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Basics about Circuits

Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

System of Units:
We use the SI (System International) units. The system uses meters (m), kilograms (kg), seconds (s), ampere (A), Resistance (? ) & Volts (V) as the fundamental units. We use the following prefixes: pica (p): 10-12 nano (n): 10-9 micro (): 10-6 milli (m): 10-3 1 tera (T): 1012 giga (G) : 109 mega (M): 106 kilo (k): 103

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Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

Basic Quantities: Current The unit of current is the ampere (A). We note that 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second We normally refer to current as being either direct (dc) or alternating (ac).
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

i(t) t dc current
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i(t)

0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 0.5

t ac current
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

ac current

Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

Basic Quantities: Current
In solving for current in a circuit, we must assume a direction, solve for the current, then reconcile our answer. This is illustrated below.
I1 = 4 A I2 = - 3 A

Circuit 1

Circuit 2

(a)

(b)

In the diagram above, current I1 is actually 4 A as assumed. The actual positive direction of current I2 (equal to -3 A) in the opposite direction of the arrow for I2 . 4

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Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

Basic Quantities: Voltage
The next quantity of interest is voltage. Voltage is also called an electromotive force (emf). It is also called potential energy. Suppose one coulomb of charge is located at point b and one joule of energy is required to move the charge to point a. Then we say that Vab = 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton.meter/coulomb. Vab = 1 volt states that the potential of point a (voltage at point a) is l volt (positive) with respect to point b. The sign associated with a voltage is also called its polarity.
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Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

Basic Quantities: Voltage
As in the case for current, we must assume a positive direction (polarity) for the voltage. Consider the three diagrams below.

+
v=4v

.
(b)

a v=4v

vab = 4 v

(a)

.
b

(c)

Each of the above gives the same information.

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Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

Basic Quantities:Voltage
We need to keep in mind that we assume a polarity for the voltage. When we solve the circuit for the voltage, we may find that the actual polarity is not the polarity we assumed.
+

v = -6 v

The negative sign for 6 v indicates that if the red lead(probe) of a voltmeter is placed on + terminal and the black lead(probe) on the terminal the meter will read downscale or 6v.

A digital meter would read 6 v.

Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

Circuit Elements: We classify circuit elements as passive and active. Passive elements cannot generate energy. Common examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors. We will see later than capacitors and inductors can store energy but cannot generate energy. Active elements can generate energy. Common examples of active elements are power supplies, batteries, operational amplifiers.
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Introduction to Electronics (Semiconductor Devices)

circuits

Fundamentals

Why Semiconductors?

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Bohr Atomic Model of Ge

Ge has 32 orbiting electrons and neutrons and protons in Nucleus

Nucleus 1st shell electrons 2nd shell electrons 3rd shell electrons

4th and Valence shell electrons

Bohr Atomic Model of Si

Si has 14 orbiting electrons and neutrons and protons in Nucleus Nucleus 1st shell electrons 2nd shell electrons 3rd shell and Valence shell electrons

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The characteristics of a semiconductor material can be altered significantly by the addition of certain impurity atoms into the relatively pure semiconductor material. Terms: Doping, semiconductor
doping process is called as an

impurity,

intrinsic

A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the

Extrinsic

Materials

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Intrinsic Semiconductor Materials

Free electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor are only due to natural causes (photon light and thermal heating). A free electron will have its complementary hole. Electrons and holes due to only natural causes are also called as intrinsic carriers.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
Base Material (Si and Ge)
Impurity Pentavalent or Trivalent

Base Material+Pentavalent impurity n-type semiconductor Base Material+Trivalent impurity p-type semiconductor

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Pentavalent Impurity (n-type impurity)

Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As) and Phosporous (P) : have 5 electron in valence shell Donar Impurity

Trivalent Impurity (p-type impurity)

Boron (B), Gallium (Ga) and Indium: have 3 electrons in valence cell Acceptor impurity

Doping a crystal with both types of impurities forms a P-N junction diode. Junction

Negative ion

Positive ion

Some electrons will cross the junction and fill holes. A pair of ions is created each time this happens. As this ion charge builds up, it prevents further charge migration across the junction.

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Each electron that migrates across the junction and fills a hole effectively eliminates both as current carriers.

Depletion layer

This results in a region at the junction that is depleted of carriers and acts as an insulator.

Abrupt junction

Conduction band Energy

Valence band N-side

P-side

In an abrupt junction, the p side bands are at a slightly higher energy level.

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Energy bands after the depletion layer has formed

Conduction band Energy Energy hill Valence band

P-side

N-side

To an electron trying to diffuse across the junction, the path it must travel looks like an energy hill. It must receive the extra energy from an outside source.

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Diode Types
Rectifier Diodes Light Emitting Diodes (LED) Photodiodes Zener Diodes, etc

Diode Applications
Against Reverse Voltage Protection Rectifying {AC DC } Display (indicators, Advertise hoardings) Light Sensing (Solar panals etc)

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Light Emitting Diode (LED) circuit

How to connect LED
Expected ILED = 20mA, Assuming LED has V=1.5V. Find the value of R, if the source voltage 5 volts. R I LED A V

Vs

R=

VS V I LED

7 Segment Display
Consist of 7+1 LEDs Available in :
Commond Anode configuration Commond Cathode configuration

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7 Segment Display
Commond anode and Commond Cathode configuration

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7 Segment Display
Commond anode and Commond Cathode configuration

7 Segment Display
Application: Logic Display

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Classification of Transistors
TRANSISTORS

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

Field Effect Transistors (FET)

NPN - BJT

PNP - BJT

Junction FET (JFET)

Metal Oxyde Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

N-Channel JFET

P-Channel JFET

Depletion Mode MOSFET

Enhanced Mode MOSFET

N-Channel D-MOSFET

P-Channel D-MOSFET

N-Channel E-MOSFET

P-Channel E-MOSFET

A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes.

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Classification of Bipolar Junction Transistors Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

NPN Transistor
Collector I Base V I I

PNP Transistor
Collector

C
Base

CE

CE

BE
I Emitter

BE
I Emitter

Classification of Bipolar Junction Transistors

Current Gain : or hFE

NPN Transistor
Collector I Then

IC IB

And So

Base V I

CE

BE
I Emitter

IC = IB IE = IB + IC I E = I B (1 + )

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NPN NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two Ndoped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, an NPN transistor is ON" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.

PNP The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.

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Applications of Transistors
1. Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one

2. Transistor As a Switch

An electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications, amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used in PA systems to make the human voice louder or play recorded music. Amplifiers may be classified according to the input (source) they are designed to amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to perform with an electric guitar), the device they are intended to drive (such as a headphone amplifier), the frequency range of the signals (Audio, IF, RF, and VHF amplifiers, for example), whether they invert the signal (inverting amplifiers and noninverting amplifiers), or the type of device used in the amplification (valve or tube amplifiers, FET amplifiers, etc.).

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If for a small change in input voltage, a proportional large change in output voltage is obtained, then we say that, voltage amplification has taken place

Biasing in Transistor

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In order to use transistor as an amplifier, it must be operated in its active region. The biasing of the PNP and NPN transistor for their active region operation and the directions of the currents are

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The field-effect transistor (FET), sometimes called a unipolar transistor, uses either electrons (in Nchannel FET) or holes (in P-channel FET) for conduction. In FETs, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source.

The four terminals of the FET are named source, gate, drain, and body (substrate).

P-CHANNEL

N-CHANNEL

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Operation of N-channel with V GS =0 Due to the supply voltage V DS , current starts flowing through the channel. Therefore current flow through the channel get voltage across the channel. This voltage will Reverse BIAS the G to S p-n junction

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Thanks

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