sustainability

Review
Transformation of Biomass Waste into Sustainable
Organic Fertilizers
Kit Wayne Chew 1, * , Shir Reen Chia 1 , Hong-Wei Yen 2 , Saifuddin Nomanbhay 3 ,
Yeek-Chia Ho 4,5 and Pau Loke Show 1, *
1 Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering,
University of Nottingham Malaysia, Jalan Broga, Semenyih 43500, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia;
[email protected]
2 Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Tunghai University, Taichung 407, Taiwan;
[email protected]
3 Institute of Sustainable Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia;
[email protected]
4 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
Bandar Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia; [email protected]
5 Centre for Urban Resource Sustainability, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar 32610, Perak, Malaysia
* Correspondence: [email protected] (K.W.C.); [email protected] (P.L.S.);
Tel.: +6-(03)-8924-8605 (P.L.S.)




Received: 30 March 2019; Accepted: 11 April 2019; Published: 15 April 2019


Abstract: The management of solid waste presents a challenge for developing countries as the
generation of waste is increasing at a rapid and alarming rate. Much awareness towards the
sustainability and technological advances for solid waste management has been implemented to
reduce the generation of unnecessary waste. The recycling of this waste is being applied to produce
valuable organic matter, which can be used as fertilizers or amendments to improve the soil structure.
This review studies the sustainable transformation of various types of biomass waste such as animal
manure, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste, and food waste, into organic fertilizers and their
impact on waste minimization and agricultural enhancement. The side effects of these organic
fertilizers towards the soil are evaluated as the characteristics of these fertilizers will differ depending
on the types of waste used, in addition to the varying chemical composition of the organic fertilizers.
This work will provide an insight to the potential management of biomass waste to be produced into
organic fertilizer and the advantages of substituting chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer derived
from the biomass waste.

Keywords: biomass; organic fertilizer; plant growth; sustainability; waste

1. Introduction
A major issue presently is the increase in food demand due to rising populations, and this has
created restrictions on land use for crops cultivation due to the need of these lands for industrialization
and developments. Hence, to deliver the necessary food supplies, chemical fertilizers and pesticides
have been applied extensively to increase the growth and yield of crops for food production. Fertilization
is vital to improve the plant characteristics and uptake of nutrients. The addition of nitrogen fixation
will enhance crop growth and avoid land degradation after long periods of agricultural activities.
Phosphorus is crucial for energy metabolism, storage, and expression of genetic information [1]. On the
other hand, potassium is essential for stimulating photosynthetic systems in plants and can improve
plant growth, yield, and resistance to drought, thereby helping plants to maintain growth under

Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266; doi:10.3390/su11082266 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 2 of 19

stressed conditions [2]. However, the rigorous use of chemical fertilizers has led to the deterioration of
the dynamic equilibrium of soil, flora and fauna ecosystems as well as water streams contamination.
The need for sustainable fertilization with minimal environmental impact has given rise to the search
for alternative fertilizer sources for use in agriculture [3]. This has generated increasing interest in
renewable feedstock from biomass waste since the past decade.
The possibilities of these biomass waste sources as organic fertilizers have been evaluated by
studying its effective management. Much of these biomass waste are disposed in landfills or incinerated
due to the lack of space. The biomass waste contain valuable nutrients, which can be put to good
use if managed properly. They contain high organic matter and can be treated to remove pathogens
and then used to fertilize soils. Unlike chemical fertilizers, organic matter requires a period of time
lag to mineralize. This mineralization time will depend on the composition of the organic matter,
characteristics of soil, moisture, and temperature conditions [4]. The soil properties will also affect
the chemical reactions in the soil and can alter the dynamics of the plant nutrients intake. Besides
that, the feasibility of these organic fertilizers is largely dependent on the conversion processing
costs, production costs, quality of the organic fertilizers, environmental assessments, and safety to
human and animal health. The use of biofertilizers will also lead to the socioeconomic and ecological
improvements, especially in soil quality amendments, which will contribute tremendously to the
human health and safety, food quality, and environmental preservation [5].
The application of these organic fertilizers and soil amendments are very promising to increase
food production and soil fertility while minimizing environmental damage [6]. Organic fertilization
would improve crop yields and decrease the effects of groundwater contamination, which would
otherwise be caused by using mineral fertilizers [7]. Furthermore, biofertilizers can also assists in the
bioremediation of soils contaminated with pesticides and hydrocarbons. Hence, the recent challenge
in agriculture research fields is to reduce the usage of high rates of chemical fertilizers, which will
negatively affect human health and the environment [8]. With the preservation of the environment
and waste reduction in mind, integrated nutrient management strategies such as the combination of
chemical and organic fertilizers are being developed to enhance the sustainability of crop production.
This review summarizes various types of waste and their conversion into organic fertilizer for
plant growth. The utilization of biowaste such as animal manure, sewage sludge, municipal solid
waste, and food waste for biofertilizer and compost production were examined. Besides that, the
advantages and drawbacks of using chemical and organic fertilizers were examined. Furthermore, the
environmental assessments of biofertilizer, as well as the economic potential of biowaste conversion
into biofertilizer were also discussed elaborately. This work will provide a comprehensive insight
into the current progress in organic fertilizer production from biomass waste. This work also aims to
provide insights on the development and transformation of waste into organic fertilizer to help reduce
the impact to the environment.

2. Utilization of Biowaste for Fertilizer Production and Plant Growth

The use of chemical fertilizers containing mainly of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK)
over the years have caused significant environmental impacts as these fertilizers have been applied
widely over numerous lands across the world [9]. This calls for the need to recycle various types of
biomass waste such as animal manure, sewage sludge waste, and food waste into organic fertilizers.
Organic waste for utilization as agricultural fertilizers can be classified into several categories, namely:
Animal-based organic waste (manure), compost (plant sources and food waste), and urban waste
(sewage sludge and household waste) [10]. These wastes are processed to optimize their nutrients
content and promote their agricultural value for the contribution to a more bio-friendly economy
and environment. Table 1 shows the characteristic of different types of biowaste materials used
for fertilizer production. There are many processing techniques to synthesis the organic fertilizers
and the management of these biomass waste are essential to develop a sustainable cycle in terms of
manageability, fertilizer value, soil amelioration value, as well as the environmental impacts [11].
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 3 of 19

2.1. Animal Manure

The application of animal manures as an optimal fertilizer for farming has been carried out across
the globe for centuries. The increase in manures and excretions in farms are attributed to the elevating
global population, which requires larger sources of food production. These manures are organic in
nature and contain desirable nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which can be used as fertilizers
to produce high yield and good quality crop products. The management of these livestock excretions
are necessary as they may show detrimental effects on long-term application on soil aggregation [7].
The nutrients from the excretions will accumulate on the surface of the soil and these nutrients will
be washed into water streams by rainfall or surface runoff, causing the growth of algae and resulting
in eutrophication [12]. Besides that, the livestock excretions are a major source of greenhouse gas
(GHG) pollution, pathogens, and odour. Hence, appropriate manure management strategies such as
the conversion to fertilizers of energy is essential to produce minimal effects to the environment while
facilitating the efficient recycling of plant nutrients [13,14]. The benefits of applying manure as an
organic fertilizer and concerns regarding the long-term use of these manures also need to be evaluated.
The utilization of livestock manure has showed promising results on enhancing plant growth
(Table 1). Manure fertilizer applied on wheat has successfully improved the growth in terms of plant
height, grain yield, and biological yield. The biological yield was increased by a rate of 15%, attributed
to the proper decay rate of manure that provides a good condition of steady nutrient release and
soil texture amendments. Livestock manure used with chemical fertilizer such as nitrogen fertilizer
showed no significant improvements as the livestock manure may have reduced its activity in the
presence of nitrogen fertilizer [8]. Using effective microorganisms or biofertilizers for rice growth on
farmyard amendments was also found to be better compared to NPK-fertilized soils after a three-month
growth stage. The shoot biomass increased in all growth stages when biofertilizers were applied in the
green manure amendment, while increase in the shoot biomass for farmyard manure amendment was
observed at the final growth stage. As for the grain yield, biofertilizer use on NPK fertilizer amendment
showed a 55% reduction in grain yield, whereas a 99% increase was obtained with green manure
amendments, indicating the beneficial effects of these biofertilizers by combining the use of suitable soil
amendment, particularly green manure amendments [15]. Another study on the growth response of
coffee plant using organic manure showed significant proportional growth. Organic manure requires
time to decompose and produce the desired nutrients. Thus, the integration of organic and inorganic
fertilizer was found to yield comparable results to that of solely inorganic fertilizer. The combination
of inorganic fertilizers, which can rapidly provide nutrients but lack balanced growth, and organic
manure, which are slow to produce nutrients but can provide a good supply of nutrients, will lead to
best proportional growth. This indicates that the use of integrated fertility management can encourage
the use of organic manures to obtain efficient plant growth [16].
Furthermore, manure can retain the crop production for a longer period without the need for fresh
fertilizer input. The growth of rice using chicken manure amendments sustained the productivity of the
grain for the whole cropping cycle although much of the N and K contents were lost during the initial
cropping stage, while organic P from manure has benefited the plant growth in soils with reduced P
contents and high-phosphate adsorption capacity [17]. The renewable resource of animal manures
has long been used as an organic fertilizer and contributes greatly in agricultural production. The
application of sheep manure on contaminated soils was found to be very useful for phytostabilization,
which is the plants’ ability to stabilize pollutants in the soil. The uptake of Pb, Cd, and Zn by the plant
tissues was reduced to an acceptable bioconcentration factor value as these manures can immobilize
the metals in the contaminated soil, thereby reducing the metal toxicity and uptake by plants while
having a low risk of groundwater leaching [18]. The use of solid pig and dairy manure could also
improve the bacterial diversity throughout the growing season due to the nutritional resources in the
manure that promote the bacterial growth in the soil ecosystem. The abundance of these good bacteria
could contribute to plant health and decomposition of organic matter, by means of degrading complex
substrates while consecutively producing antibiotics as a by-product. This shows potential of livestock
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 4 of 19

manures to promote growth of bacterial communities for supporting plant productivity, pollutants
degradation, and climate regulation [19].
The overuse of chemical N fertilizer has resulted in severe soil acidification, which is often
associated with phosphorus deficiency, lower biodiversity, and productivity and aluminium toxicity [20].
Hence, the long-term use of animal manure has been evaluated for altering soil nitrogen immobilization
to help with alleviating soil acidification. The study by Wang et al. (2019) reported that animal manure
application gave a high stimulation effect on abiotic and biotic N immobilization, attributed to the
increase in carbon availability and soil microbial activity at higher soil pH [21]. Nevertheless,
the long-term animal manure application has shown to contribute towards soil aggregation.
Macroaggregates are formed in soils with constant manure application and this affects the aggregate
stability in soils [7]. Since salt content in animal feed are high in forage systems, the sodium ions
originating from manure acts as a dispersing agent that reduces soil aggregate stability [22]. This also
leads to the risk of soil salinization, especially in a humid region like south China [23]. However, in
regions with constant rainfall, the aggregate stability is increased significantly as the soluble potassium
and sodium ions can be easily leached under high rainfall conditions, where they accumulate less in
those areas [7]. These nutrients will still be leached into the nearby water streams and are likely to
cause groundwater pollution, which is a negative effect that needs to be considered.

2.2. Sewage Sludge Waste

Phosphorus is a key nutrient for all living beings, whereby its deficient in agriculture would
compromise on crop productivity. The source of phosphorus is from non-renewable phosphate rocks,
which is why there exists a need for efficient recycling of phosphorus compounds to ensure the
capability of feeding a growing global population. Sewage sludge is one of the organic waste that
contains a high concentration of phosphorus, in addition to other undesirable substances like heavy
metals, pathogens, hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals, and endocrine disruptors [24–26]. Sewage sludge
has good agronomic properties with high nitrogen and phosphorus content, which can stimulate
the soil microbial activity, soil enzymes activity, and soil respiration as a result of the degradation of
organic matter [27]. However, sewage sludge also contains a variety of toxic contaminants, which
poses a potential risk to the environment and human health. The beneficial fertilization using sewage
sludge and the effects associated with its long-term application is further discussed.
Phosphorus fertilizer can be recovered from sewage sludge through various methods, for example,
hydrothermal carbonization, pyrolysis, combustion, and composting (Table 1). The combination of
hydrothermal carbonization, acidic leaching, and struvite precipitation was reported to reclaim a
good portion (about 80%) of the total phosphates. The acid acts as a catalyst to enhance the degree
of carbonization as well as to increase the amount of ammonium available for struvite formation
to elevate phosphate recovery [25]. On the other hand, the pyrolysis of sewage sludge can reduce
the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and toxic elements bio-accumulation in the sewage
sludge. The resulting matter from pyrolysis will have a lowered sludge toxicity suitable for agricultural
usage [28]. Besides that, composting is an effective and cost-efficient process to manage sewage sludge.
Composting can biodegrade organic matter and produce substances that affect the mobility of heavy
metals. The addition of phosphate amendments during sewage sludge composting also contributes to
better fertilizer efficiency and heavy metals passivation, creating compost that are safe for agricultural
applications [29].
The combustion of sewage sludge will produce ashes, which contain rich phosphorus content
that are valuable as plant nutrients. Many treatment methods have been used to recover phosphorus
from the sludge or increase the phosphate fraction in order to further utilize the sewage sludge ashes
(SSA) as fertilizers, examples of the treatment processes are thermochemical treatment [30,31], acid
or alkaline leaching [32], precipitation with lime water [33], and reaction with phosphoric acid [34].
The recovery of phosphorus from SSA through leaching can be further purified by the removal of
heavy metals in SSA using ion exchange or sulphide precipitation. Most of the heavy metals present
The recovery of phosphorus from SSA through leaching can be further purified by the removal of

heavy metals in SSA using ion exchange or sulphide precipitation. Most of the heavy metals present

will form sparingly

Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266soluble sulphide compounds as the strong acid solutions can precipitate
5 ofthe
19

stable heavy metal sulphide phases [33].

will form sparingly soluble sulphide compounds as the strong acid solutions can precipitate the stable
heavypresents
metal sulphide
a processphases
scheme[33].toFigure 1 presents
produce a process
fertilizer schemesludge
from sewage to produce fertilizer
ash. The from sewage
purification stage
sludge ash. The purification stage needs to be added if there is a high heavy
needs to be added if there is a high heavy metal content. The final product is in the form of precipitatemetal content. The
final product is in the form of precipitate or suspension fertilizers, as
or suspension fertilizers, as well as NP and PK fertilizers, which can be combined to form well as NP and PK fertilizers,
which can be combined
multicomponent to form multicomponent
NPK fertilizers [35]. The recycling NPK of fertilizers
incinerated [35].
SSATheis recycling of incinerated
also a potential way to
SSA is also a potential way to recover higher phosphate contents and utilize
recover higher phosphate contents and utilize the remaining residual fractions. The availability of Pthe remaining residual
fractions. Theinavailability
compounds the recycled of fertilizer
P compoundsfrom in
SSAthewas
recycled fertilizertofrom
comparable that SSA was comparable
of commercial to that
fertilizers. of
The
commercial uptakes
phosphate fertilizers. The phosphate
using uptakes using
recycled phosphate recycled
fertilizers phosphate
also showedfertilizers
higher ratesalso showed higher
as it released
nutrients at a slow and consistent rate compared to that of commercial fertilizers [33]. Moreover,[33].
rates as it released nutrients at a slow and consistent rate compared to that of commercial fertilizers the
Moreover, the
utilization utilization of low-temperature
of low-temperature combustion can combustion
enrich the can enrich the
phosphorus phosphorus
content in SSA.content in SSA.
Compared to
Compared to pyrolysis and incineration, low-temperature combustion process
pyrolysis and incineration, low-temperature combustion process was able to increase the total P was able to increase the
total P content
content and bioavailable
and bioavailable P contentP content by about
by about 45%three
45% and and three
times, times, respectively.
respectively. ThisThis indicates
indicates the
potentiality of low-temperature combustion as an alternative treatment for the enrichment and
the potentiality of low-temperature combustion as an alternative treatment for the enrichment and
recycling of
recycling of phosphorus
phosphorus from from sewage
sewage sludge
sludge [36].
[36].

Figure
Figure 1.1.Process
Processscheme
scheme of fertilizer
of fertilizer production
production from sewage
from sewage sludge
sludge ash ash (N:P:Nitrogen,
(N: Nitrogen, P:
Phosphorus,
Phosphorus, K: Potassium)
K: Potassium) [35]. [35]. .

The long-term application of sewage sludge was found to significantly increase the organic matter
in soils. This causes soil pH reduction due to nitrification of ammonium contained in sewage sludge
as well as the production of organic acids during the decomposition of organic matter [37]. Besides
that, the long-term application was able to improve the physicochemical and microbial properties in
agricultural soil but led to Cu and Zn accumulation in soil without improving their bioavailability [37].

2.3. Food Waste Composting

The increase in the global population has led to an increase in food consumption as well as food
waste generation. Higher living standards in developed countries also contribute to the production of
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 6 of 19

more food waste to meet the food quality demands. Much of the food waste generated from unused
consumable food products, household food waste, and waste products from the food manufacturing
and processing industries end up in landfills. Other treatment methods for food waste widely applied
is animal feeding, anaerobic digestion, composting, and incineration [38]. The increasing food waste
disposal has brought attention to the escalating issues in environmental pollution, which will bring
harm to both humans and animals [39,40]. The decomposition of these organic waste in landfills will
release compounds that create unpleasant odours, contaminate soil, and aquatic ecosystems, with the
risk of diseases transmission to humans through contaminated materials. However, these organic food
wastes can be converted into valuable organic matter through the implementation of microorganisms,
which can naturally decompose the waste and transform them into usable compost. Food waste also
contains high content of organic components such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and organic acids,
which makes it a potential source of fertilization [41].
Composting is a sustainable technique that converts these organic and biodegradable food
waste into a stable form of organic matter and fertilizers that can be used for agriculture as soil
amendments [42]. The content and quality of compost is dependent on the types of raw materials
used, process of composting, conditions of decomposition process, and addition of nutrients during
composting. The conversion of food and municipal solid waste to compost and its utilization for
improving crop productivity and soil fertility will contribute to the soil organic matter management
and reduction of the carbon footprint [43]. Nevertheless, there are several challenges in the composting
process: (1) The process is lengthy and could take up to three to four months for a small-scale
operation; (2) there may be acidification of soil and odour emissions during composting; (3) there
are possibilities of heavy metals contamination; (4) the economic prospects of a composting facility is
uncertain [39]. Hence, more effective and efficient methods of composting need to be developed to
make the management of food waste through composting a promising direction for sustainability.
Compost has been used as fertilizers [44], organic amendments [45], for land reclamation [46],
and many more agricultural applications (Table 1). The recycling of olive mill waste as an organic
compost can enhance soil fertility as well as reduce the CO2 emissions. The agronomic performance of
the olive mill waste compost were comparable to that of chemical fertilizer as it can supply adequate
nutrients for plant growth, even for short-term crops [44]. Moreover, liquid fertilizer obtained through
food composting can also be used to remediate contaminated soils. These liquid fertilizers have
large amounts of organic matter content and are favoured for the preparation of dissolved organic
carbon (DOC) solutions compared to wine-processing waste. DOC solutions are very useful in the
adsorption of heavy metals such as Zn, Cu, and Pb in soils. The use of liquid fertilizer from composting
processes was more efficient in reclaiming zinc-contaminated soil and the resulting fertility index
were found to significantly increase as well, making it more favourable than the conventional use
of acidic aqueous solutions [46]. Compost added with biochar has also produced positive results in
continuous watermelon monocropping system. The combination of biochar with compost showed
better watermelon yield due to the potentially reduced nutrients leaching and increased nutrient
holding capacity of the soil [47].
The process of composting can also be improved by pelletizing the compost material. The in-farm
pelletizing of swine manure solid fractions co-composted with organic waste materials showed
comparable properties with commercial pelletized organic fertilizers [48]. The addition of co-formulates
could lower moisture content and increase the pellet strength. This result shows the significance of
co-composting of livestock manure to provide better sustainability and application in agriculture [48].
Besides that, a dynamic high-temperature aerobic fermentation (DHAF) process has also been developed
for the rapid production of organic fertilizer from food waste. This process is conducted in a bioreactor
where the rotation of the mixers will create intense collision and friction between the food waste
particles. The food waste was subjected to continuous collision and friction, which creates a suitable
environment for microorganisms to reproduce. The intense stirring segregated the food waste into
smaller bits and the carbon dioxide produce through aerobic respiration of microorganisms was
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 7 of 19

removed through the movement of food waste. The DHAF technique successfully converted food
waste into mature organic fertilizer within 96 hours and this is attributed to the strong oxygen transfer
and buffering capacity, as well as the high reaction surface area [49].
The long-term application of food waste compost was also reviewed to determine the effects of
organic amendments to soil when applied for a long period. A study on the nitrogen availability
after seven years of food waste compost application exhibited an increase in soil organic matter.
The long-term value of compost for continuously supplying slow-release N for crops growth was
apparent [50]. Moreover, long-term applications of compost were found to improve soil biological
functions, for example, increasing the microbial biomass carbon. The long-lasting application of
organic amendments also improved soil aggregate stability, enzymes activities, reduce soil bulk density,
enhance soil organic nitrogen, and gave a positive effect in climate change mitigation by soil carbon
sequestration [51,52]. These results indicate that the agronomic performance of compost-amended soil
shows additional benefits to soil and will improve the crops yield and quality. The applications of
organic-based agricultural fertilizer are very promising as it has the potential to convert biodegradable
waste into valuable fertilizer products and should be considered as an effective management of
compostable wastes.

2.4. Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is a sustainable and economical process that involves the use of worms
or wrigglers to convert organic waste materials into a nutrient rich and well stabilized material.
Vermicompost is likened to peat and has excellent structure, aeration, porosity, and enhanced moisture
holding capacity for promoting plant growth [53]. This type of composting requires a smaller area and
the worms can hasten the breakdown of waste under suitable temperature conditions. Unlike typical
composting, which requires the compost to be turned each week for aeration, vermicomposting consists
of worms that will tunnel through the soil, creating air pathways to allow oxygen flow. Nonetheless,
vermicomposting needs to be used in low temperature ranges to prevent the worms from dying [54].
The nurturing of earthworms in organic waste has the potential to transform wastewater sludge, food
waste, animal waste, municipal waste, and other wastes into valuable fertilizer [53,55,56]. Besides
that, the use of these organic fertilizers will maintain and improve the soil nutrients and soil structure
(Table 1).
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 8 of 19

Table 1. Characteristic of different types of biowaste materials used for fertilizer production.

Processing Treatment into

Types of Material Source of Biomass Parameters Monitored and Their Resulting Effects Reference
Fertilizer
Biological yield: Maximum rate achieved with the use of livestock manure.
Organic manure Chicken manure, compost Inoculation with Azotobacter Grain yield: Increase in biomass and plant height with good nutritional conditions [17]
provided by organic manure.
Treatment with effective
Organic manure and green Farmyard manure; Green Shoot biomass and grain yield: Enhanced rice shoot biomass and grain yield was observed
microorganisms and fertilizer [15]
manure manure Trifolium alexandrianum using green manure as soil amendments.
solution
Soil fertility: Most significant proportional growth was obtained with organic manure.
Organic manure Various livestock Mixed with composted humus [16]
Water level: Coffee plants grew better when lower irrigation water level is supplied.
Accumulation of heavy metals: The uptakes of PB, Cd, and Zn by plants were controlled
Organic manure Sheep manure Mixed with chemical fertilizer [18]
efficiently with the addition of sheep manure.
Surface applied and
Solid pig manure, solid dairy Bacterial diversity: Manure amendments achieved greater bacterial diversity with longer
Organic manure incorporated using cultivator [19]
manure lasting effect compared to granular urea N treatment.
implement
Various livestock: chicken, pig Mixed with inorganic fertilizer Soil salinity: Increased in total soluble salts, decreased in pH and occurrence of secondary
Animal manure [23]
and pigeon in field experiment soil salinization. Heavy rainfall reduced the soil TSS concentration considerably.
Mixed with inorganic fertilizer
Animal manure Pig or cattle manure Aggregate stability: Decreased stability but increased the biological binding agent content. [7]
in field experiment
Soil aggregation: Increased risk of soil structure degradation due to high salt content. Can
Animal manure Pig and cattle manure Mixed with inorganic fertilizer [22]
be alleviated by straw incorporation.
Phosphate uptake: A higher uptake rate was found compared to commercial fertilizer as
Acid leaching; ion exchange; the high solubility of commercial fertilizers led to the rapid formation of insoluble
Sewage sludge ash Wastewater treatment plant [33]
precipitation with lime water compound which prevented plant growth. Recycled phosphate has lower solubility and
was able to produce its effect over a longer period of time.
Thermally dried and Soil properties: Higher values of organic matter, total K, N and minerals.
Sewage sludge - [37]
anaerobically digested Microbial properties: Higher microbial activities seen in sewage sludge amended soils.
Hydrothermal carbonization,
Phosphate recovery: High recovery rate of about 80%. Alternative acids can be used to save
Sewage sludge Wastewater treatment plant acidic leaching and struvite [25]
material costs.
precipitation
Element bioavailability: Pyrolyzed products contain better phosphorus pools for long-term
Municipal activated sewage
bioavailability.
sludge; Industrial activated Wastewater treatment plant Pyrolysis process [28]
Nutrient content: Increased nutrient content with pyrolysis and decreased PAH
sludge
concentrations and pollutant mobility.
Municipal wastewater Composting process: Addition of phosphate amendments promoted temperature rise,
Dewatered fresh sewage sludge Composting using reactor [29]
treatment plant degradation of organic matter and higher nutrient control.
Soil properties: Total N and organic carbon level declined due to leaching and soil erosion.
Compost Food waste and cattle manure - Yield: higher maize yield observed with compost mix of 50% food waste with 50% cattle [42]
manure.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 9 of 19

Table 1. Cont.

Processing Treatment into

Types of Material Source of Biomass Parameters Monitored and Their Resulting Effects Reference
Fertilizer
Mechanical turning and Agronomic: The yield of crops using compost was comparable to that of chemical fertilizers.
Compost Olive mill waste watered to compensate No significant difference was observed in humic content between compost and chemical [44]
evaporation fertilizer.
Soil reclamation: Dissolved organic carbon solution prepared from food waste composting
Moisture from fermentation
Compost—Liquid fertilizer Collection of moisture released removed about 43% and 21% of the initial Zn from topsoil and subsoil during the soil [46]
process
washing.
Composting process: Stable pH and electric conductivity value achieved after 96 h of
Dynamic high-temperature
Compost Food waste: Rice, cabbage, pork fermentation. Matured organic fertilizer obtained within 96 h. Continuous collision and [49]
aerobic fermentation bioreactor
friction within bioreactor creates perfect environment for microorganisms to reproduce.
Windrow composting; Pellets formation: Comparable properties with commercial organic fertilizers. Potential
Compost Swine manure solid fraction [48]
pelletization co-composting to improve livestock farming sustainability for agricultural uses.
Vermicompost properties: Beneficial to soil structure and nutrient availability.
Cattle manure; Earthworms Vermicomposted for two
Vermicompost Yield: Increase in vegetative growth and yield of peppermint without negative effect on [57]
(Eisenia fetida) months
human health and environment.
Cow manure—solid waste, Vermicompost properties: Reduced pathogens to achieve safe compost standard.
Combination of waste in
Vermicompost sewage sludge; Earthworms Microbial pathogens dynamics: Significant reduction in microbial pathogens achieved and [54]
reactors
(Eisenia fetida) microbiological quality of class A compost attained.
Aerobic digestion of wastewater Vermicompost properties: Compost rich in nutrients and low in pathogens were produced.
Wastewaster sludge;
Vermicompost sludge, followed by Plant growth: Vermicompost stimulated plant growth better than sludge and limed sludge [58]
Earthworms (Eisenia fetida)
vermicomposting amendments. Vermicompost treatment yielded plants with the highest weight and height.
Cow dung, bakery industry Left for decomposition and
Vermicomposting: Enriched nutrients (NPK) content compared to raw wastes. Potential
Vermicompost sludge; Earthworms vermicomposted for three [53]
biotransformation of sludge waste to compost for soil health improvement.
(Eisenia fetida) months
Vermicomposting: High remediation capacity and useful for subsiding metalliferous soils
Municipal solid waste;
Vermicompost Vermicomposted for 8 weeks and reducing contaminants. Good management strategy for mitigating ecotoxicity in heavy [56]
Earthworms (Eudrilus eugeniae)
metals-contaminated soil.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 10 of 19

Soil remediation by using vermicompost from municipal solid wastes showed that vermicompost
was proficient in mitigating the heavy metals-contaminated soils, in addition to enhancing plant
growth [56]. The use of cow manure vermicompost on peppermint growth reported that plants treated
with vermicompost were the tallest and had the highest level of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and essential
oil content. Better vegetative growth was observed in locations with low sunshine and moderate
temperatures while higher oil yield and antioxidant capacity was observed in locations with high
sunshine and high temperatures [57]. Valdez-Perez et al. (2011) researched on the vermicomposting of
wastewater sludge to improve its nutrient content and reduce pathogenic content. The wastewater
sludge was digested aerobically in a reactor with the addition of flocculants. The resulting biosolids
was cultivated with Eisenia fetida to obtain the vermicompost with the best stability and maturity. The
plants treated with vermicompost grew to be the tallest with the most leaves and heaviest, though
the total N content was lower compared to limed biosolids [58]. This shows that vermicomposting
of wastewater sludge could enrich the nutrients in the resulting compost and will contribute to the
environment through the bioconversion of these wastes for fertilization [55].
The vermicompost derived from the mixture of cow manure, wastewater sludge, and municipal
solid waste was also found to greatly reduce the number of microbial in the waste. Vermicompost is
able to eliminate significant amounts of pathogens through factors such as worm gut enzymes, coelomic
fluid secretion and competition between microorganisms [59]. Different treatments on the earthworm
gut will also affect the microbial population differently. The earthworms consume the pathogens as food
and their proteolytic enzymes activity will help to eliminate the pathogens, thereby promoting the use
of earthworms to significantly reduce the pathogens to an acceptable microbiological quantity without
the need for increased temperature [54]. Apart from that, the leachate from vermicompost has found
to be useful as a liquid fertilizer after dilution with NPK fertilizers. These leachates contain a large
amount of nutrient, high germination index, and is free of pathogens. Cow manure was composted
thermophilically and the resulting compost was added with earthworms and left to vermicompost for
two months. The leachate from the vermicompost bed was drained and collected for fertilizer usage.
The humic acids and plant growth regulator components in the leachate increased the number of roots
and stimulated the nutrient uptake for plant growth [60]. The improvements in physico-chemical
properties make vermicompost an ideal amendment for field applications to improve soil health.

3. Biofertilization in Agricultural Practices

Biofertilizers are composed of agriculturally beneficial microorganisms that can improve the soil
condition and plant growth through mobilizing the available nutrients with their biological activities.
The microbes present secrete many health and nutrient enhancement compounds, which will promote
the growth of plants [3]. These microorganisms also contribute in the life cycle of plants through the
decomposition of organic matter, nitrogen fixation, and supply to plants as well as the solubilisation of
insoluble phosphates. The biological fertilization provides benefits to soil and crops production, but
this practice also has its limitations and its feasibility needs to be studied to evaluate its potential use
in the future (Table 2).
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 11 of 19

Table 2. Benefits and limitations of chemical and biological fertilizers [3,61–63].

Type of Fertilizer Benefits Limitations

- Oversupply of N results in softening of

plant tissues, leading to diseases and
pest occurrence.
- Degradation of soil structure due to
- Nutrients are readily available to
decomposition of soil.
the plants.
- Overuse will lead to leaching and
- Efficiency of nutrients placement is
pollution to water resources, acidification
immediate and direct.
Chemical fertilizer or alkalization of soil and destruction of
- Lower cost compared to organic fertilizer.
friendly microorganisms.
- High in nutrient content and is needed
- Nutrients are easily lost through fixation,
only in small amounts for adequate
leaching or gas emissions, which lowers
crops growth.
the fertilizer efficiency.
- Continuous production leads to
disruption of human health and
ecological balance.

- More balanced nutrient supply to keep

plants healthy.
- Promotes nutrient mobilization that can
enhance soil biological activity.
- Low in nutrient content and is needed in
- Sustains the residual concentrations of
large volumes to sustain crops growth.
organic N and P in the soil by reducing N
- Composition of compost is variable and
leaching losses and P fixation.
might not contain the necessary major
- Supplies food to promote the growth of
nutrients for crops growth.
beneficial microorganisms.
- Nutritional deficiencies could occur due
- Provide better soil structure for root
Biofertilizer to the slow transfer rate of micro-
growth and helps to reduce certain plant
and macro-nutrients.
and soil-borne diseases.
- Extensive application and long-term
- Increase the soil organic matter content to
usage may result in accumulation of salts,
enhance the exchange capacity of
nutrients, and heavy metals, which will
nutrients, increase soil water retention,
affect plant growth, human health, water
and supports soil aggregation.
quality, and soil organisms.
- Offers economic and ecological benefits
by improving soil health and fertility.
- Non-pollutant, inexpensive and utilize
renewable sources.

The use of organic and chemical fertilizer combination has shown remarkable improvements on
crop yields and soil organic carbon. Despite the ability of NPK fertilizers to rapidly enhance crop
growth in the initial stage, the use of organic fertilizers will contribute to the overall plant growth and
soil organic carbon content in the long run [64]. The combination of organic and chemical fertilizers
also achieve comparable productivity to that of conventional N and P sources, and at the same time,
decreasing the loss of nutrients through the use of organic materials [65]. Besides that, the inclusion
of organic amendments will improve the environmental benefits as most of these biofertilizers are
derived from waste. This will create a sustainable and efficient fertilization process in the long term,
while simultaneously mitigating environmental pollution. It is essential that a balanced nutrition
with adequate N and other nutrients are provided to crops to obtain high yield and good quality
products [66]. Apart from that, it is well known that biofertilizers have notable characteristics for
improving soil biological fertility and suppressing soil-borne pathogens. The long-term application
of chemical fertilizers will eventually lead to the decrease in bacterial community within the soil.
Hence, biofertilizers will assist in regulating the soil biological properties and strengthen the microbial
community structure to produce healthy soil microbials [63]. Biofertilizer with chemical fertilizer
combination is also a promising approach to preserve the soil microbiota balance in a continuous
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 12 of 19

cycle of cropping cultivation, which is attributed to the beneficial bacteria encapsulation ability of
biofertilizer that helps to regulate the functional bacteria in the crop fields [64].

4. Environmental Impact of Fertilizers and Biofertilizers

Various types of biofertilizers have been developed due to their potential as a more environmentally
friendly, economical and sustainable alternative to inorganic fertilizers. Biofertilizers play an important
role in the sustainability of the soil fertility as well as on plant productivity. For example, mycorrhiza,
a type of fungi found widely in soils, can assists in the phosphorus intake of plants, improve resistance
to root pathogens, and increase the tolerance of plants to environmental and biological stress. This
fungal system has the capability to extend into a wide area for nutrients extraction and to withstand
unfavourable conditions [67]. Furthermore, the macroalgal biorefinery for integrated production of
fuel, biomolecules, and fertilizers can contribute to environmental restoration and climate mitigation.
This is seen through the cultivation of seaweed, which can act as a biofilter as these seaweeds will
extract excess nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon dioxide, and heavy metals pollutants from the aquatic
system during the harvesting process. Hence, this will lead to cleaner and safer water sources for
human health and the environment [68].
The composting process would contribute in the sustainable management of organic waste as
these wastes can be reused as valuable sources of fertilizer [69]. Composting is simple and quick to
implement, in addition to its lower environmental and social costs, compared to other organic waste
disposal methods such as landfilling and incineration. It also allows the good management of waste
streams, reduces organic matter quantity to landfills, and lowers greenhouse gas emissions. Studies
have shown that it is a feasible strategy to convert these waste into compost with a high fertilizer
value [70–72]. The use of compost amendments and green manure can also reduce the soil N2 O
emissions without increasing the CO2 emissions. A study on the use of green manure for mitigating
soil GHG emissions in an irrigated maize production systems reported a 28% reduction in N2 O fluxes
and global warming potential [71].
The life cycle analysis (LCA) of fertilizer production is vital to create plans to counter and reduce
the impacts to the environment. Table 3 shows the life cycle assessment categories that exist in a
fertilizer production process. These categories include land use, greenhouse effect, climate change,
human toxicity, acidification, eutrophication, and fossil fuel depletion. A life cycle analysis on two
types of composting scale, home and industrial composting was carried out by Martinez-Blanco et al.
(2010). It was discovered that industrial composting system would require more energy as there will
be large amounts of biowaste transportation requirements. The waste generation and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) emissions from industrial composting are much higher, though the emissions of
gases like NH3 , N2 O, and CH4 are lower compared to home composting. This is due to the biofiltration
processes available in industrial processes to filter the exhaust gases [73]. Overall, the industrial
composting was found to be more impacting in terms of ozone layer depletion potential, photochemical
oxidation potential, and cumulative energy demand, where developments of the biofiltration processes
of VOCs and energy minimization techniques should be explored to reduce the environmental impact
of the system [73]. A life cycle GHG evaluation was also conducted for the organic rice production
using organic fertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers. The practice of flooding the rice fields during
cultivation leads to anaerobic conditions, which promote the generation and release of methane
gases. The largest contributions to GHG emissions were from the field emissions compared to the
planting, cultivating, and transporting process. By using organic fertilizers such as green manure
seeds, farmyard manure, compost and biofermented juice derived from fermentation processes, the
GHG emissions were found to be much lower (0.58 kg CO2 per kg of paddy rice) compared to rice
production with chemical fertilizer usage. The rice production practices can also be further adjusted
by reducing the flooding period and applying alternative wetting and drying techniques to conserve
water and mitigate methane emissions [74].
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 13 of 19

Table 3. Life cycle assessment categories for fertilizer production.

Category Implications References

Land use Land use efficiency increases with the fertilization intensity. [75]
Global warming potential can be reduced by the efficient
Greenhouse effect utilization of resources and minimizing of natural ecosystems [76]
alteration.
Selection of appropriate ingredients in the fertilizer product type
Climate change [77]
will significantly reduce emissions to the air.
Zinc and arsenic are the main contributors to health impact.
Human toxicity Remediation of the marine system by bio-extraction can reduce [68]
the impacts to human health.
Acidification potential increases with nitrogen applications due to
Acidification [78]
ammonia volatilization.
Eutrophication potential pattern changes with increase nitrogen
Eutrophication [79]
fertilizers usage.
Utilization of biogas from non-food materials, e.g., organic
Fossil fuel depletion manure and maize silage, will lower the demand for fossil fuels [80]
for fertilizer production.

5. Economic Potential of Biowaste Conversion to Fertilizer

An economic analysis revealed that the energy input of chemical fertilizers consists of the biggest
share within the total energy inputs, owing to the inefficient usage of the fertilizer such that farmers
tend to use more fertilizers than needed [81]. To overcome the environmental and health problems
associated with the excessive use of these chemicals, the effective management of energy and resources
for agricultural production must be applied. This will result in minimization of environmental impacts,
preservation of natural resources and reduction of waste. One of the major environmental concerns is
due to wastewater production and its adverse effect to the ecosystem when discharged to rivers, soils,
or seas. The amount of communal and industrial sludge disposed at landfills has increased with the
modern lifestyle and urbanization across the globe. Some of these wastewater sludges contain organic
materials like bacteria, moulds, nutrients, and other molecules, which show potential for it to be used
as fertilizers [11]. Economic studies were conducted on the recovery of struvite, a slow-releasing and
high quality fertilizer, from wastewater [10,82]. The economical components, which include full scale
fertilizer facility, struvite sale price, operating cost, net revenue, and many more were considered.
The results after optimizing the experimental conditions found that the process is feasible with a
relatively short payback time period of six years. There was also high potential to gain profits of twice
its original investment as the price of struvite can be higher based on its applications such as boutique
fertilizer [82].
Another study on the production of fertilizers from raw wastewater sludge experienced challenges
in the removal of unwanted compounds like heavy metals and drying of the sludge, where the
optimum process for rapid evaporation of unbound water molecules was essential [11]. The developed
economical solution for processing sludge waste involves the drying of sludge in low vacuum,
minimizing its volume, energy consumption, storage needs, and transportation costs. Chitosan
magnetite nanoparticles were used to remove the heavy metals, and the recycling of these nanoparticles
are essential to justify the economic potential for industrial processing. Furthermore, the costs of
drying can be reduced by using the biogas produced through bio-fermentation of the sewage sludge.
From the economic perspective, these findings can promote the feasibility of wastewater recycling for
fertilizers production, which contributes to the sustainable waste management [83]. Figure 2 shows an
energy self-sustainable sludge processing system for the treatment of sludge to fertilizers. The energy
produced by the sludge in the wastewater can be utilized in various combinations, for example, the
biogas obtained from anaerobic fermentation can be used to power the sludge processing system. The
the costs of drying can be reduced by using the biogas produced through bio-fermentation of the
sewage sludge. From the economic perspective, these findings can promote the feasibility of
wastewater recycling for fertilizers production, which contributes to the sustainable waste
management [83]. Error! Reference source not found. shows an energy self-sustainable sludge
processing2019,
Sustainability system for the treatment of sludge to fertilizers. The energy produced by the sludge14inofthe
11, 2266 19
wastewater can be utilized in various combinations, for example, the biogas obtained from anaerobic
fermentation can be used to power the sludge processing system. The final dry sludge can be used
final dry sludge can be used for fertilizing agricultural and non-agricultural fields as well as incinerated
for fertilizing agricultural and non-agricultural fields as well as incinerated to become fuel [11].
to become fuel [11].

Figure 2. Energy self-sustainable sewage sludge processing system [11].

Figure 2. Energy self-sustainable sewage sludge processing system [11].
A field experiment conducted on fodder maize by altering the use of chemical, organic, and
A fieldreported
biofertilizer experiment thatconducted
the use of halfon fodder maize
fertilizer by containing
portion altering thegreenuse of chemical,
compost andorganic, and
biofertilizer
biofertilizer reported that the use of half fertilizer portion containing green
yielded the lowest expense [84]. Although higher biomass production was obtained from chemical compost and biofertilizer
yielded the
fertilizer, thelowest
highest expense [84].was
net profit Although
seen in higher biomass
the usage production
of biofertilizer withwaseffective
obtained from chemical
microorganisms
fertilizer, the highest net profit was seen in the usage of biofertilizer with
or biological potassium fertilizer. NPK fertilizers produce rapid effects and they can achieve high effective microorganisms
or biological
yield in a short potassium
time, butfertilizer. NPKare
biofertilizers fertilizers
renewableproduce rapideffects
and their effects and
last forthey can achieve
a longer high
period with
yield in a short time, but biofertilizers are renewable and their effects last
many additional benefits for plant growth [85]. The conversion of municipal solid waste into compost for a longer period with
many
for additional
seedling benefitswas
production for plant growthto[85].
also found have The conversion
good economic of potential.
municipal The solidsubstitution
waste into compost
of peat
for seedling production was also found to have good economic potential.
with compost could reduce the cost of the substrates by up to 23%. This reduction could generate The substitution of peat
with compost could reduce the cost of the substrates by up to 23%. This reduction
an increment of 2.9% in the business contribution margin for crops productions. Supply of compost could generate an
increment of 2.9% in the business contribution margin for crops productions.
is in abundance and stable as it is obtained as a by-product generated from solid waste, enabling Supply of compost is
in abundance
the transformation and stable
of the as it is obtained
compost as a by-product
to value-added fertilizersgenerated
to be sold from
at a solid
securewaste,
price enabling
[70]. Hence,the
transformation of the compost to value-added fertilizers to be sold at a
composting contributes tremendously in the efficient management of waste resources as well as adds secure price [70]. Hence,
composting
economic contributes
value to wastetremendously
by recycling in thethe efficient
nutrient management
content of wastecomponents
and substrate resources asin well
theaswaste.
adds
economic value to waste by recycling the nutrient content and substrate components
Better economic prospects can be attained with the combination of bio and organic fertilizers together in the waste.
Betterchemical
with economic prospectstocan
fertilizers be attained
promote with the combination
a sustainable crop production of bio and organic
technology fertilizers
[84]. Owingtogether
to that,
there is great economic potential in biowaste conversion, which can lead to a reduction in average
costs of the growing media used for crops growth.

6. Conclusions
Growing concerns on environmental and ecological impacts associated with agriculture activities
have created the need for more sustainable agriculture practices. Biological fertilizers derived from
biowaste are studied for its potential as an alternative source of fertilization. The prospective of
commercializing the production of biofertilizer requires useful information of the economic viability
and potential environmental impacts, including the life cycle assessment of organic fertilizer production.
The significant barriers in using organic fertilizer are most likely the uncertainties in nutrient content
and suitability of utilization in soil. The agronomic yield of organic fertilizer may also be lower
compared to the conventional mineral fertilizer management, though it will contribute towards a
greener environment through GHG mitigation. There is a need to carefully examine the trade-offs
between the synthetic N input in soil, crop yield and quality, economic feasibility, as well as the GHG
emissions for protecting the environment.
The raw materials for biofertilizers are derived from biomass waste, and can be obtained for no
cost with a reliable supply as these wastes are constantly being generated. With a higher demand
of biofertilizers, the cost for biofertilizer will eventually reduce as the higher production rate will
ease the production cost. The management and transformation of biomass waste into fertilizers has
shown great advantages to soil and plant growth, besides contributing tremendously to the reduction
Sustainability 2019, 11, 2266 15 of 19

of carbon footprint. It is vital to develop more efficient management processes to fully utilize the
valuable compounds that can be extracted from these biomass waste and realize the commercialization
of bio-products from biowaste.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation—K.W.C. and P.L.S.; writing—original draft preparation, K.W.C., S.R.C.,
and P.L.S.; writing—review and editing, K.W.C., H.-W.Y., S.N., and Y.-C.H.; supervision, P.L.S.; funding acquisition,
P.L.S., H.-W.Y., and S.N.
Funding: This study is supported by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (Malaysia,
FRGS/1/2015/SG05/UNIM/03/1), the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOSTI02-02-12-SF0256) and the Prototype
Research Grant Scheme (Malaysia, PRGS/2/2015/SG05/UNIM/03/1). A note of appreciation to iRMC UNITEN for
the financial support through publication fund BOLD 2025 (RJO10436494).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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