Lecture 3

Theories of Urban Design
• Urban design has historically been the domain of the

architecture and planning professions. The Modern
Theory of urban design emerged in the 1960s with
the focus on the relation of Humans' Perception
and Behavior in the city.
• The following are a few well known Theorists and

their work.
The Image of the City Kevin Lynch
• In the 60s and 70s, as a reaction to

the destructive impact of Modernism
on urban life, Kevin Lynch and
others have criticized the loss of
human dimension in modern
cities and tried to make them
readable again.
• At that time,
Cities with an almost identical
look everywhere in the world.
The modern cities have lost their
identity.

• Everyone has the need to know well his or her
environment and build his own conception of it.
• If the city is clearly structured, people can find their way around
more easily........ structures within the city should give
some signs to the people to orient themselves [Lynch,
1960].
• Also supports a social life in the society.
• Even newcomers from the map of the city without any help
should be able to find their way to the most important
places there, People should have in their mind an
"image" of the city.
• The image is an Internal Representation of the city,

and can be used as a "Mental Map" during our
circulation in the city.
• Some cities are easier to represent in our heads

than others are; in other words, are more legible.
Urban Structure The Human

Perceptual Experience
The rules & requirements for designing city spaces to

achieve good city image:
• Legibility [Readability]: "Mental Map" during our

circulation in the city.
• Structure and identity: Coherent pattern of urban

blocks, buildings and spaces.
• Imageability: Representation of the city and the most

important places.
• According to lynch, these rules & requirements should be

applied to the five key spatial elements of the city
which are:
1. Paths
2. Nodes
3. Districts
4. Edges
5. Landmarks
• Paths: “channels along which the observer moves”

• Paths: “channels along which the observer moves”

-Railroads -Streets
-Canals
-Trails
• Nodes: “points of intense activity”

• Strategic spots in a city.
• Junctions
• Centers of activity.
• Can be at street-corners or
an enclosed squares.
Problems
• Edges: “the boundaries between two areas”

including shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls …
including shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls …

Barriers
Boundaries
• Landmarks: “physical reference points”

• point-reference, usually a simply defined

physical visual object: building, sign, store,
or mountain..
 Singularity, uniqueness
 Contrast (small/big, new/old, dirty/clean)
• Landmarks are an important element of

urban form because they help people to
orient themselves in the city and help
identify an area.
• Examples from Uni. ??

• Districts: “represent medium-to-large sections of the city”
• Have a common character/theme - made up of texture,

form, detail, symbol, inhabitant, topography…
•
• May be industrial areas, train yards, suburbs, college

campuses etc..
Downtown Industrial District

Finding Lost Space Roger Trancik

 In his book, he defines Lost Space as:
• The left-over unstructured space; the
undesirable urban areas that are in
need of redesign; anti-spaces making
no positive contribution to the
surroundings or users”
• The ‘no-man's land’ that nobody

cares about maintaining or using.
• Urban voids creating a negative

image

The are to be Re-adapted, Re-inhabited, Re-imagined

• He integrates three theories in Finding Lost Space,
showing the spatial structure and system of relations of
the space that's clear and responsive to (human needs),
or against the local character (cultural, historical,
natural context).
• These Three Spatial theories are:

1. Figure Ground Theory,
2.The Linkage Theory
3.Place The Theory.

Figure Ground Theory
• The figure-ground theory focuses on the relationships

between the built (figure: Solid: buildings) and
natural (ground: Void: Open space)
environments.
• This theory offers a possible basis for dealing with

voids and balancing the existing fabric.

• The important aspect of figure-ground theory is the

acknowledgment of existing patterns of solids and
voids that may be found on a particular site, especially
in the urban environment.
• This could also be seen as analyzing the pattern of

an existing system, to be able to recognize
strengths and weaknesses.

• The figure-ground drawing is a
graphic tool for illustrating mass-void
relationships. a two-dimensional
abstraction in plan view that clarifies the
structure and order of urban spaces.
• This method of analysis becomes a

platform from which to relate void surface
to the existing pattern of the built
environment.
• It is helpful for a designer to pay attention

to the voids in urban space rather than
single buildings.

 Through the figure ground analysis we can clarify :
• Spatial structure and urban form.

• Identify positive and negative space.
• Analyze trends in urban development through the
evolution of the figure-ground relationship.
• Urban Solids : Three types

Public Monument , Urban Block, Edge
• Urban Voids : Five types

Foyer Space, Inner Block Voids, Streets, Parks, Liner Open
Space

Linkage Theory
• The linkage theory is a tool for linking together fragmented

parts of the city fabric in order to strengthen the system.
• looking at the void surface’s potential to physically connect

parts of the city by analyzing and thinking about current and possible
user movement and patterns of activities. The circulation of
movement becomes the driving force to the spatial connections of
the figure-ground.
• It focuses on lines, or links that physically connect different

parts of the city. These linkages are in the forms of paths, roads,
streets, pedestrian ways, linear open spaces.

Linkage Theory
• The designer applying the linkage theory tries to
organize a system of connections, or a network, as a
structure for ordering spaces.
• Emphasis is placed on circulation diagram rather

than the spatial diagram of the figure-ground theory.
• Movement systems and the efficiency of

infrastructure take precedence over patterns of
defined outdoor space.

Linkage Theory
• The plan of Canberra, Australia,

is a twentieth century model
using linkage as the major
component for the organization
of its physical form.

Linkage Theory
• The plan of Washington by L'Erifant in 1791 was a successful application of
the linkage theory.
• The famous triangle structure gives the city of Washington a
distinct identity, singling it out from the typical grid form of
North American cities.

Place Theory
• The place theory is different from linkage and figure-ground
theories because it adds the components of human needs and the
cultural, historical and natural context to the analysis of
urban form.
• In place theory, social and cultural values, visual perceptions of

users and an individual's control over the immediate public
environment are as important as principles of lateral
enclosure and linkage.
The overlay of the three theories
• Each of the three theories reveals an aspect of physical

form. The analysis of urban spatial structure
should integrate all three theories.
• Giving structure to the solids and voids,

organizing the links between areas, and
responding to the historical, cultural and natural
environment.
The overlay of the three theories

Responsive Environment Ian Bentley

The concept that a built environment must provide the
users with an essentially democratic mood and setting,
enriches the opportunities by maximizing the degree of
choices available to them.
• Suggests that people tend to prefer urban open spaces which

facilitate the fulfilment of their needs and wants.
• The design of a place affects the choices people can make at

many levels these levels are referred as the qualities of
responsive environment.
The Qualities of Responsive Environment:
1.Permeability
2.Variety
3.Legibility
4.Robustness
5.Visual appropriateness
6.Richness
7.Personalization

1.Permeability:
Where people can go and where they cannot (access), and the
number of alternative ways.
2.Variety:
The range of uses available to people.
3.Legibility:
How easily people can understand what opportunities it
offers.
•The aspect that contribute in making a place legible is the 5 key
elements; PATH, EDGES, NODES, LANDMARKS, DISTRICT

4.Robustness:
The degree to which people can use a given place
for different purposes.
5.Visual appropriateness:
The detailed appearance of the place make people aware of the
choices available.
6.Richness:
people's choice of sensory experiences
7.Personalization:
The extent to which people can put their own stamp on a place.
Theory of Urban Space Rob Krier
• Krier defines URBAN SPACE as “All types of space

between buildings in towns and their localities”.
• These range from the courtyard within an individual

building, to the wide open spaces.
• He sees the city itself as formed essentially of urban

spaces in the form of streets, squares and other
open spaces

Urban Space Typology.
• Krier shows that the urban spaces of Europe generally fall into three
main forms: square, circular or triangular in shape.
• Each of these forms (circular, square or triangular) may be twisted,

divided, added to others, penetrated, overlapped or alienated.
Triangular Circular Square


Facades Typologies
• The facades themselves can take many forms from solid, unrelieved
masonry, to masonry with openings of various kinds: windows,
doors, arcades, colonnades, to facades which are entirely glazed.
Typologies of Elevations
• Krier, gets closer to the concept of Type than anyone

else at any scale of.
• The physical form of the city is determined by

relationships between the streets and the open
spaces, the elevations and sections which Enclose
them.
Contemporary urban design Theory
Contemporary urban design theory is concerned with shaping

city and urban spaces to:
• Encourage social activities within the urban fabric

• Create positive social interactions
• Satisfy ecological needs
• Mitigate negative effects of urbanization
• Promote economic growth

Some contemporary urban design concepts and
theories:
• Place making
• New Urbanism
• Urban catalyst
• Urban Resilience
• Urban ecology

Place making
• Placemaking is an inherently people-centered approach to the planning,

designing and management of public spaces in cities, as it emphasizes the
relationships between individuals, communities, and urban spaces (Wyckoff,
2014).
• Designing cities that catered to people, focuses on the importance of lively

neighborhoods and inviting public spaces, it is the process of creating quality
places that people want to live, work, play, and learn in.
• Placemaking is both a process and a philosophy. It is centered around observing,

listening to, and asking questions of the people who live, work, and play in a
particular space in order to understand their needs and aspirations for that space
and for their community as a whole.
• Catalizes on local community's assets, inspiration, and potential, with the

intention of creating public spaces that promote people's health, happiness, and
well-being.

New Urbanism
• New Urbanism is an urban design movement

which promotes walkable neighborhoods
containing a range of mixed-use land-use and
human activities (i.e. housing, commercial,
educational etc.) in close proximity to each other.

Urban Catalyst
• A means of urban revitalization.
• Urban catalysts are new redevelopment strategies comprised of a series of

projects that drive and guide urban development based on using a design
element, process or idea to transform an existing available urban space in
a positive way.
• With a good understanding of the context, the new element modifies the
existing urban space around it and does not damage its context. Design can
be linked to place through the study of contextual factors including:
morphological, social, functional, perceptual, visual, and temporal.

Urban Resilience
• Urban resilience is the capacity of a city to survive, adapt, and grow, no

matter what stresses and shocks it experiences.
• Urban resilience is defined as the “capability to prepare for, respond to,

and recover from significant multi-hazard threats with minimum
damage to public safety and health, economy, and security“ of a given
urban area.
• Urban resilience focuses on distinct threats; climate change, natural

disasters ,terrorism and other social issues such as marginalisation,
poverty and segregation.

• Urban Ecology
• Urban ecology is the scientific study of the relation of living

organisms with each other and their surroundings in the context of
an urban environment.
• It focuses on the relationship between ecosystems and the layout of

an urban environment, aiming to understand how we can better
achieve a balance between the natural environment and human
behavior, in urban areas.
• Urban Ecology is a science that can help societies with their efforts
to become more sustainable.

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Theories of Urban Design

Theories of Urban Design

Theories of Urban Design

• Urban design has historically been the domain of the

• The following are a few well known Theorists and

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• In the 60s and 70s, as a reaction to

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Also supports a social life in the society.

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• The image is an Internal Representation of the city,

• Some cities are easier to represent in our heads

Urban Structure The Human

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

The rules & requirements for designing city spaces to

• Legibility [Readability]: "Mental Map" during our

• Structure and identity: Coherent pattern of urban

• Imageability: Representation of the city and the most

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• According to lynch, these rules & requirements should be

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Paths: “channels along which the observer moves”

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Paths: “channels along which the observer moves”

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Nodes: “points of intense activity”

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Strategic spots in a city.

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Edges: “the boundaries between two areas”

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

including shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls …

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Landmarks: “physical reference points”

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• point-reference, usually a simply defined

• Landmarks are an important element of

• Examples from Uni. ??

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• Districts: “represent medium-to-large sections of the city”

• Have a common character/theme - made up of texture,

The Image of the City Kevin Lynch

• May be industrial areas, train yards, suburbs, college

Downtown Industrial District

Finding Lost Space Roger Trancik

• The ‘no-man's land’ that nobody

• Urban voids creating a negative

Finding Lost Space Roger Trancik

Finding Lost Space Roger Trancik

• These Three Spatial theories are:

Finding Lost Space Roger Trancik

• The figure-ground theory focuses on the relationships

• This theory offers a possible basis for dealing with

Finding Lost Space Roger Trancik

• The important aspect of figure-ground theory is the

• This could also be seen as analyzing the pattern of

Finding Lost Space Roger Trancik

• This method of analysis becomes a

• It is helpful for a designer to pay attention