Cambridge Lower Secondary

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8

Unit 8.5 Atomic structure and chemical reactions

Outline of unit:
During this unit, learners will develop a deeper understanding of atoms. They will be introduced to the Rutherford model of the atom (i.e. a nucleus at the centre,
containing positively-charged protons, surrounded by a cloud of electrons which are negatively charged). Later, neutrons were discovered and have no charge.

Learners will also explore chemical reactions and learn how to describe them with words. Learners will look at some examples of chemical reactions; including
metals reacting with oxygen, water and dilute acids. Learners will also consider inert (or unreactive) substances (e.g. plastics) and their environmental impact.

This unit will introduce learners to some key models and representations of atoms and chemical reactions; these will be used in later stages.

Recommended prior knowledge or previous learning required for the unit:

Learners will benefit from previous experience of:
• explaining that all matter is made of atoms, with each different type of atom being a different element
• knowing that a compound is made of two or more different atoms
• knowing that water is a compound made of hydrogen and oxygen atoms
• describing a chemical reaction that involves reactants interacting to form new substances called products
• describing chemical reactions using the particle model
• knowing that a chemical reaction can be observed by the loss of reactants and/or formation of products (e.g. evolution of a gas, change in colour)
• knowing that an acidic solution has a pH below 7.

Suggested examples for teaching Science in Context:

8SIC.01 Discuss how scientific knowledge is developed through collective understanding and scrutiny over time.
Learners could compose a timeline, with text and diagrams, to illustrate the development of our understanding of the atom and the different models that have
reflected the understanding at the time. They could discuss how challenge and collaboration has contributed to the collective understanding of the atom.
8SIC.02 Describe how science is applied across societies and industries, and in research.
Learners could relate their knowledge of the reactivity of metals to the ways the metals are used in society. For example, sodium and potassium are generally found
in nature as metal salts (rather than as metals) whereas copper is useful for electric wires. Helium is used in balloons because it is inert whereas hydrogen is
explosive and therefore dangerous in balloons.

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 1

 Unit 8.5 Atomic structure and chemical reactions
8SIC.05 Discuss how the uses of science can have a global environmental impact.
We use many inert substances, including plastics, to ensure objects do not react with the environment. As plastics do not breakdown in the environment, there have
been several, undesirable, environmental issues (e.g. the increase of plastics in the oceans). Learners can look at the history of plastics to understand the changing
relationship we have with plastics and how scientists are working to resolve this problem we have created.

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 2

 Learning objective Key vocabulary Possible models and representations Possible misconceptions
8Cm.01 Describe the Positive charge, negative The teaching of this objective will introduce learners Learners may think that atoms can be seen with a
Rutherford model of the charge, nucleus, atom, to the Rutherford model of the atom. microscope; they often have difficulty appreciating
structure of an atom. electron, proton, neutron, just how small subatomic particles are. They could
atomic model consider how small atoms must be given that,
roughly, 500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms
fit into a teaspoon.

Learners may not realise how much empty space

there is in an atom. Use the analogy of a football
stadium: if a tennis ball in the centre of the pitch
represents the nucleus then the nearest electron is
on the farthest row of seats and between them
there is empty space.

Learners may think that only one model of the atom

is correct. Emphasise that the Rutherford model
can help our thinking but it has weaknesses and
there may be better models.
8Cm.02 Know that Proton, electron, neutron, Learners can construct a representation of an atom Learners may confuse the term ‘charge’ with the
electrons have negative charge, atom, positive, by using objects (e.g. round discs, blank playing idea of charging a battery. Take time to ensure that
charge, protons have negative cards) to represent protons, neutrons and electrons. learners are clear about the distinction between
positive charge and Ensure the objects are labelled with the respective these uses of the word.
neutrons have no charge. charges.
8Cm.03 Know that the Electrostatic attraction, Learners can take on the role of the protons and The term ‘attraction’ might imply a choice. Be
electrostatic attraction repulsion, charge, electrons and roleplay the electrostatic attractions careful with your choice of language to ensure
between positive and positive, negative, proton, between them; showing how the structure of an learners are aware that the attraction between
negative charge is what neutron, electron, atom remains stable through this interaction. positive and negative charges is simply one of their
holds together individual nucleus, atoms properties.
atoms.
Some learners may think that the presence of only
protons in the nucleus should cause repulsion. If
this is raised by learners, it could be helpful to
introduce the idea that nuclear forces hold the
nucleus together.

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 3

 Learning objective Key vocabulary Possible models and representations Possible misconceptions
Learners may think that the main attraction in an
atom is between protons and electrons. Emphasise
with learners that the attraction is between negative
electrons and the positive nucleus (as a single
charge) rather than individual protons.
8Cc.03 Describe the Metals, sodium, Learners could role-play reactivity. A learner is Learners may think that different metals could
reactivity of metals potassium, calcium, designated as oxygen. Other learners are then ‘want’ to react whereas their reactivity is one of their
(limited to sodium, magnesium, zinc, iron, designated as different metals. Each learners properties. Careful use of language may be
potassium, calcium, copper, gold, silver, representing a metal is given a number necessary here to avoid this.
magnesium, zinc, iron, oxygen, hydrochloric acid, (representing their reactivity) The ‘oxygen’ stands
copper, gold and silver) chloride, sulfuric acid, next to the metal representing the lowest reactivity
with oxygen, water and sulfate, dilute, and then when another ‘metal’ of a higher reactivity
dilute acids. concentrated, reaction, is nearby the new ‘metal’ takes the ‘oxygen’ away.
reactivity, series, This role-play can be carried out in a range of
hydrogen, metal salt, situations and with different elements.
metal hydroxide, metal
oxide, property/properties
8Cc.01 Use word Reactant, product, Word equations are used to represent the Learners may have difficulty with what the names of
equations to describe reaction, word equation phenomenon of reactants reacting to form products. chemicals mean (e.g. ‘sulfuric acid’ is not made of
reactions. ‘sulfuric’ and ‘acid’, ‘hydrochloric acid’ is not made
of ‘hydrochloric’ and ‘acid’). Take the time to explain
the conventions for naming chemicals.
8Cc.04 Know that Reaction, pure, impure, Coloured discs can be used to represent the atoms Learners may think that carbon dioxide is two
reactions do not always mixture, reactant, product within reactants. Show learners that the ‘atoms’ can products because there are two separate words.
lead to a single pure be combined in multiple ways and explain that Using a diagram demonstrate that carbon dioxide is
product and that some reactions (e.g. the incomplete combustion of a substance made from carbon and two oxygen
sometimes a reaction will carbon) create an impure mixture of products. atoms.
produce an impure
mixture of products.
8Cc.06 Understand that Unreactive, inert, helium, Inert substances could be represented in role play Learners may think that all chemicals can be
some substances are argon, gold, platinum, by people who don’t interact with objects. burned. Explain that some elements (e.g. helium,
generally unreactive and element, compound, argon) do not form any compounds.
can be described as inert. molecule, atom
Learners may have heard of microplastics and think
that they are different in chemical composition to

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 4

 Learning objective Key vocabulary Possible models and representations Possible misconceptions
plastic that they can see (e.g. plastic bottles).
Explain that microplastics are just small pieces of
plastic.

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 5

 Unit 8.5 Suggested activities

Thinking and Working

Learning objective Suggested teaching activities and resources
Scientifically opportunities
8Cm.01 Describe the 8TWSm.01 Describe what an What is in an atom?
Rutherford model of analogy is and how it can be
the structure of an used as a model. Show the Periodic Table to the learners. Discuss how we know that there are different elements and that
atom. atoms are the building blocks of compounds.
What does an atom look like?
8Cm.02 Know that What is an atom made of?
electrons have Discuss learners’ ideas; some learners may be familiar with the key words.
negative charge,
protons have positive Show learners an adapted version of the Rutherford model of the structure of an atom which shows the
charge and neutrons electrons, protons and neutrons; the protons and neutrons are in a nucleus. Introduce learners to earlier
have no charge. models of the atom. The original Rutherford model did not have neutrons because they were not
discovered until later. Before Rutherford’s experiment, the ‘plum pudding model’ was widely accepted. The
negatively-charged electrons were thought to be distributed throughout a sphere of positive charge.
Discuss with learners how this is an analogy because we use this description to compare an atom to a
more familiar object.
Is a plum pudding a good analogy for an atom?
Can we think of a better analogy?

Explain that the overall charge of an atom is zero; protons have a positive charge and electrons have a
negative charge. Therefore, we know that neutrons have no charge and that, in an atom, there must be
the same number of protons and electrons. Learners could build a model of a carbon atom using labelled
counters: 6 protons with + signs, 6 electrons with – signs and 6 neutrons with no sign. Alternatively,
coloured counters could be used. They could make models of other elements (e.g. nitrogen with 7 protons,
7 electrons and 7 neutrons; oxygen with 8 protons 8 electrons and 8 neutrons; helium with 2 protons, 2
electrons and 2 neutrons).

Resources: Labelled counters

8Cm.03 Know that the 8TWSp.01 Identify whether a Electrostatics
electrostatic attraction given hypothesis is testable.
between positive and Show learners the Rutherford model of the structure of an atom, highlighting the positive charge of the
negative charge is protons and the negative charge of the electrons.
what holds together If the electrons surround the nucleus, why don’t they fly away from the atom?
individual atoms. What keeps electrons in place?

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 6

 Thinking and Working
Learning objective Suggested teaching activities and resources
Scientifically opportunities

Introduce the hypothesis that ‘the electrostatic attraction between the positive charge of the protons and
the negative charge of the electrons holds individual atoms together’.
Is this hypothesis testable?
What can we do to test this idea?

Explain that different materials can become charged when they are rubbed with a piece of cloth: some
become positively charged (e.g. a polythene rod, nylon, wool, silk) and others become negatively charged
(e.g. a glass rod, polyester, PVC/vinyl). Learners, working in pairs, rub two polythene rods (or strips) with a
piece of cloth. They use string and small paper hammocks to suspend the rods so that they can move
freely. Learners bring the two polythene rods near to each other; the two rods will repel each other. They
repeat the experiment using a polythene rod and a glass rod; the two rods will attract each other).

This process models what happens between charged particles in an atom.

Is this a useful model?

The negatively-charged electrons are electrostatically attracted to the positively-charged nucleus. It is

electrostatic attraction that keeps atoms together.

Resources: Polythene rods, glass rods, small pieces of cloth

8Cc.03 Describe the 8TWSc.01 Sort, group and Reactions of metals
reactivity of metals classify phenomena, objects,
(limited to sodium, materials and organisms Using a Bunsen burner, demonstrate the burning of metals (i.e. iron filings/wool, magnesium ribbon,
potassium, calcium, through testing, observation, copper turnings, zinc wool) in air. For safety reasons, carry out the reactions behind a safety screen and
magnesium, zinc, iron, using secondary information, ensure that everybody is wearing eye protection. Warn learners to avoid looking directly at the flame of
copper, gold and and making and using keys. magnesium burning, Ideally, they should look through blue glass filters.
silver) with oxygen,
water and dilute acids. 8TWSp.05 Make risk Which metals reacted the most vigorously with the oxygen within air?
assessments for practical
work to identify and control Repeat the demonstration, asking learners to write their observations. Ask learners to put the metals in
risks. order starting with the metal that reacts most vigorously with oxygen within air.

8TWSc.05 Carry out Demonstrate the reactions of sodium, potassium, calcium with water; include a few drops of Universal
practical work safely, Indicator in the water so learners can observe the colour change caused by the production of the
supported by risk hydroxide. Demonstrate that magnesium, zinc, iron and copper do not react with water. For safety

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 7

 Thinking and Working
Learning objective Suggested teaching activities and resources
Scientifically opportunities
assessments where reasons, carry out the reactions behind a safety screen and ensure that everybody is wearing eye
appropriate. protection. Very small amounts (similar in size to a grain of rice) of each metal should be used.
8TWSa.05 Present and
interpret observations and Ask learners to put the metals in order starting with the metal that reacts most vigorously with water.
measurements appropriately. What did you notice about the reactions as the metals changed?
Learners can carry out the reactions of magnesium, zinc, iron and copper with dilute hydrochloric acid
(1 M) and dilute sulfuric acid (0.5 M) themselves. They begin by making a risk assessment; they consult
the experiment protocol to support their work.
Why is it important to carry out a risk assessment before starting practical work?
What key information is needed to carry out a risk assessment?
Learners, using secondary information sources, research the hazards associated with dilute hydrochloric
acid, dilute sulfuric acid, magnesium ribbon, iron filings/wool, zinc wool and copper turnings. They should
identify that suitable eye protection must be worn when handling dilute acids; ensure that learners keep
their safety glasses on throughout the experiment.

Learners, working in pairs, place eight test tubes in a test tube rack. They add dilute hydrochloric acid
(1 M, 25 cm3) to four tubes and dilute sulfuric acid (0.5 M, 25 cm3) to the other four tubes. They add a
small piece of each of the metals, making sure to make a note of which metal was added to each tube.
They record their observations, summarising their results in a table.

Ask learners to put the metals in order starting with the metal that reacts most vigorously with water; note
that copper should not react with water.

Alternatively, if the chemicals or equipment are not available videos of the reactions can be shown in place
of the practical work. Learners could prepare their own card sort where each card has a metal and
reactant (either water, oxygen or dilute acid) and a number from 1 to 10 to indicate how vigorous the
reaction is. Learners should sort the cards in order to produce a reactivity series and create a table to
summarise their results.

Resources: Magnesium ribbon, iron filings, zinc wool, copper turnings, Bunsen burner, Universal
Indicator, metal samples (i.e. sodium, potassium, calcium), test tubes, test tube rack, bungs, Bunsen
burners, wood splints, dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulfuric acid
8Cc.01 Use word 8TWSp.03 Make predictions Using word equations
equations to describe of likely outcomes for a
reactions. scientific enquiry based on

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 8

 Thinking and Working
Learning objective Suggested teaching activities and resources
Scientifically opportunities
scientific knowledge and Discuss with learners that observing reactions and making notes can be useful but we also need a method
understanding. for representing the reaction in terms of reactants and products.
What can we do (or write) to represent the reaction?
Introduce a word equation structure of ‘reactant + reactant → product’
Show learners the following word equations and ask them to create a rule for naming the compounds
formed when a reaction of a metal with water:
• sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
• calcium + water → calcium hydroxide + hydrogen

Ask learners to predict the products of the reaction between:

• magnesium and water
• iron and water

Explain that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen and, in this reaction, the atoms are rearranged
to make hydroxide and hydrogen. Highlight the observation that ‘hydroxide’ contains a hydrogen and an
oxygen atom.

Repeat this task with the reaction of metals with oxygen to form metal oxide and hydrogen. Explain that, in
this case, the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in water are rearranged to make a compound of metal with
oxygen (i.e. the metal oxide) and hydrogen gas. The term ‘oxide’ stands for oxygen in a compound with a
metal.

Show learners the following word equations and ask them to create a rule for naming the compounds
produced when a metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid:
• zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen
• calcium + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + hydrogen
Learners should create a rule that includes the idea that the ‘hydro-‘ part of hydrochloric acid becomes
hydrogen whilst the ‘chloric’ part becomes ‘chloride’. They should also notice that the metal (i.e. zinc,
calcium) combines with chlorine atoms to become a metal chloride: emphasise that ‘–ine’ becomes ‘–ide’.
Ask learners to use their rule to predict the products of the reaction between:
• magnesium and hydrochloric acid
• magnesium and hydrobromic acid

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 9

 Thinking and Working
Learning objective Suggested teaching activities and resources
Scientifically opportunities
Show learners the following word equations and ask them to create a rule for naming the compounds
produced when a metal reacts with dilute sulfuric acid:
• iron + sulfuric acid → iron sulfate + hydrogen
• calcium + sulfuric acid → calcium sulfate + hydrogen
Learners should create a rule that hydrogen is produced and that the metal (i.e. iron, calcium) combines
with sulfuric acid to become a metal sulfate: emphasise that ‘–uric’ becomes ‘–ate’.
Ask learners to use their rule to predict the products of the reaction between:
• magnesium and sulfuric acid
• iron and sulfuric acid

Resources: None

8Cc.04 Know that 8TWSc.01 Sort, group and Reactions that produce a mixture of products
reactions do not classify phenomena, objects,
always lead to a single materials and organisms Demonstrate to learners the combustion of an appropriate substance e.g. hexane, magnesium under
pure product and that through testing, observation, controlled conditions. Explain that this is a combustion reaction, the substance is reacting with oxygen in
sometimes a reaction using secondary information, the air to form products.
will produce an impure and making and using keys. What substances have been formed? What are the products of the reaction?
mixture of products. Where are the products?

Show the corresponding word equation for combustion of the alkane.

Explain that many reactions produce multiple products rather than a single, pure product.
What happens if the products of a reaction are in the same phase (e.g. a liquid)?
Discuss how the products will mix together.

Prepare a variety of word equations for different chemical reactions and ask learners to sort and classify
them according to whether there is only one or more than one product. Examples could include:
• hexane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
• hydrogen + oxygen → water
• sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
• carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
• carbon + oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon dioxide
• iron + sulfuric acid → iron sulfate + hydrogen

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 10

 Thinking and Working
Learning objective Suggested teaching activities and resources
Scientifically opportunities
• sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
• magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
• magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Ensure learners understand that a substance (e.g. carbon dioxide), which has two words in its name, is a
single substance. Explain that the ‘+ sign’ indicates that there is more than one product in the reaction.

Learners can then look at the group of reactions with more than one product. They identify which of these
reactions, if allowed to go to completion in a solution, would form an impure mixture of products. Reinforce
the point that the products need to be in the same phase for there to be an impure mixture.

Resources: Appropriate combustible substance, a source of fire

8Cc.06 Understand 8TWSc.01 Sort, group and Sort and classify substances according to reactivity
that some substances classify phenomena, objects,
are generally materials and organisms Introduce the terms ‘unreactive’ and ‘inert’.
unreactive and can be through testing, observation, What might these terms mean in the everyday sense? (for example they might think of idle, inactive,
described as inert. using secondary information, unused)
and making and using keys.
Help learners to think about how these terms could be applied to chemical reactions. Arrive at the idea
that an ‘unreactive’ (or ‘inert’) substance is one which does not undergo chemical reactions.

Learners, working in groups of four, use secondary information sources to research substances; two
learners research an unreactive substance and the other two learners research a reactive substance.
These might include:
• two gases one of which is reactive (e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine) and the other unreactive (e.g.
helium, neon, argon)
• two plastics one of which is a starch-based biodegradable plastic and the other is a PET -
polyethylene type of plastic.
• two metals, one of which is reactive (e.g. iron) and the other unreactive (e.g. gold).

The two pairs of learners come together as a group to compare and contrast the substances they have
researched. They could be prompted with questions:
Can the substance be found in the Periodic Table? If so, where?
Is it reactive or unreactive? How do you know?
How long might it last in the environment?
What can it be used for? Does its use relate to its reactivity?

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 11

 Thinking and Working
Learning objective Suggested teaching activities and resources
Scientifically opportunities

The group then work together to prepare a poster. They use the structure of a Venn diagram to identify the
similarities (placed in the overlap between the circles) and the differences (placed within the circles)
between the substances.

Resources: Secondary sources of information

Scheme of work extract – Stage 8 12