Tree

Data Structure
Vani M.
 Trees: Outline
 Introduction
 Representation Of Trees

 Binary Trees

 Binary Tree Traversals

 Additional Binary Tree Operations

 Threaded Binary Trees

 Heaps

 Binary Search Trees

 Introduction (1/8)
 A tree structure means that the data are organized so
that items of information are related by branches

 Examples:
 Introduction (2/8)
 Definition (recursively): A tree is a finite set of
one or more nodes such that
 There is a specially designated node called root.
 The remaining nodes are partitioned into n>=0 disjoint
set T1,…,Tn, where each of these sets is a tree. T1,…,Tn
are called the subtrees of the root.

 Every node in the tree is the root of some subtree

 Introduction (3/8)
 Some Terminology
 node: the item of information plus the branches to each node.
 degree: the number of subtrees of a node
 degree of a tree: the maximum of the degree of the nodes in the
tree.
 terminal nodes (or leaf): nodes that have degree zero
 non terminal nodes: nodes that don’t belong to terminal
nodes.
 children: the roots of the subtrees of a node X are the children of
X
 parent: X is the parent of its children.
 Introduction (4/8)
 Some Terminology (cont’d)
 siblings: children of the same parent are said to be
siblings.
 Ancestors of a node: all the nodes along the path from
the root to that node.
 The level of a node: defined by letting the root be at
level one. If a node is at level l, then it children are at
level l+1.
 Height (or depth): the maximum level of any node in the
tree
 Example
Introduction (5/8)
A is the root node
B is the parent of D and E Property: (# edges) = (#nodes) - 1
C is the sibling of B
D and E are the children of B
D, E, F, G, I are external nodes, or leaves
A, B, C, H are internal nodes
The level of E is 3 Level
The height (depth) of the tree is 4
A
The degree of node B is 2 1
The degree of the tree is 3
The ancestors of node I is A, C, H B C
2
The descendants of node C is F, G, H, I

H
3
D E F G
I
4
 Introduction (6/8)
 Representation of Trees
 List Representation
 we can write of Figure 5.2 as a list in which each of the subtrees is
also a list
( A ( B ( E ( K, L ), F ), C ( G ), D ( H ( M ), I, J ) ) )
 The root comes first,
followed by a list of sub-trees
 Introduction (7/8)
 Representation of
Trees (cont’d)
 Left Child-
Right Sibling
Representation
 Introduction (8/8)
 Representation of Trees (cont’d)
 Representation
as a Degree
Two Tree
 Binary Trees (1/9)
 Binary trees are characterized by the fact that any
node can have at most two branches
 Definition (recursive):
 A binary tree is a finite set of nodes that is either empty or
consists of a root and two disjoint binary trees called the left
subtree and the right subtree

 Thus the left subtree and the right subtree are

distinguished
A A

B B
 Any tree can be transformed into binary tree
 by left child-right sibling representation
 Binary Trees (2/9)
 The abstract data type of binary tree
 Binary Trees (3/9)
 Two special kinds of binary trees:
(a) skewed tree, (b) complete binary tree
 The all leaf nodes of these trees are on two adjacent levels
 Binary Trees (4/9)
 Properties of binary trees
 Lemma 1 [Maximum number of nodes]:
1. The maximum number of nodes on level i of a binary tree
is 2i-1, i 1.
2. The maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of depth k
is 2k-1, k1.
3. Lemma 2 [Relation between number of leaf nodes and degree-
2 nodes]:
For any nonempty binary tree, T, if n0 is the number of leaf
nodes and n2 is the number of nodes of degree 2, then n0 =
n2 + 1.

1. These lemmas allow us to define full and complete

binary trees
 Binary Trees (5/9)
 Definition:
 A full binary tree of depth k is a binary tree of depth k
having 2k-1 nodes, k  0.
 A binary tree with n nodes and depth k is complete iff its
nodes correspond to the nodes numbered from 1 to n in
the full binary tree of depth k.
 From Lemma 1, the
height of a complete
binary tree with n nodes
is log2(n+1)
 Binary Trees (6/9)
 Binary tree representations (using array)
 Lemma 3: If a complete binary tree with n nodes is
represented sequentially, then for any node with index
i, 1  i  n, we have
 parent(i) is at i /2 if i  1.
If i = 1, i is at the root and has no parent.
 LeftChild(i) is at 2i if 2i  n.
If 2i  n, then i has no left child.
 RightChild(i) is at 2i+1 if 2i+1  n. A 1
If 2i +1  n, then i has no right child
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] B 2 C 3
A B C — D — E
Level 1 D E
Level 2 Level 3 4 5 6 7
 Binary Trees (7/9)
 Binary tree representations (using array)
 Waste spaces: in the worst case, a skewed tree of depth k
requires 2k-1 spaces. Of these, only k spaces will be
occupied
 Insertion or deletion
of nodes from the
middle of a tree
requires the
movement of
potentially many nodes
to reflect the change in
the level of these nodes
 Binary Trees (8/9)
 Binary tree representations (using link)
 Binary Trees (9/9)
 Binary tree representations (using link)
 Binary Tree Traversal Methods

 In a traversal of a binary tree, each element of the binary

tree is visited exactly once.

 During the visit of an element, all action (make a clone,

display, evaluate the operator, etc.) with respect to this
element is taken.
 Binary Tree Traversals
 How to traverse a tree or visit each node in the tree
exactly once?
 There are six possible combinations of traversal

LVR, LRV, VLR, VRL, RVL, RLV

 Adopt convention that we traverse left before
right, only 3 traversals remain

LVR (inorder), LRV (postorder), VLR (preorder)

left_child data right_child

V
L: moving left : R: moving right
visiting
node
Binary Tree Traversal Methods
 Preorder

 Inorder

 Postorder

 Level order
 Binary Tree Traversals
 Arithmetic Expression using binary tree
 inorder traversal (infix expression)
A/B*C*D+E
 preorder traversal (prefix expression)
+**/ABCDE
 postorder traversal
(postfix expression)
AB/C*D*E+
 level order traversal
+*E*D/CAB
 Preorder Traversal
void preOrder(treePointer ptr)

if (ptr != NULL)

{ visit(t);

preOrder(ptr->leftChild);

preOrder(ptr->rightChild);

}
Preorder Example (Visit = print)
a

b c

a b c
Preorder Example (Visit = print)
a

b c
f
d e
g h i j

a b d g h e i c f j
Preorder of Expression Tree
/

* +

e f
+ -
a b c d

/ * + a b - c d + e f

Gives prefix form of expression!

 Binary Tree Traversals
 Preorder traversal (VLR) (recursive version)

output + * * / A B C D E
:

V
L
R
 Inorder Traversal
void inOrder(treePointer ptr)
{ if (ptr != NULL)
{
inOrder(ptr->leftChild);
visit(ptr);
inOrder(ptr->rightChild);
}
}
Inorder Example (Visit = print)
a

b c

b a c
Inorder Example (Visit = print)
a

b c
f
d e
g h i j

g d h b e i a f j c
 Inorder By Projection
a

b c
f
d e
g h i j

g d h b e i a f j c
 Inorder of Expression Tree
/

* +

e f
+ -

a b c d

a + b * c - d / e + f

Gives infix form of expression

 Binary Tree Traversals
 Inorder traversal (LVR) (recursive version)

output A / B * C * D + E
:
ptr
L
V
R
 Binary Tree Traversals
 Iterative inorder traversal
 we use a stack to simulate recursion
5 4 11
8 3 14
2 17
1
A B
/ *C D
* E
+

L
V

output A / B*C * D + E node

:
 Binary Tree Traversals
 Analysis of inorder2 (Non-recursive Inorder traversal)
 Let n be the number of nodes in the tree
 Time complexity: O(n)
 Every node of the tree is placed on and removed
from the stack exactly once
 Space complexity: O(n)
 equal to the depth of the tree which
(skewed tree is the worst case)
 Postorder Traversal
void postOrder(treePointer ptr)
{if (ptr != NULL)
{
postOrder(ptr->leftChild);
postOrder(ptr->rightChild);
visit(t);
}
}
Postorder Example (Visit = print)
a

b c

b c a
Postorder Example (Visit = print)
a

b c
f
d e
g h i j

g h d i e b j f c a
Postorder of Expression Tree
/

* +

e f
+ -

a b c d

a b + c d - * e f + /

Gives postfix form of expression!

 Binary Tree Traversals
 Postorder traversal (LRV) (recursive version)

output A B / C * D * E +
:

L
R
V
 Traversal Applications
a

b c
f
d e
g h i j
• Make a clone.
• Determine height.
•Determine number of nodes.
 Binary Tree Traversals
 Level-order traversal
 method:
 We visit the root first, then the root’s left child, followed by the
root’s right child.
 We continue in this manner, visiting the nodes at each new level
from the leftmost node to the rightmost nodes
 This traversal requires a queue to implement
 Level Order
Let ptr be a pointer to the tree root.
while (ptr != NULL)
{ visit node pointed at by ptr and put its children
on a FIFO queue;
if FIFO queue is empty, set ptr = NULL;
otherwise, delete a node from the FIFO queue
and call it ptr;
}
Level-Order Example (Visit = print)
a

b c
f
d e
g h i j

a b c d e f g h i j
 Binary Tree Traversals
 Level-order traversal (using queue)

output + * E * D / C A B
:
1 17 3 14 4 11 5
2 8
*+ E * D / C A B

FIFO

ptr
Binary Tree Construction
 Suppose that the elements in a binary tree are distinct.

 Can you construct the binary tree from which a given

traversal sequence came?

 When a traversal sequence has more than one element,

the binary tree is not uniquely defined.

 Therefore, the tree from which the sequence was

obtained cannot be reconstructed uniquely.
 Some Examples
preorder = a a
ab
b b

inorder = ab
b a
a b

postorder = ab
b b
a a

level order = ab
a a
b b
Binary Tree Construction

 Can you construct the binary tree,

given two traversal sequences?
 Depends on which two sequences
are given.
 Preorder And Postorder
preorder = ab a a
postorder = ba
b b

• Preorder and postorder do not uniquely define a binary tree.

• Nor do preorder and level order (same example).
• Nor do postorder and level order (same example).
 Inorder And Preorder
 inorder = g d h b e i a f j c

 preorder = a b d g h e i c f j

 Scan the preorder left to right using the inorder to

separate left and right subtrees.

 a is the root of the tree; gdhbei are in the left subtree;

fjc are in the right subtree.

gdhbei fjc
 Inorder And Preorder
a

gdhbei fjc

 preorder = a b d g h e i c f j
 b is the next root; gdh are in the left
subtree; ei are in the right subtree.
a

b fjc
gd ei
h
 Inorder And Preorder
a

b fjc
gd ei
 preorder
h = abdgheicf j
 d is the next root; g is in the left
subtree; h is inathe right subtree.
b fjc
d ei
g h
 Inorder And Postorder

 Scan postorder from right to left using inorder to

separate left and right subtrees.

 inorder = g d h b e i a f j c

 postorder = g h d i e b j f c a
 Tree root is a; gdhbei are in left subtree; fjc are in right
subtree.
 Inorder And Level Order

 Scan level order from left to right using inorder to

separate left and right subtrees.

 inorder = g d h b e i a f j c

 level order = a b c d e f g h i j
 Tree root is a; gdhbei are in left subtree; fjc are in right
subtree.
 Additional Binary Tree Operations (1/7)
 Copying Binary Trees
 we can modify the postorder traversal algorithm only
slightly to copy the binary tree

similar as
Program 5.3
 Additional Binary Tree Operations
(2/7)
 Testing Equality
 Binary trees are equivalent if they have the same
topology and the information in corresponding nodes
is identical V L R

the same topology and data as Program 5.6

Additional Binary Tree Operations (3/7)
 Variables: x1, x2, …, xn can hold only of two possible
values, true or false

 Operators: (and), (or), ¬(not)

 Propositional Calculus Expression

 A variable is an expression
 If x and y are expressions, then ¬x, xy, xy are expressions
 Parentheses can be used to alter the normal order of
evaluation (¬ >  > )
 Example: x1  (x2  ¬x3)
Additional Binary Tree Operations (4/7)
 Satisfiability problem:
 Is there an assignment to make an expression true?

 Solution for the Example x1  (x2  ¬x3) :

 If x1 and x3 are false and x2 is true
 false  (true  ¬false) = false  true = true

 For n value of an expression, there are 2n possible

combinations of true and false
 Additional Binary Tree Operations (5/7)
(x1  ¬x2)  (¬ x1  x3)  ¬x3

postorder traversal 

data  

value   X3

X1   X3

X2 X1
Additional Binary Tree Operations (6/7)
 node structure
 For the purpose of our evaluation algorithm, we assume
each node has four fields:

 We define this node structure in C as:

 Additional Binary Tree Operations (7/7)
 Satisfiability function
 To evaluate the tree is
easily obtained by
modifying the original L
recursive postorder R
V
traversal
TRUE
node

TRUE
FALSE

FALSE
TRUE T
TRUE

F
FALSE FALSE
T TRUE
TRUE

F T
FALSE TRUE