Communications 3 Reviewer

5. Protocol - A protocol is a set of rules that

Data – information that is stored in digital form govern data communications. It represents an
Data Communications – process of transferring agreement between the communicating devices.
digital information between two or more points
Information – defined as knowledge or
intelligence
DATA REPRESENTATION/INFORMATIONS
Fundamental purpose of data communication:
to transfer digital signal from one place to 1. Text - In data communications, text is
another represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits
(0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have
The effectiveness of a data communications been designed to represent text symbol. Each set
depends on four fundamental characteristics: is called a code, and the process of representing
symbols is called coding.
1. Delivery - The system must deliver data to the
correct destination. Data must be received by 2. Numbers - Numbers are also represented by
the intended device or user and only by that bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not
device or user used to represent numbers; the number is
directly converted to a binary number to simplify
2. Accuracy - The system must deliver the data mathematical operations images are also
accurately. Data that have been altered in represented by bit patterns in its simplest form,
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small
3. Timeliness - The system must deliver data in a dot.
timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery 3. Audio - refers to the recording or broadcasting
means delivering data as they are produced in of sound or music. Audio is by nature different
the same order that they are produced, and from text, numbers, or images
without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission. 4. Video - relies to the wording or broadcasting
of a picture or move
4. Jitter - jitter refers to the variation in the
packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay the day DATA COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
of audio or video packets.
*The purpose of a data communications circuit is
Data Communications is composed of five to provide a transmission path between
components: locations and to transfer digital information from
one station to another using electronic circuit.
1. Message - The message is the information
(data) to be communicated. Popular forms of *A station is simply an endpoint where
information include text, numbers, pictures, subscribers gain access to the circuit. A station,
audio, and video. sometimes called a node, which is the location of
computers, computer terminal, workstations
2. Sender - The sender is the device that sends and other digital computing equipment. There
the data message it can be a computer are almost as many types of data
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, communications circuits as there are types of
and so on. data communications equipment.

3. Receiver - The receiver is the device that

receives the message. It can be a computer, DATA COMMUNICATIONS
workstation, telephone handset, television, and
so on. The fundamental components of the circuit arc
source of digital information, transmitter,
4. Transmission medium - The transmission transmission medium, receiver, and destination
medium is the physical path by which a message for the digital information. Although the figure
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples shows transmission in only one direction,
of transmission media bidirectional transmission is possible by
providing a duplicate set of circuit components is called networking. In its simplest form,
in the opposite direction. networking is one of more computers connected
together through a common transmission
• Source medium for the purpose of sharing data.
• Transmitter
• Transmission Medium NETWORKS
• Receiver
• Destination Network Criteria A network must be able to meet
a certain number of criteria. The most important
of these are performance, reliability, and
SERIAL AND PARALLEL TRANSMISSION security.

Binary information can be transmitted either in 1. Performance - Performance can be measured

parallel or serially. in many ways including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required
SERIAL TRANSMISSION for a message to travel from one device to
another.
There is a single transmission line and thus, only
one bit can be transmitted at a time. 2. Reliability - In addition to accuracy of delivery,
Consequently, it requires four clock pulses (4Tc-) network reliability measured by the frequency of
transmit the entire four bit code. This type of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
transmission is called serial by bit. failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.
*Obviously, the principal trade-off between
parallel and serial data transmission is speed 3. Security - Network security issues include
versus simplicity. Data transmission can be protecting data from unauthorized access,
accomplished much more rapidly using parallel protecting data from damage and development,
transmission: however, parallel transmission and implementing policies and procedures for
requires more data lines. recovery from breaches and data losses.

*As a rule, parallel transmission is used for short- DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
distance data communications and within a ARCHITECTURE
computer, and serial transmission is used for
long distance data communications. In general terms, computer networks can be
classified in two different ways: broadcast and
MODES OF TRANSMISSION point-to-point.

Simplex - in simplex mode, the communication is 1. Broadcast - With broadcast networks, all
unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a stations and devices on the network share a
link can transmit, the other can only receive. communications channel. Data are propagated
through the network in relatively short messages
Full Duplex - In full-duplex mode (also called sometimes called frames, blocks, or packets.
duplex), both stations can transmit and receive Many or all subscribers of the network receive
simultaneously. transmitted messages, and each message
contains an address that identifies specifically
Full/full duplex - In the full/full duplex mode, which subscriber/s is intended to receive the
transmission is possible in both directions message. When messages are intended for all
simultaneously, but not between the same two subscribers on the network, it is called
stations (ie one station is transmitting to a broadcasting, and when messages are intended
second station and receiving from a third for a specific group of subscribers, it is
station.) multicasting.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK 2. Point-to-point - Point-to-point networks have

only two stations. Therefore, no addresses are
Any group of computers connected together can needed. All transmissions from one station are
be called a data communications network, and intended for and received by the other station.
the process of sharing resources between With point-to-point networks, data are often
computers over a data communications network
transmitted in long. continuous messages,
sometimes requiring several hours to send.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
• The term physical topology refers to the way
in which a network is laid out physically Two
or more devices connect a link, two or more
devices form a topology. Bus Topology
• Topology of a network is the geometric • A bus topology, on the other hand, is
representation of the relationship of all the multipoint. One long cable acts as a
links and linking devices (usually called backbone to link all the devices in a network
nodes) to one another. • Nodes are connected to the bus cable by
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, drop lines and taps.
star, bus, and ring. • A drop line is a connection running between
the device and the main cable.
Mesh Topology • A tap is a connector that either splices into
• In a mesh topology, every device has a the main cable or punctures the sheathing of
dedicated point-to-point link to every other a cable to create a contact with the metallic
device. core.
• The term dedicated means that the link
carries traffic only between the two devices
it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully
connected mesh network with n nodes, we
first consider that each node must be
connected to every other node. Ring Topology
• In other words, we can say that in a mesh
• In a ring topology, each device has a
topology, we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode
dedicated point-to-point connection with
links.
only the two devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.

Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a
dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one
another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected
device
 Hybrid 2. The server provides a shareable virtual
disk to the users (client).

3. File mapping schemes are implemented to

provide the virtualness of the files (ie. the
files are made to look like they are on the
user's computer). 4. Security systems are
installed and configured to provide the
server with the required security and
protection for the files.

5. Redirector or shell software programs

NETWORKS
located on the users computers
• A computer network designed three years
transparently activate the client's software
ago to support the basic networking
on the file server.
applications of the time may have difficult
time supporting recently developed high- Clients
end applications such as medical imaging
and live teleconferencing. • Clients are computers that access and use
the network and shared network resources:
Client computers are basically the customers
• Computer networks all share common
devices, functions and features including (users) of the network, as they request and
receive services from the servers.
servers,clients, transmission media, shared
data, shared printers and other peripherals, Transmission media.
hardwares, softwares, Network Interface
Card, local operating sytem and Network • Transmission media are the facilities used to
Operating System. interconnect computers in a network, such
as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and
SERVERS optical fiber cable. Transmission media are
• Servers are computers that bold shared files, sometimes called channels, links, or lines.
program, and the network operating system. Shared data.
Servers provide access to network resources
to all the users of the network. • Shared data are data that file servers provide
• There are many different kinds of servers, to clients, such as data files, printer access
and one server can provide several programs, and e-mail.
functions. For example, there are file Shared printers and other peripherals
servers, print servers, mail servers,
communications servers. database servers, • Shared printers and peripherals are
directory/security servers, fax servers, and hardware resources provided to the users of
Web servers, to name a few. Figure 21-18 the network by servers Resources provided
shows the operation of a file server, A user include data files, printers, software, or any
(client) requests a file from the file server. other items used by clients on the network.
The file server sends a copy of the file to the
requesting user. File servers al low users to NETWORK CLASSIFICATIONS
access and manipulate disk resources stored • Networks are generally classified by size,
on other computers. An example of a file which includes geographic area, distance
server application is when two or more users between stations, number of computers,
edit a shared spreadsheet file that is stored transmission speed (bps), transmission
or server File servers have the following media, and the network's physical
characteristics. architecture
• The four primary classifications of networks
1. File servers are loaded with files, accounts, are local area networks (LANs), metropolitan
and a record of the access rights of users or area networks (MANs), wide area networks
groups of users on the network. (WANs), and global area networks (GANs).
• In addition, there are three primary types of • A switched WAN is a network with more
interconnecting networks, building than two ends.
backbone, campus backbone, and enterprise • A switched WAN, as we will see shortly, is
network used in the backbone of global
communication today.
• Two promising computer networks of the • We can say that a switched WAN is a
future share the same acronym the PAN combination of several point-to-point WANs
(personal area network) and PAN (Power line that are connected by switches.
area network), sometimes called PLAN) Metropolitan Area Networks

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

PERSONAL AREA NETWORK
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a
• The idea behind a personal area network is network with a size between a LAN and a
to allow people to transfer data through the WAN it normally covers the area inside a
human body simply by touching each other town or a city.
• It is designed for customers who need a high-
POWER LINE AREA NETWORK
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet,
• Power line area networks use existing ac and have endpoints spread over a city or part
distribution networks to carry data wherever of city.
power lines go, which is virtually. • A good example of a MAN is the part of the
telephone company network that can
LOCAL AREA NETWORK
provide a high-speed DSL line to the
• A local area network (LAN) is usually customer. Another example is the cable TV
privately owned and links the devices in a network that originally was designed for
single office, building, or campus: Depending cable TV, but today can also be used for high-
on the needs of an organization and the type speed data connection to the Internet.
of technology used, a LAN can be as simple
as two PCs and a printer in someone's home INTERCONNECTION OF NETWORKS:
office, or it can extend throughout a
INTERNETWORK
company and include audio and video
peripherals. • Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or
• Currently, LAN size is limited to a few a LAN in isolation, they are connected to one
kilometers. another. When two or more networks are
connected, they become an internetwork, or
WIDE AREA NETWORK internet
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long-
distance transmission of data, image, audio, • As an example, assume that an organization
and video information over large geographic has two offices, one on the east coast and
areas that may comprise a country, a the other on the west coast. The established
continent, or even the whole world. office on the west coast has a bus topology
• A WAN can be as complex as the backbones LAN, the newly opened office on the east
that connect the Internet or as simple as a coast has a star topology LAN. The president
dial-up line that connects a home computer of the company lives somewhere in the
to the Internet. We normally refer to the first middle and needs to have control over the
as a switched WAN and to the second as a company from her home. To create a
point-to-point WAN. backbone WAN for connecting these three
entities (two LANS and the president's
POINT-TO-POINT WIDE AREA NETWORK computer), a switched WAN (operated by a
• A paint-to-point WAN is a network that service provider such as a telecom company)
connects two communicating devices has been leased. To connect the LANS to this
through a transmission media (cable or air). switched WAN, however, three point-to-
point WANs are required. These point-to-
SWITCHED WAN point WANs can be a high- Speed DS line
 offered by a telephone company or a cable
modern line offered by a cable TV provider.

INTERNET

• An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or

more networks that can communicate with
each other.
• The most notable internet is called the
Internet (uppercase I) and is composed of
thousands of interconnected networks.