
the maximum range. We see that the ranges are the same for
15° and 75°, and 60° and 30°.

EXAMPLE – PROJECTILE MOTION

PROBLEM NO. 13
A motorcycle stunt rider rides off the edge of a cliff. Just at the edge his velocity is horizontal, with magnitude 9.00 m/s. Find
the motorcyclist’s (a) position and (b) velocity after 0.50 s.
Given:
𝑣𝑖 = 9.00 𝑚/𝑠
𝜃𝑖 = 0°
𝑡 = 0.50 𝑠
Required:
(a) Horizontal and vertical positions, 𝑥𝑓 and 𝑦𝑓
(b) Magnitude and direction of final velocity, 𝑣𝑓 and 𝜃𝑓
Solution:
(a) Horizontal and vertical positions, 𝑥𝑓 and 𝑦𝑓

38
 Our preliminary solution is to find the x- & y-components of 𝑣𝑖 . Since this is a type II projectile, therefore
𝑣𝑖𝑥 = 9.00 m/s
𝑣𝑖𝑦 = 0

Solving for 𝑥𝑓 and 𝑦𝑓 at time 0.50 s gives,

𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖𝑥 𝑡 = (9.00 𝑚/𝑠)(0.50 𝑠)
𝑥𝑓 = 4.50 𝑚

1 1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 = − (9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(0.50 𝑠)2
2 2
𝑦𝑓 = −1.23 𝑚 (negative indicates that the rider is located below the edge of the cliff at 0.5 s)

(b) Magnitude and direction of final velocity, 𝑣𝑓 and 𝜃𝑓

Solving for the x- & y-components of 𝑣𝑓

𝑣𝑓𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑥 = 9.00 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚
𝑣𝑓𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 = − (9.8 2 ) (0.5 𝑠) = −4.90 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠

Solving for the 𝑣𝑓 and 𝜃𝑓

𝑣𝑓 = √𝑣𝑓𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑓𝑦 2 = √(9.00 m/s)2 + (−4.90 m/s)2 = 10.25 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑓𝑦 −4.9 𝑚/𝑠
𝜃𝑓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = −28.57°
𝑣𝑓𝑥 9.00 m/s
𝑚
Hence, 𝑣𝑓 = 10.25 , 28.57° 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 + 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑠

CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!

Answer the following questions now. Strictly follow the general instructions in exercise no. 1

Exercise no. 7
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat with an initial velocity of 37.0 m/s at an initial angle 53.1°. Ignoring air
resistance, (a) Find the position of the ball, and its velocity after 2.0 sec; (b) Find the time when the ball reaches the
highest point of flight, and find its height; (c) Find the horizontal range, that is, the horizontal distance from the starting
point to the point at which the ball hits the ground.

(Begin your solution here)

39
1.5 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

1.5.1 Uniform Circular Motion

Another two-dimensional motion that we are going to consider is uniform circular motion. A car moving of circular
track with constant radius at constant speed, a communicating satellite orbiting the earth and a skater in a circle with constant
speed are some examples of this type of motion.
Uniform Circular Motion is a type of motion when a body moves in circular path with constant speed 𝒗, that is the
magnitude of the velocity is not changing. However, in order for a body to turn around the circular path the direction of this
velocity is continuously changing. This change in direction corresponds to acceleration called centripetal acceleration 𝒂𝒄 that
compels the body from straight line motion into circular motion. In next section, we will discuss the kinematic quantities and
equations for this type of motion.

1.5.2 Kinematic Quantities and Equations of Uniform Circular Motion

Linear speed (or tangential speed), 𝒗 is the distance

travelled by the body in one revolution along the circular path
in a given period of time T. This is also the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity of the body provided that the motion
remains uniform. For this reason, we use the letter 𝑣 instead of
𝑆 for the linear speed.
The distance travelled by an object to complete one
revolution along a circular path with radius 𝑅 is equal to the
circumference of that circle, 2𝜋𝑅 and the time it takes to make
one revolution is called the period 𝑇, hence linear speed 𝑣 is
expressed as:

𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝒗=
𝑻

Where:
𝑟 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑚)
𝑇 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑠)
𝑣 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚/𝑠)

Centripetal acceleration (or radial acceleration) 𝒂𝒄 is the instantaneous acceleration that compels a body to move
around a circular path. The word “centripetal” means “seeking the center”. Therefore, the direction of centripetal
acceleration is always towards the center of rotation.
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 =
𝒓
2𝜋𝑟
If we substitute to 𝑣, then
𝑇
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒓
𝒂𝒄 =
𝑻𝟐

Where:
𝑎𝑐 − 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚/𝑠 2 )

40
EXAMPLE – UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
PROBLEM NO. 14
In a carnival ride, the passengers travel at constant speed in a circular path of radius 5.0 m. They make one complete
revolution in 4.0 s. (a) What is the linear speed of this ride? (b) What is their acceleration?

Given:
𝑟 = 5.0 𝑚
𝑇 = 4.0 𝑠
Required:
(a) Linear speed, 𝑣
(b) Centripetal acceleration, 𝑎𝑐
Solution:
(a) Linear speed, 𝑣
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋(5.0 𝑚)
𝑣= =
𝑇 4.0 𝑠
𝑣 = 7.85 𝑚/𝑠
(b) Centripetal acceleration, 𝑎𝑐
4𝜋 2 𝑟 4𝜋 2 (5.0 𝑚)
𝑎𝑐 = 2 =
𝑇 (4.0 𝑠)2
2
𝑎𝑐 = 12.3 𝑚/𝑠
Maybe you are thinking what causes dizziness when you are on any carnival ride. One easy way is to
compare the centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐 to value of gravitational acceleration (𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 ). Since our answer (12.3 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
is greater than 𝑔, therefore we can presume that this ride is a dizzy one!

CHECK WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED!

Answer the following questions now. Strictly follow the general instructions in exercise no. 1
Exercise no. 8
Course/Year/Section: ______________ Seat no. ___ Date submitted: __________ Due date: _________
Name: ______________________________________ Teacher: __________________________________

A Ferris wheel with radius 14.0 m is turning about a horizontal axis through its center. The linear speed of a passenger
on the rim is constant and equal to 8.0 m/s. (a) What is the passenger’s centripetal acceleration? (b) How much time
does it take to make ten complete revolutions?

(Begin your solution here)

FURTHER READINGS/EXPLORATION
Related PhET Simulations

UNIT TASK
• Problem Set no. 1
• Quiz no. 1
41
REFERENCES

• Serway and Vuille (2012), College Physics, 9th Edition, Cengage Learning
• Serway and Jewett (2014), Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 9th Edition, Brooks/ Cole Cengage Learning
• Microsoft Student with Encarta Premium 2009 DVD
• PhET Simulations

Photo/image credits:
• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleanpng.com%2Fpng-clip-art-momentum-linear-motion-illustration-7110342%2F&psig=AOvVaw3aQjK-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dreamstime.com%2Fman-driving-blue-car-side-view-vector-illustration-white-background-man-driving-blue-car-side-view-
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• George Lepp/Corbis. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fgfycat.com%2Fdapperspectacularbadger&psig=AOvVaw0j2gkNZYX29qqG4Cc9_DBL&ust=1588860499579000&source=images&cd=vfe
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.southernwings.co.nz%2Fthe-effects-of-wind-on-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F54-earth-history-composition-and-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleanpng.com%2Fpng-car-door-car-seat-top-view-motor-vehicle-red-car-t-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fzh-min-nan.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGalileo_Galilei&psig=AOvVaw0-
ilYwMpadLEX8G9aqVz6m&ust=1588863308957000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCNic656_n-kCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sussexvt.k12.de.us%2Fscience%2FThe%2520History%2520of%2520the%2520World%25201500-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dreamstime.com%2Fillustration%2Fmotorcycle-top-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fgiphy.com%2Fexplore%2Fdiving&psig=AOvVaw0wleOFa671RigU5zuRiLeo&ust=1589404992305000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0C
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dreamstime.com%2Fstock-photos-tennis-ball-throw-up-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidecampdavid.com%2Fessays%2Feven-leaders-drop-the-ball-once-in-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.alamy.com%2Foffice-building-cartoon-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brainkart.com%2Farticle%2FProjectile-
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vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCLCgj6qlr-kCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vectorstock.com%2Froyalty-free-vector%2Fblack-motorcycle-racing-side-view-graphic-vector-
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• https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clipart.email%2Fclipart%2Fstudent-walking-clipart-
152468.html&psig=AOvVaw2S47a0uzz44NqZZMNrXHN2&ust=1588769779740000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCID8rPvinOkCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

42
Problem Set no. 1 KINEMATICS

Name: _____________________________________________ Seat no.: _____ Score: __________/

Course/Year/Sec: _____________Sem. /S.Y.: ___________ Instructor: _______________________________
Date Started: _________________ Date Finished: _________________Date Submitted: _________________

Directions
1. Write the solution to each question on separate short bond paper. Follow the format as explained by
your teacher.
2. Summarize all your answers on the “Summary of Answers” section provided.

Summary of Answers

1. ___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________________________________________
9. ___________________________________________________________________________
10. ___________________________________________________________________________
11. ___________________________________________________________________________
12. ___________________________________________________________________________
13. ___________________________________________________________________________
14. ___________________________________________________________________________
15. ___________________________________________________________________________
16. ___________________________________________________________________________
17. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________
Signature/ Date

43
Problems
1. The position versus time for a certain particle moving along the x axis is shown in the figure below.
Find the average velocity in the time intervals (a) 0 to 2 s, (b) 0 to 4 s, (c) 2 s to 4 s, (d) 4 s to 7 s, and
(e) 0 to 8 s.

2. A person walks first at a constant speed of 5.00 m/s along a straight line from point A to point B and
then back along the line from B to A at a constant speed of 3.00 m/s. (a) What is her average speed
over the entire trip? (b) What is her average velocity over the entire trip?
3. The North American and European plates of the Earth’s crust are drifting apart with a relative speed
of about 25 mm/yr. Take the speed as constant and find when the rift between them started to open
to reach a current width of 2.9 x 103 mi.
4. A 50.0-g Super Ball traveling at 25.0 m/s bounces off a brick wall and rebounds at 22.0 m/s. A high-
speed camera records this event. If the ball is in contact with the wall for 3.50 ms, what is the
magnitude of the average acceleration of the ball during this time interval?
5. The figure below shows a graph of v versus t for the motion of a motorcyclist as he starts from rest
and moves along the road in a straight line (a) Find the average acceleration for the time interval 0 s
to 6.00 s. (b) Estimate the time at which the acceleration has its greatest positive value and the value
of the acceleration at that instant. (c) When is the acceleration zero? (d) Estimate the maximum
negative value of the acceleration and the time at which it occurs.

6. An object is at x = 0 at t = 0 and moves along the x axis according to the velocity-time graph in the
figure below. (a) What is the object’s acceleration between 0 and 4.0 s? (b) What is the object’s
acceleration between 4.0 s and 9.0 s? (c) What is the object’s acceleration between 13.0 s and 18.0
s? (d) At what time (s) is the object moving with the lowest speed? (e) At what time is the object
farthest from x = 0? (f) What is the final position x of the object at t = 18.0 s? (g) Through what total
distance has the object moved between t = 0 and t = 18.0 s?

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7. A truck covers 40.0 m in 8.50 s while smoothly slowing down to a final speed of 2.80 m/s. (a) Find its
original speed. (b) Find its acceleration.
8. A hockey player is standing on his skates on a frozen pond when an opposing player, moving with
uniform speed of 12.0 m/s, skates by with the puck. After 3.00s, the first player makes up his mind
to chase his opponent. If he accelerates uniformly at 4.00 m/s2, (a) how long does it take him to
catch his opponent and (b) how far has he traveled in that time? (Assume the player with the puck
remains in motions at constant speed.)
9. A certain automobile manufacturer claims that its deluxe sports car will accelerate from rest to a
speed of 42.0 m/s in 8.00 s. (a) Determine the average acceleration of the car. (b) Assume that the
car moves with constant acceleration. Find the distance the car travels in the first 8.00 s. (c) What is
the speed of the car 10.0 s after it begins its motion if it can continue to move with the same
acceleration?
10. An attacker at the base of a castle wall 3.65 m high throws a rock straight up with speed 7.40 m/s
from a height of 1.55 m above the ground. (a) Will the rock reach the top of the wall? (b) If so, what
is its speed at the top? If not, what initial speed must it have to reach the top? (3 points).
11. A baseball is hit so that it travels straight upward after being struck by the bat. A fan observes that it
takes 3.00 s for the ball to reach its maximum height. Find (a) the ball’s initial velocity and (b) the
height it reaches.
12. A student throws a set of keys vertically upward to her sister, who is in a window 4.00 m above. The
second student catches the keys 1.50 s later. (a) With what initial velocity were the keys thrown? (b)
What was the velocity of the keys just before caught?
13. A puma is the best jumper among animals. It can jump to a height of 12.0 ft when leaving the ground
at an angle of 45.0°. With what speed, in m/s, does it leave the ground to make this leap?
14. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to three times its maximum
height. What is the angle of projection?
15. Clark stands on a roof of a 45-m-tall building as shown in the figure below and throws a rock with a
velocity of magnitude 20.0 m/s at an angle of 30.0° above the horizontal. You can ignore air
resistance. Calculate (a) the maximum height above the roof reached by the rock; (b) the magnitude
of the velocity of the rock just before it strikes the ground; and (c) the distance from the base of the
building to the point where the rock strikes the ground.

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16. The athlete shown in the figure below rotates a 1.00 kg discus along a circular path of radius 1.06 m.
The maximum speed of the discus is 20.0 m/s. Determine the magnitude of the radial acceleration.

17. The earth has a radius of 6380 km and turns around once on its axis in 24 hours. (a) What is the
centripetal acceleration of an object at the earth’s equator? Give your answer in m/s2 and as a
fraction of g. (b) If the centripetal acceleration of at the equator is greater than g, objects would fly
off the earth’s surface and into space. What would the period of the earth’s rotation to start this fly
off?

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