Fermi Normal Coordinates and Some Basic Concepts in Differential

Geometry
F. K. Manasse and C. W. Misner

Citation: J. Math. Phys. 4, 735 (1963); doi: 10.1063/1.1724316

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JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS VOLUME 4, NUMBER 6 JUNE 1963

Fermi Normal Coordinates and Some Basic Concepts in Differential Geometry*

F. K. MANASSEt AND C. W. MISNERt
Palmer Physical Laboratory, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
(Received 31 May 1962)

Fermi coordinates, where the metric is rectangular and has vanishing first derivatives at each
point of a curve, are constructed in a particular way about a geodesic. This determines an expansion of
the metric in powers of proper distance normal to the geodesic, of which the second-order terms are
explicitly computed here in terms of the curvature tensor at the corresponding point on the base
geodesic. These terms determine the lowest-order effects of a gravitational field which can be measured
locally by a freely falling observer. An example is provided in the Schwarz schild metric. This dis-
cussion of Fermi Normal Coordinate provides numerous examples of the use of the modern, co-
ordinate-free concept of a vector and of computations which are simplified by introducing a vector
instead of its components. The ideas of contravariant vector and Lie Bracket, as well as the equation
of geodesic deviation, are reviewed before being applied.

I. INTRODUCTION In this paper we consider not a modification or

generalization of Fermi's idea, but a specialization
I N 1922 Fermi showed! that, given any curve in
a Riemannian manifold, it is possible to introduce and particularization of it. We specialize to the case
where the curve in question is a geodesic, and we
coordinates near this curve in such a way that the
Christoffel symbols vanish along the curve, leaving choose a particular set out of the many coordinate
the metric there rectangular. Several developments systems which satisfy his r ",' = 0 condition along
of this idea followed. One was a generalization2 of this geodesic. The resulting coordinates we call
the theorem to a manifold with a symmetric affine Fermi normal coordinates because of an analogy to
connection r,,/, but without necessarily assuming that particular choice of the many coordinates
any metric structure. A second development was satisfying r ",' = 0 at a single point, called Riemann
an inquiry which showed that in general no co- normal coordinates,6 which in addition gives the
ordinates exist for which r ,,: = 0 on surfaces of series expansion 6
dimension greater than one, and which developed 2
ds = {1)", + !R",,~,xax~ + O[(X)3]} dx" dx·. (1)
criteria for the special situations where this was
possible. 3 A third variation of Fermi's idea is the The primary mathematical contribution of this
set of coordinates based on an arbitrary curve paper is to compute the quadratic terms of a cor-
which Synge4 calls Fermi coordinates. Here one responding expansion in Fermi normal coordinates
allows a few nonzero Christoffel symbols, although [see Eqs. (66)]. In this case the expansion parameter
retaining a rectangular metric, for the advantage is the geodesic distance normal to the given geodesic;
of making the curve become an axis of the coordinate the expansion is valid for a limited region of space,
system. These coordinates, as Synge shows, form a and for all time. Thus, Fermi normal coordinates
nonrotating system in a natural physical sense for a provide a standardized way in which a freely falling
(not necessarily freely falling) observer in a gravita- observer can report observations and local experi-
tional field. ments. In 'particular, the quadratic terms of the
metric, which we compute in terms of the curvature,
* Based in part on a Ph.D. Thesis by F. K. Manasse,
Princeton University, 1961. 6 See, for example, L. P. Eisenhart, Riemannian Geometry,
t Communications Development Training Program Fellow (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1926).
from Bell Telephone Laboratories. • Here 'YI". = diag (-1, 1, 1, 1) is the Lorentz metric.
t Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow. We shall use Greek indices for space-time (IL, v, etc. = 0, 1,
! E. Fermi, Atti Acad. N az. Lincei Rend. C1. Sci. Fiz. 2, 3), while Latin indices give components along spatial axes
Mat. Nat. 31, 21, 51 (1922). (i, j, etc. = 1, 2, 3). Our sign conventions for the curvature
2 L. P. Eisenhart, Non-Riemannian Geometry, (American tensor are
Mathematical Society Colloquium Publications, New York, R,,'a{J = aar,,'~ - a~r,,'a - (r,,"ar.'~ - r,,"pr.'a),
New York, 1927), Sec. 25. The Fermi normal coordinates and
developed in the present paper are also defined in (symmetric) R". = R,,"a,'
affine spaces, and all our results which can be stated in affine The Riemann tensor convention corresponds to Cartan's
spaces are valid there. The proofs are obtained by replacing definition (reference 13) of the curvature forms 0,,' =
every set of orthonormal vectors by a set of linearly in- !R,,' ap dx a dxfJ in terms of the connection forms
dependent vectors.
3 L. O'Raifeartaigh, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. A59, 2 (1958). WJ.I.'1 = rJ.l.'a d,xa, OJ.l."P = dw,/ - cxp.tI W(T·'

• J. L. Synge, Relativity, The General Theory (North- which definition is also valid in orthogonal (or other non-
Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1960). holonomic) frames.
735

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736 F. K. MANASSE AND C. W. MISNER

determine the effects of gravitational field gradients of negligible mass freely falling toward a large
upon experiments done in a freely falling elevator. central mass. In the following paper,8 this serves as
The procedure for constructing Fermi normal a starting point from which to compute the metric
coordinates, which is given in Sec. II, is a variation surrounding a finite but small mass falling radially
of the standard procedure for constructing Riemann toward a large central mass, a particular case of
normal coordinates. It is also a special case of the the two-body problem in general relativity.
procedures used by Levi-Civita 7 or Synge4 to The paragraphs of mathematical "review" (Secs.
construct (inequivalent versions of) Fermi coor- III and VI), although they contain nothing new or
dinates about an arbitrary, nongeodesic, curve. The original, are not considered by the authors as the
present paper is very closely related to Levi- least important part of this paper. Most physicists,
Civita's, since it discusses some of the same topics, even those very familiar with general relativity,
but in inverse order. Levi-Civita, in the paper in continue to use the same definition of a vector as
question, developed for the first time the equation of did Einstein, in spite of the considerable progress
geodesic deviation and used Fermi coordinates as a by mathematicians in the intervening half century.
technique for simplifying this equation to display its A particularly careful statement of this definition
properties more clearly. In contrast, our primary by Synge and Schild 9 gives a precise meaning to
interest is here in the Fermi coordinates, but we the sentence "The quantities vP are components
shall use the equation of geodesic deviation as a of a contravariant vector" without finding it worth
device for studying the properties of Fermi co- the trouble to write a sentence of the form "a
ordinates and for computing the metric tensor in contravariant vector is a ... " The end of this
these coordinates. sentence is, in fact, either rather unhelpful 10 or
The major part of the present paper is devoted rather long l l when it merely elucidates the trans-
to studying properties of the Fermi normal co- formation law definition. The transformation law
ordinates constructed in Sec. II. In Sec. IV we show outlook on geometry was an attempt to broaden 12
that this construction leads to a nonsingular the Erlanger Programm viewpoint: (a geometry is
coordinate system in a neighborhood of the given characterized by invariance under a group of
geodesic, and in Sec. V we show that these co- transformations) without repudiating it completely.
ordinates satisfy the Fermi conditions The more geometrical approach to geometry, based
g~.lo = 'YJ~" (2) on an intuition rooted in the classical studies of
curves and surfaces in Euclidean three space, was
rp''./o = 0, (3)
hampered for a time because its most powerful
along the given geodesic G. In these discussions, computational techniques l3 employed elements
as well as in later examples, it is useful to have which were defined only by their intuitive signif-
unambiguous ways of indicating a vector without icance. As a consequence, many demonstrations
specifying a coordinate system, and of displaying its were clear only to mathematicians with sufficient
components in different coordinate systems without intuition. 13 This difficulty was eliminated by
confusion. These notations, based on the idea of a Chevalley l4 who gave new definitions of tangent
tangent vector as a differentiation, are reviewed in vectors and differentials, providing them with a
Sec. III. This idea of a vector is also used in Sec. VI
where we review the equation of geodesic deviation 8 F. K. Manasse, J. Math. Phys. 4, 746 (1963) (following
paper).
in order to see precisely what vector satisfies it. 9 J. L. Synge and A. Schild, Tensor Calculus (University
Then, in Sec. VII, we note that certain vectors of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1952), Sec. 1.3.
10 T. Y. Thomas, The Differential Invariants of Generalized
occurring in the construction of Fermi normal Spaces (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1934,) p. 30.
coordinates must satisfy the equation of geodesic 11 N. Steenrod, The Topology of Fibre Bundles (Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1951), Sec. 6.4.
deviation; using this fact we evaluate the quadratic 12 O. Veblen and J. H. C. Whitehead, The Foundations
(curvature) terms in the expansion of the metric of Differential Geometry, (Cambridge University Press
New York, 1932, reprinted 1953), Sec. 16. '
analogous to Eq. (1). Finally, Sec. VIII is an 13 E. Cartan, Leqons sur la g~om{;trie des espaces de Riemann
example, where, starting from the Schwarzschild (Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1951).
14 C. Chevalley, Theory of Lie Groups. (Princeton Univ-
metric in standard Schwarzschild coordinates, we ersity Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 19·16), p. 77. A definition
evaluate the metric in Fermi normal coordinates suitable for differentiable, rather than analytic, manifolds
can be found in reference 15 or in H. Flanders, Trans. Am.
surrounding a radial timelike geodesic. This rep- Math. Soc. 75, 311 (1953). A definition of differentiable
resents this metric in a rest frame of a particle manifold which parallels Chevalley's for the analytic case is
given by de Rham, Varietes Differentiables (Hermann et Cie.,
7 T. Levi-Civita, Math. Ann. 97, 291 (1926). Paris, 1955).

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 FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES 737

clear formal structure compatible with their intuitive

significance. These definitions are now also available
in introductory texts. 15
In Sec. III and subsequently we use this definition
of a contravariant vector as a tangent to a curve.
Since a curve is easily thought of in a coordinate-
independent way as a moving point pet) in the
manifold, this approach can avoid all mention of
coordinates in defining a vector. A theoretical
physicist should not be surprised that the tangent
to a curve pet) is conceived of as the generator
of infinitesimal translations along the curve and,
hence, denoted by a/at.
FIG. 1. Fermi normal coordinates are determined by a
II. CONSTRUCTION OF FERMI NORMAL reference point Po and an orthonormal reference frame
COORDINATES e~ there. The time axis G of the coordinates is the geodesic
h(T) tangent to eo at Po. The point P(X"), with given Fermi
Conditions (2) and (3), which Fermi coordinates normal ~oordinates X", is found by first following G for a
proper time T = x o, and then following a certain orthogonal
satisfy, state that to the maximum extent possible geo.desic at a proper distance s = [(Xl)' + (x')' + (x 3 )']!.
one desires space in the neighborhood of some ThIS second spacelike geodesic h(xO, xis-I, A), is chosen
by requiring that for A = 0, where it crosses G, its tangent
given geodesic G to look like flat space in rectangular has direction cosines X is-1 relative to the base vectors e,
coordinates. As motivation for the construction carried by parallel transport along G from Po.
which will be given in this section, we suggest that
a plausible way to try to achieve this is to use as along G of the vectors e i = ei(O) given at Po = h(O).
many "straight" lines (geodesics) as possible in The prescription for locating the point P whose
laying out the coordinates. What follows now is Fermi normal coordinates are x" can now be given.
merely a recipe which purports to construct a We assume for simplicity that eo is a time like
coordinate system; the proof that it does so (i.e., vector and ei are spacelike. Then given x", we
that the coordinates constructed by this recipe are construct at the point h(xO) [i.e., along G at r XO]
non-singular) is deferred to Sec. IV. That Eqs. (2) the unit vector
and (3) are satisfied is not shown until Sec. V. v = aie,(xO) , (6)
In order to uniquely specify a set of Fermi normal whose (spatial) direction cosines a i are
coordinates it is necessary to choose arbitrarily a
a' = xi/s, (7)
point Po to be the origin, and an orthonormal set
with
of vectors eo, e l , e 2 , and e 3 at Po to fix the coordinate
axes there. The first step in the construction is then
S2 = (X i )2 == (X I)2 + (X 2)2 + (X 3)2. (8)

to solve the geodesic equation and obtain that There is then a unique geodesic
unique geodesic G which starts at Po with tangent P = h(xO; a i ; A), (9)
eo there. We will describe the geodesic G by the
with path parameter A which starts at h(xO) and
equation
is tangent to v there. The point P(x") with Fermi
P = h(T). (4)
normal coordinates x" is found by proceeding along
The condition that G "starts at Po" is just this geodesic a proper distance s, i.e.,
Po = h(O) , (5) P(x") = h(xO; a i ; s). (10)

and does not imply that we refuse to consider This prescription is summarized in Fig. (1). When
negative values of T. points P are represented by their coordinate values
Because G is a geodesic, its tangent at any two y"' (P) in some coordinate system l6 in which the
points on G is related by parallel displacement along 16 Since we think of the metric or any other tensor as an

G. At Po, the tangent was eo, which we now call object which is independent of our choice of coordinate
system, we prefer that the indication of the particular co-
eo(O), while eo(r) will mean the tangent to G at ordinate system to which a set of tensor components g~,
P = her). Similarly, we can define ei(r) for i = 1,2,3 refers be placed on the component (mdex) part of the symbol
rather than on the tensor part. Thus g", and g~,., are compo-
as vectors at h(r) obtained by parallel displacement ne~ts of the same met~c teJ?-sor in two coordinate systems,
whIle, should the occasIOn anse, g~, and g'", might represent
15 T. J. Willmore, An Introduction to Differential Geometry two different metrics in a single coordinate system. See also
(Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1959), Chap. 6, Sec. 2. the transformation laws of Eqs. (40) and (76).

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 738 F. K. MANASSE AND C. W. MISNER

metric components g",., (ya) are known, the con- pet) is the operation on scalar functions f(P) defined by
structions which we have prescribed lead to the
af(p)/at == dt(P(t»/dt, (14)
relationship (10) with the point P(x") given in
terms of its coordinates y" as y" (x"). These func- i.e., by inserting the equation of the curve and
tions y" (x") specify the coordinate transformation taking an ordinary derivative. Since the operator
between the arbitrary coordinates y., and the Fermi a/at is applicable to all scalar functions, it can be
normal coordinates x". We have not needed to applied in particular to those four scalar functions
mention these arbitrary initial coordinates y"' while y"(P) we may be using as coordinates:
prescribing the construction of the Fermi normal
coordinates x", and have avoided doing so to (15)
emphasize the fact that the point P(x") correspond- In this way one can recover the compfments t" from
ing to given values of x" is independent of the the vector a/at. Conversely, writing Eq. (12) in
coordinate system y"' in which the computations the form
may have been performed.
t == a/at = r a/ay", (16)
III. TANGENT VECTORS AND LIE BRACKETS
we construct the contravariant vector a/at from a
In the preceding construction of Fermi normal knowledge of its component t". Equation (16) shows
coordinates, the vectors which appeared were all a/at as a linear combination, with coefficients t",
used as tangents to curves. We want to recall here of four contravariant base vectors a/ay". These base
that all contravariant vectors can be thought of as vectors are tangents to the coordinate lines, e.g.,
tangents to curves and identified with the derivative a/ayo is the tangent a/at to the curve yO = const,
with respect to the corresponding curve parameter. yO = t. We have frequent use for Eqs. (15) and (16)
Given a curve y"(t) in some coordinate system y", in what follows. In particular, Eq. (16) provides a
the tangent vector method of displaying the components of a vector
t" = dy" /dt (11) which simultaneously reminds us what coordinate
system is being used and is, in this respect, superior
is clearly a contravariant vector, and can be used to a statement of the form t = (to, t\ t2 , t3 ). We
to compute derivatives a/at along the curve y"(t) also find it convenient to be able to designate the
by the rule components of a vector in several different ways,
and thus write
af = df(y"(t» = dy" j1. == t"f . (12)
at - dt dt ay" ." (a/at)" = (t)" = t" = ay"/at. (17)
17
Conversely, given a contravanan . t vect or field Although we represent contravariant vectors t by
t"(ya), we can solve the ordinary differential equa- the partial derivative symbol a/at, it is not always
tions possible to think of several vectors simultaneously
dy" / dt = t"(ya(t» (11) as having the properties of standard partial deriva-
tives. 18 In particular, consider the commutator of
to obtain curves y"(t) with tangents t". two tangent vector fields u == a/au and v == a/ av:
The advantage of thinking of contravariant
vectors t" as tangents to curves is that this helps
us find a concrete mathematical object we can
a (at)
[u, v]f == au a au .
av - av (at) (18)
identify with the abstract vector t whose components
Since v is a field, at/ av is a function and can be
t" appear in our computations. This object is the
subsequently differentiated along a curve tangent
operation of differentiation along the curve whose
to u. Thus the right-hand side of Eq. (18) is well
tangent is t. That is, we write
defined, and evidently does not depend on the
t == a/at. (13) coordinates used to evaluate it. If we do pick a
coordinate system, e.g., at/av = v" at/ay", Eq. (18)
The right-hand side of this identification is an
operation which can be described in a coordinate- 18 A single vector a/at differs from a partial derivative
independent way. The tangent, t or a/at, to a curve by the possibility of vanishing; e.g., the tangent to a constant
curve pet) = Po is the zero vector (a/at) = 0, since af/at =
17 A vector t" given only at a point, or along a curve, etc.,
can always and in many ways be considered part of a vector
°
df(Po)/dt = for all functions f. However, in regions where
a/at ~ 0, coordinates can be introduced so that a/at = a/aye
field by arbitrarily defining t"(ya) at other pomts. is a conventional partial derivative.

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 FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES 739

reads consider all values of the a i • We first prove that

=
(u • -av" - v• -au") -af
h(T; sa'; X) h(T; a'; sA) (24)
[u, v]f = (19)
ay' ay' ay"' holds for all s (by rescaling the path parameter X)
or so that Eq. (10) defining Fermi normal coordinates
may be replaced by
[u v] = (v" u' - u~ v') ~. (20) O
, ,Ii' ••
ay "
P(x") = h(x ; x'; 1). (25)

As a linear combination of the base vectors ajayp, This form allows us to verify more easily the dif-
the object [u, v] evidently is itself a contravariant ferentiability of the inverse relationship, x"(P), i.e.,
vector, called the Lie Bracket of u and v. Its compo- of the coordinate functions.
nents are displayed in Eq. (20). In case (as in this We regard hH and h(T; a'; X) as the point-valued
paper) a covariant derivative is defined, Eq. (20) function of one and five real variables, respectively,
can be rewritten as computed without regard to any interpretation
placed on their real-number arguments. (In contrast,
(21) common usage for real-valued functions dictates that
a
since the symmetry of the r:. = r;" lets them f(x ) and f(ya') mean different functions of their
cancel here in any case. four real arguments so as to represent the same
We most often wish to use Eq. (21) in the case function of points f(P) in two different coordinate
where we know [u, vJ = O. This is true whenever u systems.) Then, to prove Eq. (24) we rewrite Eq.
and v can be thought of as tangents to coordinate (22) in some arbitrary regular coordinate system
lines in a surface. That is, let P(u, v) be the equation y"' (P) as
of a "surface" parameterized by u, v, and let u = y.' = h·'(T; a i j X), (26)
a/au be the tangent to lines of constant v in this
surface, and similarly v = aj av is tangent to lines The functions hI" are simply the unique solutions
of constant u. Then [u, v] can be evaluated from of the differential equations
Eq. (18) by setting f = f(P(u, v» on the right- d~h·' .' dh'" dh~'
hand side. The derivatives are then standard partial dA2 + [r", W].'-h'dA dA = 0, (27)
derivatives which commute, so [u, v] = 0. 19 [This
derivation requires only that P(u, v) be a differen- which satisfy the initial conditions
tiable point-valued function; it actually represents (28)
a two-dimensional surface only if u and v are linearly
independent vectors.] and

IV. REGULARITY OF FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES (29)

According to the construction of Sec. II, Fermi
normal coordinates are specified in terms of the where y.' = h"' (T) is the central geodesic G. After
solution remarking that the differential equation (27) is
unchanged upon replaeing X by SA, we prove Eq. (24)
P = h(T; a i ; A) (22) by verifying that, as function of X hI" (T' sa" A)
I • ' , ,

of the geodesic equation describing a geodesic which and hI' (T; a'; sX) not only satisfy the same dif-
begins (X = 0) at the point ferential equation (27), but also the same initial
condition. For, each reduces to h·' (T) for A = 0
(23a) and has a first derivative 8a'(ei(T»'" at X = O.
on the central geodesic G, and whose tangent there is Thus, by the Uniqueness Theorem 2o for solutions
of differential equations we have
(23b)
h"'(T;8a';X) = h"'(Tja';sX), (24a)
As used in Sec. II, the parameters a satisfied
20 See, for example, F. J. Murray and K. S. Miller, Existence
(a')2 = 1, but we ignore this condition now and Theorems, (New York University Press New York 1954)
19 To see that the Lie Bracket does not always vanish
Chap. 2, Theor~ms ~, 3; Chap. 3, Theorem 2; Chap.
Th~orem 6. A dISCUSSiOn of the properties of geodesics from
5;
an example suffices. For the unit vectors eg = 0/00 and
e., = (sin 0)-1 a/a", on the unit sphere, compute from Eq. (20) whlCh we have borrowed much is found in H. Seifert and
W .. T~relfall, Variationsrechnu,ng im Gro88en (B. G. Teubner,
[eg, e"l =- -cot Oe" ~ o. LeIpZIg, 1938), footnote 20, p. 97.

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740 F. K. MANA SSE AND C. W. MISNER

which represents Eq. (24) 111 the yP' coordinate Comparing this with Eq. (23b) gives
system.
(a/ax')xj~O = ei(xO) , (32a)
The definition of Fermi normal coordinates 111
Eq. (25) gives now the transformation law since the a' are arbitrary. Similarly, from Eqs. (25),
(24), and (23a) we see that the curve PH defined by
(30)
By a standard theorem,20 the solutions of ordinary (36)
differential equations are differentiable functions of
the initial conditions, so we have established the is given by
differentiability of yP' (x"). To show the existence
per) = her; 0; 1) = her; 0; 0) = her), (36b)
of a differentiable inverse relation xP(y"), represent-
ing the coordinate functions xP(P), we must show and is the central geodesic G whose tangent a/ ar
20 is eo(r). But the components of the tangent (a/ar)
that the Jacobian layp'/ax"l does not vanish.
The condition of a nonvanishing Jacobian is are easily computed from Eq. (36) and give
precisely the condition that the coordinate axes do (a/aXO)xi~O = eo(xO). (~32b)
p
not collapse, i.e., that the vectors a/ax be linearly
independent. For, when we form the components of, To recapitulate, the question of the Jacobian or
p
say, a/axo in the yP' frame, they areayP'/axo, so that of the linear independence of the a/ax , reduces
the determinant formed from the components of the by Eq. (32) to the linear independence of the ep(r).
four vectors a/ax" is But ep(r) are orthonormal, since they are defined
by parallel displacement of the orthonormal vectors
(31) e"(O), and parallel displacement preserves inner
and J ~ 0 is equivalent to the linear independence products,
of these vectors. We prove J ~ 0 by showing that, (37)
along the central geodesic G,
(32) v. THE FERMI CONDITIONS

Then, since ep(r) are orthonormal vectors, they are We have actually already proven that in Fermi
linearly independent and J ~ 0 on G. By continuity, normal coordinates the metric is rectangular on G.
then, we have J ~ 0 in some neighborhood of G. For by definition, the metric components are the
The basic fact we need in order to prove the matrix of inner products of the base vectors, i.e.,
equation (a/ax")a = e"(r) in the preceding argu- g",(x") = (a/ax P). (a/ax') , (38)
ment is the description in Fermi normal coordinates
of the geodesics entering their construction. This is so Eqs. (32) and (37) give
also the basis from which we will compute all other (39)
properties of Fermi normal coordinates. Consider
then the curve P(A) defined in Fermi normal co- It may, nevertheless, be instructive to see this
ordinates by equation arise by applying the tensor transformation
law to the metric components g"'fI'(Yu') of some
XO = r = const, original coordinate system yU' :
(33)
i
a = const.
(40)
According to Eqs. (25) and (24), this curve is given
by In the central equality here we recalled that
P(A) = her; ail..; 1) = her; a'; A), (34) (ay"'/ax")a are the components of (a/ax")a = ep(xO)
in the y", frame.
and is, therefore, that geodesic whose tangent a/ aA In order to show that r P " , Ia = 0 holds in Fermi
is given by Eq. (23b) at the point x' = 0, XO = r normal coordinates, we begin by considering the
corresponding to A = O. But the components of consequences of the fact that the curve XO = r,
ajaA can be computed from Eqs. (33), and are x' = a'A, satisfies the geodesic equation
(a/aA)O = 0 and (a/aA)' = a" so
P dx" dx fl
2
d x"
a/aA = a' a/ax'. (35) dA2 + r" d5: dA
fI = O. (41)

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 FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES 741

Substitution gives only two points lying on it. These restrictions on

n are expressed by the equation of geodesic deviation
(42a)
which is a differential equation satisfied by n along
which holds in particular for A = 0: each geodesic, i.e., as a function of s.
To derive the equation of geodesic deviation, we
(42b)
begin with the geodesic equation in the form 9
But now the r i / are independent of (Xi and sym-
os/os = 0, (47)
metric in i and j, while the (Xi are arbitrary, so
where 0/ os is the covariant derivative along s.
(43)
This is, of course, just an abbreviation for
To show that the other Christoffel symbols vanish,
we recall that each of the vectors e,.(r) satisfies
s""s' == ds"/ds + S"Ta"fll = 0, (48)
the equation of parallel displacement along the but the more compact notation lets us outline the
central geodesic XO = r, Xi = 0. In general, to derivation without computations. Since Eq. (47)
parallel displace a vector u along a curve pet), holds for all values of n, we may differentiate it
one solves the differential equation (linear) to obtain
+ Uara"fltfl.
o~ (~~)
u""r = du"/dt (44)
= 0. (49)
We may take u to be any of the vectors e.(r) =
(a / ax') a whose components in Fermi normal co- As the difference of two geodesic equations, this
ordinates are therefore (e.)" = 0/, and t becomes should be an equation for the difference vector n,
alar = eo = o/(a/ax~)G. Thus, from Eq. (44) we that is, n should appear differentiated, rather than
obtain as a derivative. The relationship which achieves
this is Eq. (21) which can be written
r/olo = 0. (45)

Combining Eqs. (43) and (45) gives the second of

o= [n, s] == os/ on - on/os. (50)

the Fermi conditions, [The Lie bracket [n, s] vanishes since nand s
parameterize the surface Pen, s).] Before this relation
r a"fllG = O. (46)
can be employed in Eq. (49), however, the covariant
Since this implies (agafl/aX")O = 0, we have evalu- derivatives must be written in the opposite order,
ated the first two terms in a Taylor expansion of the
Fermi normal metric. The quadratic terms, which ° -_~on (os)os -_~os (os)
on
+ {~~
on os
_~ ~}s
os on ' (51)
require us to evaluate (a ga{Jjax ax i )o, is computed
2 i

in Sec. VII, after a diversion to review the computa- or

tional technique we will use.
02n/os2 + [0/ on, %s]s = 0. (52)
VI. EQUATION OF GEODESIC DEVIATIONC7·21)
\Vhen the commutator22 of covariant derivatives
The construction of Fermi normal coordinates here is expressed in terms of the curvature tensor,
involves families of geodesics. Let us consider only this Eq. (52) is the equation of geodesic deviation.
a one-parameter family of geodesics for the present, The computation is
say Pen, s), where for each fixed value at n = no,
P(no, s) satisfies the geodesic differential equation {[ 0/ on, 0/ os]s I" = (s", as a) 'flnfl - (s" 'flnfl) , asa
with s as path parameter. The tangent vector
s = ajas can then be thought of as the generator
of infinitesimal translations along geodesic n, while
n = a/an is the generator of infinitesimal transla- (53)
tions along a curve pen, so) connecting corresponding
points (same value of s) on adjacent geodesics. 22 The entire derivation may be regarded as a process
of evaluating the commutators whieh relate Eq. (49) in the
Along a fixed geodesic, n cannot vary arbitrarily, curious form
since the adjacent geodesic can be determined by
21 For physical applications see F. A. E. Pirani, Acta
ono aso(a)_o
as -
to an equation whose leading term is
Phys. Polon. 15, 389 (1956); Phys. Rev. 105, 1089 (1957);
and J. Weber, General Relativity and Gravitational Waves o2n asoo(a)
os' as an .
=
(Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1961), Chap. 8.

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 742 F. K. MANASSE AND C. W. MISNER

where we again use [n, s] = 0. Thus, we find for (58a)

the equation of geodesic deviation
Also using r" a. !a = 0, we note that on G the
f/n P/ ol + (saRaP ,pl)n' = 0. (54) definition of the Riemann tensor6 reduces to two
terms, and, in particular, from Eq. (58 a) we find
Let us briefly outline the principal properties of
this equation. It is a second-order, linear, ordinary (58b)
differential equation for n as a function of s. In addi-
The remaining derivatives of the affine connection
tion to the trivial solution n = 0, it also obviously
are
has the solution n = s. A perhaps not so obvious
solution which can, however, be easily verified is r/i.k!a = -iCR/ik + R/,k)!a, (58c)
n = ss. The solution n = (A's + B')s (where the
as we now show by use of the equation of geodesic
adjacent geodesics coincide with the original one
deviation. Note that this last equation implies a
but are parameterized differently) clearly satisfies
symmetry
n·s = As + B, (55)
r/i.k!a + r/k,,!a + r/i.i!G = 0, (58d)
where A and B are constants [A A'(s·s) while
peculiar to these coordinates which follows from the
s·s = const according to the geodesic equations].
corresponding "triple symmetry" of the Riemann
We can further show that every solution n satisfies
tensor.
Eq. (55) by using the product rule of covariant
The family of geodesics peA) = h(T; a'; A) used
differentiation and the geodesic equation
in constructing Fermi normal coordinates provides us
osj os = ° to compute with four vectors, a/aT and a/aa/, which (since they
a 2
P 0
2
0 (on ) P oJnP generate displacements between adjacent geodesics)
al (spn) = oi (spnP) = os Sp Ts = s" oi must each satisfy the equation of geodesic deviation
as functions of A for fixed T, a' [In contrast, peT) =
(56) h(T; a'; A) is not a geodesic unless Aa' = 0, so we
The constant A in Eq. (55) is related to the normal- have no family of geodesics with tangents a/aT
ization of the geodesic parameter, for by using the and neither a/aa' nor a/aA satisfies the equatio~
Lie bracket relation [n, s] = 0, we find of .geodesic deviation as a function of T, even for
Aa' = 0.] Although there are moderate amounts of
o
A = - (8 nP) = s -
on" = s -os" = -1 - a (s s") (57) computation involved in what follows now, the basic
osP "os "on 2an"' idea is quite simple. In the geodesic deviation equa-
Unless s· s = 0, we can always modify any solution tion (" 02n + Rn = 0") we insert known solutions
n of the geodesic deviation equation, adding terms n = a/aT or a/aa'. At the point A =
where r /, = 0), the second covariant
(i.e., on
derivative
° G
of the form (As + B)s, to obtain a solution satisfying
n·s = 0. This modification corresponds to a linear term will reduce to the derivative of a Christoffel
change in the parameterization of the adjacent symbol evaluated on G, and the only other term in
geodesic, which is of course consistent with the the equation will be the curvature term so we will
'
. a formula "a r = R", i.e., Eqs. (58).
geodesic equation. According to Eq. (57) the condi- obtam
°
tion n· s = is consistent with the standard normal-
ization s· s = ± 1 for geodesic parameters. in
The family of geodesics P = h(T; a'; A) is described
Fermi normal coordinates by the equations

VII. QUADRATIC TERMS IN THE FERMI METRIC x° = T, (59)

A power-series expansion of the metric in Fermi The components of the deviation vectors n com-
puted using Eq. (17), are then '
normal coordinates is determined by the derivatives
(lP";;"'" !a. The linear terms (I", .• !a x' were shown a/aT = a/axo == 00" a/ax", (60)
to vanish in Sec. V, where we found that on the
central geodesic G all the Christoffel symbols vanish. a/aa' = A a/ax' == AO/ a/ax". (61)
In this section we will compute the quadratic terms, Similarly, the vector s tangent to the geodesic is
!(lp •. ,i !a x'x', by first computing r/ .. p !a.
Since the equation r" a. = 0 holds for all X O at (62)
x = 0, it may be differentiated with respect to X O We use the components displayed here in the
to give geodesic deviation equation (54) which in detail

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 FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES 743

becomes can write the Taylor series

goo = -1 + ROlom/G xlxm + (66a)
go; = 0 + fRolimlG xlxm + (66b)
(63) m
gij = aj; + iRil;mlG x'x + (66c)
The case n = alar merely leads to some of Eqs.
Here the dependence of the metric on the spatial
(58b) again, so we treat only the cases n = a/ao/.
coordinates Xi is shown explicitly, while its depend-
Then dnu/ds becomes d(t..a/)/dt.. = a/, and
ence on X O is contained entirely in the curvature
d2n P/dt.. 2 = O. (63a) components which are evaluated at Xi = 0 for
each xo.
But, since n P = 'AO/ vanishes for t.. = 0, Eq. (63)
is trivial on G unless we divide through by t.. before VIII. AN EXAMPLE
setting t.. = O. In order to accomplish this, the
We compute the Schwarzschild metric to quadratic
second term in Eq. (63) can be expanded in powers
order, as in Eq. (66), in Fermi normal coordinates
of t..;
surrounding a radial geodesic. In Schwarzschild
coordinates, which we will call yP' or T, R, e, q"
2a/r/;o/ = 2r/;IG (X; + 2t..(:t.. r/;(X;)/G the metric components gp", are displayed in the form
(64a) ds 2 = gp,., dyl" dy"
Then, at t.. = 0 where r p a. = 0, we obtain from = -X dT 2 + X-I dR 2 + R2 de 2
Eq. (63)
+ R2 sin e dq,2,
2
(67)
(64b) where
X = 1 - 2M/R. (68)
or
To find the equations of a radial geodesic, T(t),
(r/;.k + r/ k •i ) IG = -i(R/' h + R/.i)/G· (64 c) R(t), withe and q, constant, one may replace the
This equation can be solved for r/ i . k / G by adding geodesic equations by two first integrals; one is
to it one cyclic permutation, the normalization of proper time
(r;\ .• + r/ •. k)IG = -i(R/;. + R/ik)/G, (64d) (69)
and subtracting another, and the other is a dimensionless energy parameter
(r/".i + r/; .•)IG = -iCR'\i + R/.k)/G' (64 e) k = XT', (70)
The result, after using the symmetry of the connec- which yields RCt) by quadratures, and expresses k
tion r / = r. a p, is just Eq. (58c).
p of the metric. (The primes here indicate derivatives
From the definition of Christoffel symbols, with respect to proper time t along this geodesic.)
Eliminating T' gives

we find by differentiation that

e = X + R,2 = 1 - 2M/Ro, (71)
which yields R(t) by quadratures, and expresses k
(64g)
in terms of the maximum radius R o along the path,
Thus, Eqs. (58) imply that where R' = O. The integration gives a cycloid
(64h) R = tRo(l + cosw),
and that, for gPP.';/G, we have t = tRo(Ro/2M)!(w + sin w). (72)

(65a) Either R or the cycloid parameter w can be used

in place of proper time t to identify points on this
gOk.ii/O = f(R oik • + ROik;)/G, (65b)
geodesic, and thus serve as a time coordinate in
gl ... ii/O = iCRilim + Rimil)IG' (65c) the comoving frame. Thus,
2
To summarize all the information we have obtained 2 dR Ro R2 ..1 .. 2
(73)
about the metric in Fermi normal coordinates, we dt = 2M/R _ 2M/Ro = 2M uw •

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 744 F. K. MANASSE AND C. W. MISNER

After choosing a geodesic, the next step in con- the gravitational field gradients in Eq. (7S) depend
structing Fermi normal coordinates is to choose on the observer's position R, but not upon his
an orthonormal frame along the geodesic. The velocity R' (or energy k) with respect to the mass
time like base vector must be the tangent a/at, M. Thus the preferred rest frame indicated locally
and the symmetry of the present example determines by the Killing vector field a/aT cannot be recognized
the others. Thus, by an observer who measures all the gravitational
field gradients (7S) at one point. He can only
eo = a/atla = T' a/aT + R' alaR, discover the direction of the vector a/a T by finding
e l = a/axla = X-1R' a/aT + XT' alaR, a velocity (i.e. direction in the R - T plane) which
(74)
makes the field gradients constant in time, i.e.,
e z = a/ayla = l/R alae,
by measuring R~,uT;a.
e a = a/azla = l/R sin e a/aif>, The Fermi normal metric from Eq. (66) is
where x~ or xyzt are to be Fermi normal coordinates.
It is also easily verified from the components (eaY' di = - [1 + %(y2 + l - 2X2) ] dt 2
displayed here that these vectors satisfy the nec-
2M
essary parallel transport condition - 3R3 [xz dx dz + :ry dx dy - 2yz dy dz]

We must now compute the curvatures in the + [1 + ~3 (y2 + l) Jdx 2

Fermi frame by the tensor transformation law

M 3 (x 2 -
+ [ 1 + ;m 2z2)J dy 2
Ra~~. = R#"'U'T,(e a)"' (e~r' (eX' (e.),', (76)
which states that a tensor component is the contrac- M ( 2
tion of the tensor with the base vectors indicated + [ 1 + 3R 3 X - 2y 2)J dz 2. (79)
by the indices. The Fermi base vectors e a we
have in Eq. (74), while the curvature components The entire dependence of this metric on t is through
R#"'U'T' with respect to the Schwarz schild frame the geodesic equation (72) which gives R(t).
are well known as A more compact form for the Fermi metric (79)
is obtained by introducing spherical coordinates
3
Rl '0'1 '0' = 2JJ1/R , r, 8, cp related to x, y, z by the standard formulas.
R3'0'3'0' = -(MX/R) sin e,
2 Taking the x direction as the polar axis we get a
diagonal metric,
R l '2'1'2' = M/RX,
(77) ds 2 = - (1 - qJ.L) dt 2 + dr 2 + (1 + iJ.L)(r d8)2
R2'o'2'0' -MX/R,
+ (1 + iqJ.L - iJ.L)(r sin 8 dcp?, (SO)
R 2 '3'2'3' -2MR sin2 e,
where
R l '3'1'3' (M/RX) sin2 e.
J.L = Mr z/R 3 , (Sla)
(Here and below, only the independent nonvanishing
components are listed.) The computation then yields and

R 1010 = 2"A1/R
3
,
q = 3 cos 2 8 - 1. (SIb)

RZ020 = R 3030 = - M / R\ Again, R must be considered the function of t given

(7S) in Eqs (72), or equivalently one may take R as the
time coordinate and use Eq. (73) to eliminate dt 2
in favor of dR 2 in Eq. (SO).
In the following papers this metric provides
Some of the simplicity of Eq. (7S) as compared to boundary conditions for a computation of tidal
Eq. (77) was, of course, to be expected, for the Fermi deformations of a freely falling Schwarzschild
frame is orthonormal so that all components must singularity (wormhole mouth). It is also evidently
at least have the same dimensions, and the equi- well suited to a calculation of tides in an elastic
valence of the e and if> directions must become test body whose center of mass would define the
evident. However, a very surprising feature is that geodesic Xi = O. We content ourselves here with

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 FERMI NORMAL COORDINATES 745

a mathematical example and investigate the shape But if we assume that the quadratic terms in (84)
of a sphere. Define a sphere ~ as the surface formed are an adequate approximation to the metric, then
by all points a fixed proper distance r measured out the cubic terms must be negligible in comparison
orthogonally from some point on the central geodesic. to the quadratic ones,
For the coordinates of Eq. (80) this is the surface
r aK
t = const, r = const, whose metric is, therefore, K a;:« 1. (86)
(M) ~ = (1 + tll)(r dO)2 This small quantity is almost the one appearing in
+ (1 + tqll - tll)(r sin 0 dtp)2. (82a) Eq. (85), except a space and time derivative are
interchanged. But as a sort of causality condition,
From this metric we find that the area of the sphere
one expects that
~ is just 411"r", independent of the small quantity
Il = M r2 / R3 in first order, but a change in intrinsic aK/at :s aK/ar, (87)
shape can be readily computed. The length of a
for in the contrary case, a disturbance would appear
great circle tp = const over the poles of this sphere is
spontaneously at some point (aK/at large) without
L po1e , = r f~ (1 + tll)t dO ~ 27rT(1 + ill). (82b)
having arrived there as a wave propagating with
velocity less than c = 1. Thus the quadratic Fermi
approximation (86) together with causality in the
Similarly, the circumference of the equator, e= sense of Eq. (87) imply in Eq. (85) the adiabatic
1 •
211", IS
condition
(82 c)
ag/at « ag/ar. (88)
As a measure of the distortion of the shape of this
These results can be specialized to the Schwarzs-
sphere, then, we may take
child case and give some surprises. For this metric
1) = L po1e , - Lequsto, ~ !!:. = Mr;. (83) we have from Eq. (78)
Lpoles + Lequato, 4 4R
K = J1!j /R 3 • (89)
Thus, a sphere r = const is a surface shaped like
Using Eqs. (74) for a/at and a/ax we can test the
a football pointing toward the center of gravitation.
causality conditions (87) and find that it reads

x~, = [(2: - ~)/(1 - ~~)J ~ 1,

IX. RANGE OF VALIDITY OF THE
FERMI EXPANSION (90)
In this section we point out that in most situations
which is always violated for R < 2M. [Other situa-
where the Fermi metric expanded through quadratic
tions which violate the causality condition of Eq.
terms is a useful description, the time dependence
(87) are the expanding-universe cosmological models
of the metric can be considered adiabatic, that is,
where one assumes aK/ar = O.J A condition which
time derivatives of the metric will be negligible in
will ensure the validity of the Fermi expansion is
comparison to space derivatives. Order of magnitude-
wise, the Fermi metric can be written Kr2 = Mr2/R3 « 1, (91)

g ~ 1 + r2K(t) + r3 ~~I + 0(r4), G (84)

and this can be satisfied by taking (r / R) small
enough even if (M/R) is large. Thus the Fermi
expansion is useful even inside the Schwarzschild
where r is proper distance normal to the geodesic,
"singularity." The adiabatic condition computed
t is proper time along the geodesic, and K represents
from Eqs. (85) and (74) reads
a typical component of the curvature tensor. For
this metric, the ratio of time to space derivatives ag/at r , (Mr2) ,
(computed from the r2 term only) is ag/ar = FiR ~ R3 «1, (92)

ag/at r aK
(85)
and is satisfied as a consequence of Eq. (91) which
ag/ar = K a;:' is a stronger convergence requirement than Eq. (86).

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