Name: Maham Aslam

Course: Educational Statistics (8614)

Semester: Autumn, 2022

Assignment -01

Q.1 Why is Statistics important for a teacher or researcher?

Ans-

According to Lovitt:
“Statistics is the science which deals with the collection, classification and
tabulation of numerical facts as the basis for explanation, description and
comparison of phenomena.”
Tate, M.N. is statistics in Education (1953) has very beautifully summed up the
concept of statistics as It’s all perfectly clear; you complete statistics (means,
medians, modes etc.) from statistics (numerical facts) by statistics (statistics as
a science or methodology).

Need, Importance and Uses of Statistics:

1. Group Comparison:
The achievements of a class are not uniform in every subject. It is found that
one class is progressing faster is one subject, while another is progressing is a
different one. Even the various sections of a particular class do not progress
uniformly.

2. Individual Comparison:
Statistics helps in the individual comparison of students differing in respect of
their ages, abilities and intelligence levels. It is statistics which tells us why thus
students who are similar in every other respect yet do not show similar
achievement is one particular subject.

3. Educational and Vocational Guidance:

Every individual student differs from others in his intellectual ability, interests,
attitude and mental abilities students are given educational and vocational
guidance so that they make the best use of these abilities and the process of
guidance is based upon statistics only.
4. Educational Experiments and Research:
With a change in place, line and circumstances, the aims, curricula and
methods of education keep on changing. The work of research and
experimentation cannot become reliable and valid without the use of statistics.

5. Essential for Professional Efficiency:

The teacher’s responsibility does not end when he teaches a particular subject
in the classroom. His responsibility includes teaching the students, obtaining
the desired level of knowledge for himself and assessing the achievement of
modification in behaviour also.

6. Basis of Scientific Approach to Problems:

Statistics forms the basis of scientific approach to problems of Educational
Psychology.

Meaning of Graphical Representation of Data:

A graphic representation is the geometrical image of a set of data. It is a
mathematical picture. It enables us to think about a statistical problem in
visual terms. A picture is said to be more effective than words for describing a
particular thing or phenomenon.

Consequently the graphic representation of data proves quite an effective and

an economic device for the presentation, understanding and inter predation of
the collected statistical data. The statistical data can be represented by
diagram, charts etc., so that the significance attached to these data may
immediately be grasped, of course, the diagrams should be neatly and
accurately drawn.

Advantages of Graphical Representation of Data:

1. The data can be presented in a more attractive and an appealing form.

2. It provides a more lasting effect on the brain. It is possible to have an

immediate and a meaning group of large amounts of data through such
presentation.

3. Comparative analysis and interpretation may be effectively and easily made.

4. Various valuable statistics like median, mode, quartiles may be easily

computed. Through such representation, we also get an indication of
correlation between two variables.
5. Such representation may help in the proper estimation evaluation and
interpretation of the characteristics of items and individuals.

6. The real value of graphical representation use in us economy and

effectiveness. It carries a lot of communication power.

7. Graphical representation helps in for-casting, as it indicates the trend of the

data in the past.

Q.2 Discuss different types of data. Also elaborate differences between

primary and secondary data
Ans-
 Primary Data

Primary data is data originated for the first time by the researcher through
direct efforts and experience, specifically for the purpose of addressing his
research problem. Also known as the first hand or raw data. Primary data
collection is quite expensive, as the research is conducted by the organisation
or agency itself, which requires resources like investment and manpower. The
data collection is under direct control and supervision of the investigator.

The data can be collected through various methods like surveys, observations,
physical testing, mailed questionnaires, questionnaire filled and sent by
enumerators, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, focus groups, case
studies, etc.

Secondary Data

Secondary data implies second-hand information which is already collected

and recorded by any person other than the user for a purpose, not relating to
the current research problem. It is the readily available form of data collected
from various sources like censuses, government publications, internal records
of the organisation, reports, books, journal articles, websites and so on.

Secondary data offer several advantages as it is easily available, saves time and
cost of the researcher. But there are some disadvantages associated with this,
as the data is gathered for the purposes other than the problem in mind, so
the usefulness of the data may be limited in a number of ways like relevance
and accuracy.
Moreover, the objective and the method adopted for acquiring data may not
be suitable to the current situation. Therefore, before using secondary data,
these factors should be kept in mind.

Key Differences Between Primary and Secondary Data

The fundamental differences between primary and secondary data are

discussed in the following points:

1. The term primary data refers to the data originated by the researcher
for the first time. Secondary data is the already existing data, collected
by the investigator agencies and organisations earlier.
2. Primary data is a real-time data whereas secondary data is one which
relates to the past.
3. Primary data is collected for addressing the problem at hand while
secondary data is collected for purposes other than the problem at
hand.
4. Primary data collection is a very involved process. On the other hand,
secondary data collection process is rapid and easy.
5. Primary data collection sources include surveys, observations,
experiments, questionnaire, personal interview, etc. On the contrary,
secondary data collection sources are government publications,
websites, books, journal articles, internal records etc.
6. Primary data collection requires a large amount of resources like time,
cost and manpower. Conversely, secondary data is relatively inexpensive
and quickly available.
7. Primary data is always specific to the researcher’s needs, and he controls
the quality of research. In contrast, secondary data is neither specific to
the researcher’s need, nor he has control over the data quality.
8. Primary data is available in the raw form whereas secondary data is the
refined form of primary data. It can also be said that secondary data is
obtained when statistical methods are applied to the primary data.
9. Data collected through primary sources are more reliable and accurate
as compared to the secondary sources.

Conclusion

As can be seen from the above discussion that primary data is an original and
unique data, which is directly collected by the researcher from a source
according to his requirements. As opposed to secondary data which is easily
accessible but are not pure as they have undergone through many statistical
treatments.

Q.3 Explain ‘pictogram’ as a technique to explore/explain data.

Ans-
A pictogram is one of the simplest and most popular forms of data
visualization out there. Besides making your data look nice, pictograms
can make your data more memorable.
Visually stacking icons to represent simple data can improve a reader’s recall of
that data and even their level of engagement with that data. Pictograms can
also be a fun addition to any infographic.
If you've ever asked yourself, what is a pictogram, we'll tell you all about it,
show you when you should use them, and give you some inspiration with our
pictogram examples.

What is a pictogram?
Pictograms are types of charts and graphs that use icons and images to
represent data.

Also known as “pictographs”, “icon charts”, “picture charts”, and “pictorial unit
charts”, pictograms use a series of repeated icons to visualize simple data. The
icons are arranged in a single line or a grid, with each icon representing a
certain number of units (usually 1, 10, or 100).
A feature of many great infographics, they’re often used to make otherwise
boring facts or data points more compelling, as seen in the statistical
infographic below.
 
And since pictograms are made from a series of icons, they’re perfect for those
times when you need an attractive graphic but don’t have a graphic designer
to rely on. 
When to use a pictogram
Pictograms can come in handy quite often when visualizing data
in infographics, reports, presentations, and even resumes!
You can use a pictogram whenever you want to make simple data more
visually interesting, more memorable, or more engaging.
Whether you want to show the magnitude of an important stat or visualize a
fraction or percentage, you can use pictograms to add visual impact to simple
data.
1. Use a pictogram to show ratings or changes
We know that pictograms are great for showing simple proportions or
percentages.

Pretty much every site that allows customers to rate products or services (like
Yelp and Amazon) uses pictograms to show the results of their five-star rating
system.

We can do the same thing to visualize ratings, scores, and changes over time
and space in our infographics.

Infographic pictogram examples

This pictogram example takes the form of an infographic. There's a lot of data
to be shared here about change management. Instead of becoming
overwhelmed by the ratings, the star icons draw the eye to key information
that makes it easier to understand.

Q.4 Pie Chart is a common way to depict data. Discuss its usage and
drawbacks.
Ans-
A pie chart is a type of graph that records data in a circular manner that is
further divided into sectors for representing the data of that particular part out
of the whole part. Each of these sectors or slices represents the proportionate
part of the whole. Pie charts, also commonly known as pie diagrams help in
interpreting and representing the data more clearly. It is also used to compare
the given data.
Pie Chart Example

Let us look at the following example of the following pie chart that represents
the ingredients used to prepare a butter cake.
Example: The whole pie represents a value of 100. It is divided into 10 slices or
sectors. The various colors represent the ingredients used to prepare the cake.
What would be the exact quantity of each of the ingredients represented in
specific colors in the following pie chart?
Solution: As we can see, the pie is divided into 10 slices or sectors. To calculate
the exact amount of ingredients that are added to the cake, we divide the
whole sector's value, i.e., 100 by the number of sectors. So, 100 ÷ 10 = 10.
Hence, looking at the color divisions made in the pie chart we can conclude
that:

Quantity of Flour 30

Quantity of Sugar 20

Quantity of Egg 40

Quantity of Butter 10

Pie Chart Formula

We know that the total value of the pie is always 100%. It is also known that a
circle subtends an angle of 360°. Hence, the total of all the data is equal to
360°. Based on these, there are two main formulas used in pie charts:
 To calculate the percentage of the given data, we use the formula:
(Frequency ÷ Total Frequency) × 100
  To convert the data into degrees we use the formula: (Given Data ÷
Total value of Data) × 360°
We can work out the percentage for a given pie chart using the steps given
below,
 Categorize the given data and calculate the total
 Divide the different categories
 Convert the data into percentages
 Calculate the degrees
Let us understand the above steps using an example.
Example: Observe the following pie chart that represents the money spent by
Ana at the funfair. The indicated color shows the amount spent on each
category. The total value of the data is 20 and the amount spent on each
category is interpreted as follows:
 Ice Cream - 4
 Toffees - 4
 Popcorn - 2
 Rides - 10

To convert this into pie chart percentage, we apply the formula: (Frequency ÷
Total Frequency) × 100
Let us convert the above data into a percentage:
Amount spent on rides: (10/20)× 100 = 50%
Amount spent on toffees: (4/20)× 100 = 20%
Amount spent on popcorn: (2/20)× 100 = 10%
Amount spent on ice-cream: (4/20)× 100 = 20%
Example:
Observe the following pie chart that recommends a low-carb diet on a day.

We measure the angles of each slice. We get that Protein measures 180°, Carb
measures 108°, and Fats measures 72°
To find the percentage, we divide each angle by 360 and multiply it by 100.
Protein = (180/360) × 100 = 50%
Carb = (108/360) × 100 = 30%
Fats = (72/360) × 100 = 20%
Uses of Pie Chart

Whenever some data has to be represented visually as a fractional part of a

whole, we use pie charts. It is used to compare the data and see why one is
smaller/greater than the other. Therefore, when we are dealing with a limited
number of buckets and discrete data sets, it’s better to use a pie chart. Listed
below are a few uses of a pie chart:
 In a business, it is used to compare the growth areas such as profit

and loss.
 In school, pie charts are used to show the time allotted to each

section, the grades of students in a form of percentages, etc.

 Pie charts are used in comparing the relative size of data of people

owning the same vehicles, similar houses, etc.

 They are used to represent the marketing and sales data for the

comparison of brands.
Steps to Construct Pie Chart

We use the following steps to construct a pie chart and using the above-
mentioned formulas, we can calculate the data.
 Step 1: Write all the data into a table and add up all the values to get
a total.
 Step 2: To find the values in the form of a percentage divide each
value by the total and multiply by 100.
 Step 3: To find how many degrees for each pie sector we need, we
take a full circle of 360° and use the formula: (Frequency/Total
Frequency) × 360°
 Step 4: Once all the degrees for creating a pie chart are calculated,
draw a circle (pie chart) using the calculated measurements with the
help of a protractor.
Example: Construct a pie chart to visually display the favorite fruits of the
students in a class based on the given data: Mango - 45; Orange - 30; Plum -
15; Pineapple - 30; Melon - 30
Solution:
Step 1: Create a table with the values and get the total.

Mango 45

Orange 30

Plum 15

Pineapple 30

Melon 30

Total 150
Step 2: Find the percentage of each value:
Mango = (45/150) × 100 = 30%
Orange = (30/150) × 100 = 20%
Plum = (15/150) × 100 = 10%
Pineapple = (30/150) × 100 = 20%
Melon = (30/150) × 100 = 20%
Step 3: Finding the degree of each pie sector using the formula: (Given
data/Total Value of data) × 360°

Category Formula Degree

Mango (45/150) × 360 108°

Orange (30/150) × 360 72°

Plum (15/150) × 360 36°

Pineapple (30/150) × 360 72°

Melon (30/150) × 360 72°

With all the above degrees, with the help of a protractor draw a pie chart.Thus,
the pie chart looks like this:
Interpreting Pie Chart

To read or interpret a pie chart, we see if the given chart is given in

percentages or without any value. If it is given in percentages, the conversion
is made accordingly and interpreted accordingly. Let us look at an example to
understand this better.
Example: The pie chart shown below shows the percentages of types of
transportation used by 500 students to come to school. With this given
information, answer the following questions:
a) How many students come to school by bicycle?
b) How many students do not walk to school?
c) How many students come to school by bus and car?
Solution:
a) The students who come by bicycle = 25%; (25/100) × 500 = 25 × 5 = 125
b) The students who do not walk to school - We need to add the values of all
the remaining means, i.e., bus + car + bicycle = 26 + 32 + 25 = 83
Hence, (83/100) × 500 = 83 × 5 = 415 students do not walk to school.
c) The students who come by bus and car [(32 + 26)/100] × 500 = 58 × 5 = 290
Pie Chart Advantages

Given below are the advantages to a pie chart which are the reasons for the
widespread application of pie charts in different fields.
 A pie chart is a simple and easy-to-understand method to represent
the data visually as a fractional part of a whole.
 It provides an effective communication tool visually simpler than

other types of graphs.

 Pie chart helps in data comparison for the audience at a glance to

give an immediate analysis or to quickly understand information due

to widespread use in business and the media.
Pie Chart Disadvantages

There are few demerits in pie charts. These are as given below,
  A pie chart cannot show more than a few values without separating
the visual encoding from the data they represent, that is they are not
very effective when the number of values in a data set increases.
 It does not easily reveal exact values in the data set.

 To show the changes in the data, many pie charts may be needed. It,

therefore, fails to explain the causes, effects, or patterns.

Q.5 What do you understand by ‘measure of dispersion’? Also briefly discuss
some common measures of dispersion.
Ans-

 Dispersion in Statistics
Dispersion is the state of getting dispersed or spread. Statistical dispersion
means the extent to which numerical data is likely to vary about an average
value. In other words, dispersion helps to understand the distribution of the
data.

Measures of Dispersion
In statistics, the measures of dispersion help to interpret the variability of data
i.e. to know how much homogenous or heterogeneous the data is. In simple
terms, it shows how squeezed or scattered the variable is.

Types of Measures of Dispersion

There are two main types of dispersion methods in statistics which are:

 Absolute Measure of Dispersion

 Relative Measure of Dispersion
Absolute Measure of Dispersion
An absolute measure of dispersion contains the same unit as the original data
set. The absolute dispersion method expresses the variations in terms of the
average of deviations of observations like standard or means deviations. It
includes range, standard deviation, quartile deviation, etc.
The types of absolute measures of dispersion are:

1. Range: It is simply the difference between the maximum value and the
minimum value given in a data set. Example: 1, 3,5, 6, 7 => Range = 7 -1=
6
2. Variance: Deduct the mean from each data in the set, square each of
them and add each square and finally divide them by the total no of
values in the data set to get the variance. Variance (σ2) = ∑(X−μ)2/N
3. Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance is known as the
standard deviation i.e. S.D. = √σ.
4. Quartiles and Quartile Deviation: The quartiles are values that divide a
list of numbers into quarters. The quartile deviation is half of the
distance between the third and the first quartile.
5. Mean and Mean Deviation: The average of numbers is known as the
mean and the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of the
observations from a measure of central tendency is known as the mean
deviation (also called mean absolute deviation).

Relative Measure of Dispersion

The relative measures of dispersion are used to compare the distribution of
two or more data sets. This measure compares values without units. Common
relative dispersion methods include:

1. Co-efficient of Range
2. Co-efficient of Variation
3. Co-efficient of Standard Deviation
4. Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation
5. Co-efficient of Mean Deviation

Co-efficient of Dispersion
The coefficients of dispersion are calculated (along with the measure of
dispersion) when two series are compared, that differ widely in their averages.
The dispersion coefficient is also used when two series with different
measurement units are compared. It is denoted as C.D.
The common coefficients of dispersion are:

C.D. in terms of Coefficient of dispersion

Range C.D. = (Xmax – Xmin) ⁄ (Xmax + Xmin)

Quartile Deviation C.D. = (Q3 – Q1) ⁄ (Q3 + Q1)

Standard Deviation (S.D.) C.D. = S.D. ⁄ Mean

Mean Deviation C.D. = Mean deviation/Average