Unit- IV: Environment and Society (Introductory)

a. Inter Relationship Between Society and Environment: Nature - Man - Spirit Complex
b. Culture as Adaptive Screen
c. Community Participation and Environment Management
d. Environmental Movements - Forest based, Water based, and Land based Movements
e. Indigenous Knowledge and Conservation

Background
The word environment is derived from the French word environer which means to encircle or
surround. Thus, our environment can be defined as the physical, chemical and biological world
that surround as well as the complex of social and cultural affecting an individual or
community. This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment
as well as the cultural and social context that shape human lives. It includes all factors living
and non-living that affect an individual organism or population at any point in the life cycle.
Set of circumstances surrounding a particular occurrence and all the things that surround us.
Having said this, it is important to know that the earth has only a certain amount of air, water,
soil, raw materials and minerals that is the natural resources. But these resources are being
recklessly exploited, consumed or wasted. It is feared that many of these non-renewable
resources will be exhausted soon. It is impossible to replace or recreate fuels like coal, gas and
oil. We as superior beings, exploit, alter, destroy and pollute the environment around us.
However, we as a rational and social creature we need to also realize the importance of
environment and hence make efforts for its conservation or protection in order to ensure for
ourselves a healthy and comfortable living. Thus, every 22nd April marks Earth Day, a global
environmental movement that aims to teach people how to respect the planet and mobilise
against the forces which affect it. The World Environment Day was also observed on 5th June,
which aims at raising awareness and generating political momentum around growing
environmental concerns. It was first established in 1972 by the United Nations General
Assembly, the day highlights issues such as the depletion of the ozone layer, the danger of toxic
chemicals, and global warming.

Environment can be defined as the sum total of materials and forces surrounding the living
organism. Gisbert defined environment as anything immediately surrounding an object and
exerting a direct influence on it. It is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given

1
point at space and time. Thus, environment is comprised of the interacting systems of physical,
biological and cultural elements and these are interlinked individually and collectively in
various ways.

As per the Oxford Dictionary, ‘Environment’ literally means surroundings/ surrounding

objects/ conditions/ circumstances of life of person or society. The word ‘environment’ may
be defined to include everything external to man/ organism. It covers the region, surroundings
or circumstances in which anything exists.

Park (1980) has defined the ‘environment’ as the sum total of conditions which surrounds a
man at a given point in space and time.

Environment regulates the life of the organisms including human beings. Man being the most
intelligent creature, interacts with the environment more vigorously than does any other
organism. There is no end to human needs. With the growth of human civilization, there has
been an exponential increase in the demands for materials. As a result, man has started
exploiting nature mercilessly to meet the demands of his comfort and to feed the mouths of
increased population. Though deterioration of environmental condition is brought about by
extreme events like natural catastrophes and calamities, man-made hazards, physical pollution
and social pollution, man has a major role in it.

Environmental Sociology
Environmental studies are essentially a multidisciplinary approach and its components include
biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health sciences, anthropology,
economics, statistics and philosophy. Environmental science is an interdisciplinary subject
which deals with each and every aspect of life i.e. related with us. It requires the knowledge of
various other subjects like biology, chemistry, physics, statistics, micro-biology, bio-
chemistry, geology, economics, law, sociology etc. Thus, environmental studies are
fundamentally an interdisciplinary area of studies and integrates perspectives from multiple
disciplines.

According to Hannigan (2006), the term ‘Environmental Sociology’ was first used by Samuel
Klausner in his 1971 book On Man and his Environment. The growth of environmental and
energy problems in the Western world in the1960s, after decades of industrial growth, signalled

2
the rise of ‘environmentalism’ as a social movement. The publication of Rachel Carson’s
famous book Silent Spring in 1962. The book laid out in detail the deadly effects of chemical
pesticides like DDT commonly used in the USA, on the environment, and on human health. It
received an overwhelming public response and popularised environmentalism and the
environmental movement.

Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the
1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex
environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific
environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for
action in addressing environmental problems. It is a relatively new field of study which has
evolved from integrated use of many disciplines. It creates awareness and understanding of
environmental concepts which may be scientific, social and ecological systems thereby
providing a platform for solution to various environmental problems.

Environmental sociology has also been established in Asia since the early 1990s in Japan and
Korea. One of the first environmental researchers in Japan was Nobuko Iijima who wrote her
Master’s thesis on the impact of Minimata disease on the local community. In 1992, she helped
found the Japanese Association for Environmental Sociology (JAES) and served as its first
president. By 1999, the JAES had over 450 members and its own publication, the Journal of
Environmental Sociology (Kankyo Shakaigaku Kenkyu). In Korea, environmental sociology
began to be taught from the early 1990s. Following a 1993 international conference held under
the title ‘Environment and Development’, the Research Group for Environmental Sociology
was established in 1995. This led to the founding of the Korean Association for Environmental
Sociology in June 2000. In October 2001, at the Kyoto Environmental Sociology Conference,
a research network, the Asian Pacific Environmental Connection was founded with the brief of
solving societal and environmental problems in the Asia Pacific region.

Sociological interest in the impacts of energy and other resource scarcities accelerated the
emergence of environmental sociology as a distinct area of inquiry by heightening awareness
that the environment was more than just another social problem, and that environmental change
can indeed have societal consequences as well as the obvious fact that human activities can
affect the environment. Studies of the impacts of energy shortages on society facilitated a
transition from the early sociology of environmental issues involving the application of

3
standard sociological perspectives for analyzing societal responses to environmental issues to
a distinctive environmental sociology focused explicitly on societal-environmental relations.
Towards the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, environmental sociology again began
to see a resurgence and reawakening of interest, particularly with the growth of ‘Green’
movements in Europe and sociologists paid particular attention to these movements and to the
idea of ‘environmental justice’. The increasing public and media attention towards
environmental matters such as deforestation, ozone depletion, climate change, global warming
oil spillages in oceans etc. also was noticeable.

In mainstream sociology too, theorists like Anthony Giddens wrote of the impact of
industrialisation, capitalism, and technology on profoundly transforming the world. He
discussed globalisation, urbanism and the ‘end of nature’, as environment created by humans
replace the natural environment. Ulrich Beck’s (1992) concept of the ‘Risk Society’ captures
the state of contemporary societies, in which environmental degradation, industrial accidents
and hazards pose great risk to human life, as compared to pre-industrial societies where natural
risks or disasters occurred and could not be attributed to voluntary decision making. The
characteristic feature of risk societies is environmental degradation and environmental hazards.

Environmental Sociology in India

Writing about the field of environmental sociology in India, Amita Baviskar (2014) highlights
its relationship with the sociology of development. She cites the pioneering works of scholars
such as Radhakamal Mukherjee, Patrick Geddes, J. C. Kumarappa and Verrier Elwin whose
contributions to the field seem to have been side-lined if not forgotten. R. K. Mukherjee in the
1930s tried to develop an ecological approach to sociology and to focus on the interaction
between society, culture and nature. He critiqued human actions like destruction of forests,
artificial interference with natural drainage, and non-conservative agriculture which disturbs
the delicate ecological balance. Patrick Geddes, a professor of sociology and civics in Bombay
University in the 1920s, was an urban planner who helped develop towns like Indore, Lucknow,
Patiala, and Dacca with a strong ecological sensibility. Kumarappa who propagated an
ecologically sensitive village-centred economic system, whose ideas were sidelined. However,
Elwin’s studies on tribal communities and their deep interconnectedness with the environment
continue to capture the imagination of sociologists and anthropologists even today. Even
though these early thinkers had plans for an ecologically sustainable path of development, the
post-independence period saw a path of development which was based upon an emphasis on a

4
model of rapid economic growth. Baviskar explains that a revival in environmental sociology
took place in the 1970s, with the emergence of environmental movements such as Chipko and
Silent Valley. These movements arose in opposition to the development imperative, and
environmental conservation and development came to be viewed in opposition to each other.
Those who propounded development through accelerating economic growth and
industrialization, criticised environmentalists who spoke of preservation of fragile ecosystems
and biodiversity. Environmentalists were accused of blocking the path to development which
would free millions from poverty and misery, and they were blindly following ideas imported
from the west. The concepts of sustainable development and social justice informed these
debates and showed how environmental concerns and development were not contradictory, but
rather two sides of the same coin. Ecology and environment were not the concerns of only the
biological and physical sciences, but also the social sciences. She writes that environmental
sociologists in India have largely produced micro-level studies dealing with development
induced displacement of human populations as well as various social movements that arose in
response to developmental projects such as Chipko, the Narmada Bachao Andolan, Sardar
Sarovar dam, etc. The plight of forest dwellers, indigenous communities, Adivasis etc. attracted
special attention. An extremely important contribution towards understanding environmental
movements in India is that of the historian Ramchandra Guha.

The above brief overview shows how environmental sociology in India is deeply influenced
by the local socio-political realities of the Indian subcontinent. Its early roots in social
ecological theories which emphasise the need to foster the harmony between nature and human
life were lost and neglected in the post-colonial rush for development and poverty alleviation
which were held to be the primary goals of the newly independent nation. However, the
developmental trajectory adopted caused untold damage to the environment and the livelihoods
of those who were most affected by extraction and exploitation of natural resources. The
environmental movements that arose as a response to unsustainable and unequal development
and the struggles of marginalised sections against development induced displacement were apt
subjects for study by environmental sociologists.

Impact of Human Activities on Environment

Man is the most intelligent animal on the surface of the earth. Intelligence and creativity have
led man to discover, to invent, to manipulate, to exploit, to construct and also to destroy things
around him. Civilization and rapid growth of human population have engaged man in various

5
activities both constructive and destructive. But the outcomes of most of the human activities
have contributed significantly to the degradation of the environment around us. Human
activities have given rise to problems like urbanization, deforestation, and increased
consumption of natural resources, production of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, ground water
depletion, production of toxic substances, extinction of wild life, soil erosion as well as
environmental pollution.

The population is growing, and more people means greater demands on the natural resources
and environmental services as well as increasing the amount of waste and pollution that is
generated. These has also been an enormous movement of people to urban areas both form
rural areas and from other countries. This concentrates the pressures on the environment can
lead to problems of sanitation, pollution & crime directly affecting human health and quality
of life. Differences in wealth among the people of India have also pressurized natural resources.
The more affluent people tend to consume more resources and generate more waste on a
commercial & domestic level. For example, wealthier people, tend to use more resources such
as energy & water and commercial agricultural and industrial development transforms natural
habitats and generates wastes & pollution. Poor people exert different environmental pressures,
cultivating unsuitable areas of land, overgrazing the veld and removing large quantities of
wood for fuel. Changes in values and beliefs have also contributed to environmental change in
India. As people move away from rural areas into an urban, often consumerist setting, they lose
the connection with nature and forget the importance of maintaining environmental services
such as water resources.

There are many environmental issues in India. Air pollution, water pollution, garbage, and
pollution of the natural environment are all challenges for India. The situation was worse
between 1947 through 1995. According to data collection and environment assessment studies
of World Bank experts, between 1995 through 2010, India has made one of the fastest progress
in the world, in addressing its environmental issues and improving its environmental quality.
Still, India has a long way to go to reach environmental quality similar to those enjoyed in
developed economies. Pollution remains a major challenge and opportunity for India.
Environmental issues are one of the primary causes of disease, health issues and long-term
livelihood impact for India.

Environmental Issues of Urban Areas

6
A municipality or notified area council (NAC) or corporation or metropolitan city whose
population is more than 400 people/sq.km. is called an urban area. Thus, urban areas are the
places of high population density. The problems of these densely populated urban areas are:
i. Development of slum
ii. High production of solid wastes
iii. Increased consumption of natural resources
iv. Want of open space
vi. Noise pollution
vii. Deforestation
vii. Air pollution
viii. Water scarcity
ix. Traffic and floating population
x. Water-logging and drainage of liquid waste and sewage.

Environmental Problems of Rural Areas:

Rural areas are comparatively less polluted than the urban areas. However, due to ignorance,
illiteracy, superstitions and poverty of rural people, rural areas suffer from many environmental
problems of their own. These are as follows:
i. Salination, desertification and degradation of lands
ii. Utilization of agricultural lands for housing purposes
iii. Improper use of pesticides and agrochemicals
iv. Lack of drainage facilities
v. Poor sanitation and hygiene
*Refer to class notes
Environmental Problems
Our environment is constantly changing and there is no denying in it. However, as our
environment changes, so does the need to become increasingly aware of the problems that
surround it. With a massive influx of natural disasters, warming and cooling periods, different
types of weather patterns and much more, people need to be aware of what types of
environmental problems our planet is facing.

Global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current livelihoods and our planet is
warming up and we are definitely part of the problem. However, this isn’t the only
environmental problem that we should be concerned about. All across the world, people are

7
facing a wealth of new and challenging environmental problems every day. Some of them are
small and only affect a few ecosystems, but others are drastically changing the landscape of
what we already know.

Our planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current environmental
problems make us vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now and in the future. We are in a state
of planetary emergency, with environmental problems piling up high around us. Unless we
address the various issues prudently and seriously, we are surely doomed for disaster. Current
environmental problems require urgent attention.

1.Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to regain. Industry and
motor vehicle exhaust are the number one pollutant. Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are
toxins responsible for pollution. While water pollution is caused by oil spill, acid rain, urban
runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and toxins released by industries and factories
and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by industrial waste that deprives
soil from essential nutrients.
a. Air Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil take a huge number of years to recover.
Industry and engine vehicle fumes are the most toxins. Substantial metals, nitrates and plastic
are poisons in charge of pollution. While water contamination is brought about by oil slicks,
acid rain, and urban sprawl; air contamination is created by different gasses and poisons
discharged by businesses and manufacturing plants and burning of fossil fills; soil
contamination is majorly created by mechanical waste that takes supplements out of the soil.
b. Soil and Land Pollution: Land pollution simply means degradation of earth’s surface as a
result of human activities like mining, littering, deforestation, industrial construction and
agricultural activities. Land pollution can have huge environmental impact in the form of air
pollution and soil pollution which in turn can have adverse effect on human health.
c. Water Pollution: Clean drinking water is becoming a rare commodity. Water is becoming
an economic and political issue as the human population fights for this resource. One of the
options suggested is using the process of desalinization. Industrial development is filling our
rivers seas and oceans with toxic pollutants which are a major threat to human health.
d. Light and Noise Pollution: Noise pollution is another common form of pollution that causes
temporary disruption when there is excessive amount of unpleasant noise. Construction
activities, industrialization, increase in vehicular traffic, lack of urban planning etc. are a few
of the causes of noise pollution.

8
2. Global Warming: Climate changes like global warming is the result of human practices
like emission of Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans
and the earth’ surface causing melting of polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural
patterns of precipitation such as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification.
3. Overpopulation: The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces
shortage of resources like water, fuel and food. Population explosion in less developed and
developing countries is straining the already scarce resources. Intensive agriculture practiced
producing food damages the environment through use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and
insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental problems.
4. Natural Resource Depletion: Natural resource depletion is another crucial current
environmental problem. Fossil fuel consumption results in emission of greenhouse gases,
which is responsible for global warming and climate change. Globally, people are taking efforts
to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas and geothermal energy. The
cost of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these sources has plummeted in the recent
years.
5. Waste Disposal: The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are creating a
global crisis of waste disposal. Developed countries are notorious for producing an excessive
amount of waste or garbage and dumping their waste in the oceans and, less developed
countries. Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast
food, packaging and cheap electronic wastes threaten the well-being of humans. Waste disposal
is one of urgent current environmental problem.
6. Climate Change: Climate change is yet another environmental problem that has surfaced
in last couple of decades. It occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase
in temperature of atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by
industries. Climate change has various harmful effects but not limited to melting of polar ice,
change in seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of floods and change in
overall weather scenario.
7. Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats and
loss of bio-diversity. Eco systems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger when
any species population is decimating. Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial to
the survival of the eco-system and human activity threatens the same. Another example is the
destruction of coral reefs in the various oceans, which support the rich marine life.

9
8. Deforestation: Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and produce fresh oxygen as
well as helps in regulating temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of the land
but every year tree cover is lost amounting to the country of Panama due to growing population
demand for more food, shelter and cloth. Deforestation simply means clearing of green cover
and make that land available for residential, industrial or commercial purpose.
9. Ocean Acidification: It is a direct impact of excessive production of CO2. 25% of CO2
produced by humans. The ocean acidity has increased by the last 250 years but by 2100, it may
shoot up by 150%. The main impact is on shellfish and plankton in the same way as human
osteoporosis.
10. Ozone Layer Depletion: The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the
planet that protects us from the sun’s harmful rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the
atmosphere is attributed to pollution caused by Chlorine and Bromide found in Chloro-floro
carbons (CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the
ozone layer, the biggest of which is above the Antarctic. The CFC’s are banned in many
industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is valuable because it prevents harmful UV
radiation from reaching the earth. This is one of the most important current environmental
problems.
11. Acid Rain: Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in the atmosphere.
Acid rain can be caused due to combustion of fossil fuels or erupting volcanoes or rotting
vegetation which release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Acid rain is a
known environmental problem that can have serious effect on human health, wildlife and
aquatic species.
12. Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high density urban
areas to low density rural areas which results in spreading of city over more and more rural
land. Urban sprawl results in land degradation, increased traffic, environmental issues, and
health issues. The ever-growing demand of land displaces natural environment consisting of
flora and fauna instead of being replaced.
13. Public Health Issues: The current environmental problems pose a lot of risk to health of
humans, and animals. Dirty water is the biggest health risk of the world and poses threat to the
quality of life and public health. Run-off to rivers carries along toxins, chemicals and disease
carrying organisms. Pollutants cause respiratory disease like asthma and cardiac-vascular
problems. High temperatures encourage the spread of infectious diseases like dengue.
14. Increased Carbon Footprint: Temperature increases, like climate change, are the
consequence of human practices, including the use of greenhouse gasses. When the atmosphere

10
changes and the heat increases, it can cause a number of problems and start to destroy the world
we live in.
15. Effect on Marine Life: The amount of carbon in the water and the atmosphere is
continuing to be a problem in the world around us. The primary effect is on shellfish and
microscopic fish, and it has similar effects to osteoporosis in humans.
16. Mining: Mining results in extraction of minerals from earth’s core. These minerals also
bring out harmful chemicals from deep inside the earth to the earth’s surface. The toxic
emissions from mining can cause air, water and soil pollution.
17. Natural Disasters: Natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, cyclones, volcanic
eruption can be unpredictable, devastating and can cause irreparable damage. They can cause
huge loss of life and property.
18. Nuclear Issues: Radioactive waste is a nuclear fuel that contains radioactive substance and
is a by-product of nuclear power generation. The radioactive waste is an environmental concern
that is extremely toxic and can have devastating effect on the lives of the people living nearby,
if not disposed properly. Radioactive waste is considered to be harmful for humans, plants,
animals and surrounding environment.
19. Loss of Endangered Species: Human overpopulation is prompting the elimination of
species and environmental surroundings and the loss of various biomes. Environmental
frameworks, which took a huge number of years to come into being, are in risk when any
species populace is huge.
20. Agricultural Pollution: Modern day agriculture practices make use of chemical products
like pesticides and fertilizers to deal with local pests. Some of the chemicals when sprayed do
not disappear and seeps into the ground and thereby harms plants and crops. Also,
contaminated water is used for irrigation by farmers due to disposal of industrial and
agricultural waste in local water bodies.
21. Medical Waste: Medical waste is any kind of waste that is produced in large quantity by
healthcare centers like hospitals, nursing homes, dental clinics and is considered to be of a bio-
hazardous nature. The waste can include needles, syringes, gloves, tubes, blades, blood, body
parts and many more.
22. Littering and Landfills: Littering simply means disposal of piece of garbage or debris
improperly or at wrong location usually on the ground instead of disposing them at trash
container or recycling bin. Littering can cause huge environmental and economic impact in the
form of spending millions of dollars to clean the garbage of road that pollute the clean air.

11
Landfills on the other hand are nothing but huge garbage dumps that make the city look ugly
and produce toxic gases that could prove fatal for humans and animals. Landfills are generated
due to large amount of waste that is generated by households, industries and healthcare centers
every day.

Challenges
Global challenges will be defined as any major trend, shock, or development that has the
potential for serious global impacts and thus to create humanitarian needs and change the
environments in which humanitarian actors will operate in coming years. Below is a non-
exhaustive list of global challenges we have identified;
Climate change: With a predicted increase in temperature that will indirectly lead to the
disappearance of territory, spark widespread displacement, change morbidity disease patterns,
and promote a monumental shift in global policies, climate change will fundamentally
transform the way humanity approaches global security and livelihood sustainability.
Extreme poverty and inequality: With a marked increase in extreme poverty and profound
inequalities of income and wealth plaguing most nations (as approximately half the world’s
population lives on less than 1% of its wealth), extreme poverty and inequality continue to
leave whole communities and households in an almost irreversibly devastating state of
vulnerability and need.
Financial and economic crisis: The financial and economic crisis is leading to unemployment,
an increase in poverty, and the curtailment of critical safety-nets, thereby threatening an even
larger caseload in need of humanitarian assistance.
Food crisis: Children dying daily from malnutrition, billions of people currently suffering from
micro-nutrient deficiencies, local food prices in most developing countries being too expensive
for hundreds of millions of people, disputes over depleting land resources, and projections that
by 2025 food production will not be able to increase by the necessary 50% over current levels
to keep up with population growth, the food crisis will continue to threaten lives and livelihoods
worldwide.
Water scarcity: With the number of people who do not have access to safe water rising, water
scarcity represents a major political, economic and human rights issue driving vulnerability
and conflict.
Energy security: With the projected one and a half times increase in energy demand by 2030,
energy security could cause supply-side gluts stoking fears of scarcity and reigniting
geopolitical rivalries, whilst also providing the impetus to invest in renewable energies.

12
Migration: With the potential for hundreds of millions of people forced to uproot their lives
and rebuild them across borders, continents and oceans, migration will be one of the biggest
challenges both within and across borders.
Population growth and demographic shift: With a population that will grow from 6.7 billion
today to over 8 billion by 2025, and the number of people aged over 65 rising from 390 million
now to 800 million in the same time frame, population growth and demographic shifts will put
massive strains on global resources and institutions. Localized demographic trends will also be
a source of challenges. This trend, claiming the highest youth unemployment rates in the world,
may be a source of further regional insecurities.
Urbanization: With an urban population that will double in Asia and increase by 150% in
Africa between now and 2050, urbanization will create massive social inequities and risks as
well as tangible health problems, malnutrition rates, unemployment, and income deficits,
which represent an almost permanent threat to the security of billions.
Health pandemics and infectious diseases: With projections that any large-scale influenza
pandemic could result in millions potential deaths, and the discovery that infectious diseases
that have been controlled historically are now demonstrating increased virulence, changing
incidence, and shifting vectors of transmission, health pandemics and infectious diseases
threaten to further degrade the lives of many, potentially increasing feelings of injustice and
amplifying the pressures on weak and fragile states.
Ozone Layer Depletion
Earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions, namely troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 kms from the Earth’s surface. This region
is concentrated with slightly pungent smelling, light bluish ozone gas. The ozone as is made
up of molecules each containing three atoms of oxygen. The ozone layer, in the stratosphere
acts as an efficient filter for harmful solar Ultraviolet B (UV-B) rays Ozone is produced and
destroyed naturally in the atmosphere and until recently, this resulted in a well- balanced
equilibrium. In recent years, scientists have measured a seasonal thinning of the ozone layer
primarily at the South Pole. This phenomenon is being called the ozone hole.
Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion
Effects on Human and Animal Health
Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems
Effects on Bio-geo-chemical Cycles
Effects on Air Quality
Ozone Depletion Counter Measures

13
Global Warming
Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the atmosphere
and all climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution, through fossil fuel
combustion, changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the natural composition of gases
in the atmosphere is getting affected and climate and environment began to alter significantly.
Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike
previous 8000 years when temperatures have been relatively constantThe key greenhouse gases
(GHG) causing global warming is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide, one of the most prevalent
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, has two major anthropogenic (human-caused) sources, the
combustion of fossil fuels and changes in land use. Net releases of carbon dioxide from these
two sources are believed to be contributing to the rapid rise in atmospheric concentrations since
Industrial Revolution. Because estimates indicate that approximately 80 percent of all
anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions currently come from fossil fuel combustion, world
energy use has emerged at the sources of green-house gases.

Rise in global temperature

Observations show that global temperatures have risen. There is strong evidence now that most
of the observed warming over the last 50 years is caused by human activities. Climate models
predict that the global temperature will rise by about 6 °C by the year 2100.
Rise in sea level
In general, the faster the climate change, the greater will be the risk of damage. The mean sea
level is expected to rise 9 - 88 cm by the year 2100, causing flooding of low lying areas and
Food shortages and hunger. Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation
patterns change around the world. This will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely
to be threatened and some regions are likely to experience food shortages and hunger.

References
Baviskar, Amita (2014). “Ecology and Development in India: A field and its future” in Sukant
K. Chaudhury (Ed), Sociology of Environment, Readings in Indian Sociology, Vol.7, New
Delhi: Sage Publications, pp. 42-55
Giddens, Anthony, (1990) The Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge, Polity Press.
Guha, Ramachandra (2000), Environmentalism: A Global History New Delhi, Oxford
University Press.

14