Modern Physics

PHY1008
• Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

• p-n junction formation

• Carrier generation and recombination

• Solar cell and LED

• Hall effect

• Applications of semiconductors
Basic Definitions
• Drift Velocity : Under equilibrium conditions, the motion of free electrons in the material is
random and the net displacement of the electrons accounts to zero
• Under an external electric field, there is a net displacement of electrons in a direction
opposite to the applied field.
• This displacement is known as drift velocity, it accounts for current in the direction of the
field
• If ‘E’ is the applied electric field, ‘τ’ is mean collision time, drift velocity for the free electrons
is given by
𝑒𝐸
• 𝑣𝑑 = τ
𝑚
• Current Density (J): Current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary plane held
normal to the direction of current in a current carrying conductor
𝐼
• J= , A-area of cross section
𝐴
Basic Definitions
• Mean Free Path(λ): It is the average distance travelled by the free electrons between
successive collisions with the electrons/lattice ions
• Mean Collision Time (τ): It is the average time elapsed between two consecutive collisions
of a free electron with the lattice ions
• Resistivity (ρ): For a material of uniform cross section, the resistance ‘R’ is directly
proportional to length ‘L’ and inversely proportional to ‘A’
𝐿 𝐿 𝐴
• 𝑅 ∝ => R=ρ => ρ=R
𝐴 𝐴 𝐿
• Conductivity (σ): Reciprocal of resistivity
1 𝐿
• σ= =
ρ RA
• Mobility of electrons(µ): It is the magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the electron in
unit field
𝑣 1 𝑒𝐸τ 𝑒τ
µ= 𝑑= = , in terms of σ we have σ= neµe (electron) σ= peµh (hole)
𝐸 𝐸 𝑚 𝑚
Relation between J,σ &E

• From Ohms Law

ρ𝐿
V=IR=I
𝐴
• On rearranging,
𝐼 𝑉 1
= ∗
𝐴 𝐿 ρ
• We know that,
𝐼 1
= 𝐽 and = σ
𝐴 ρ
J= 𝝈E
Expression for electric current in a conductor: (I)
• The expression is given by
I=ne𝑣𝑑 A
N- number of electrons in unit volume of the conductor
𝑣𝑑 - Drift velocity of electrons
A-Area of cross section of the conductor
e- Charge of electron
• Conductivity:
𝑒𝐸 ne2 τ ne2 τ 𝑉
I= ne𝑣𝑑 A= (neA)( τ)= ( )𝐴𝐸= A*
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑

ρ𝐿 𝑚
V= *I= R*I (ρ= )
𝐴 ne2 τ
1 ne2 τ
σ= =
ρ 𝑚
Band Theory (Zone Theory) of Solids
• Developed by Bloch in 1928
• The energy band structure of a material determines
whether it is a conductor, semi-conductor and
insulator
• In isolated the electrons are arranged in energy levels
• In a solid, the outer electron energy levels become
smeared out to form bands
• Valence Band: The highest range of energy levels
which are occupied by electrons at 0K
• Conduction Band: It is the range of energy levels in
which electrons are suitable for conduction
• Forbidden Energy Gap: It is the energy difference
between the topmost level of the valence band and
the bottommost level of the conduction band. This
region is devoid of energy levels
Band Theory of Solids
• Conductors: There is an overlap between the valence and conduction bands,
hence electrons are free to move to the conduction band
• Example: Copper, Aluminum, Gold, Silver
• Semi-conductors: there is a small energy gap between the two bands. Thermal
excitation is sufficient to move from valence to conduction band
• Example: Silicon, Germanium, Gallium, Arsenic
• Insulator: A large energy gap exists between the valence and conduction band
• Example: Wood, Paper, Glass, Rubber
Semi-Conductors
• Semi-conductors are materials that have electrical conductivity that is between
lower than conductors and greater than insulators
• Their conductivity is in the range of 10-4 to 104 S/m
• Current is transported by two oppositely charged majority carriers known as
electrons and holes
• The conductivity of semi-conductors can be enhanced by adding suitable
impurities, this process is known as doping
• There are two types of semi-conductors
• Intrinsic Semi-conductors: Pure form of semi-conductors
• Extrinsic Semi-conductors: Intrinsic semi-conductors with impurities
 Direct semiconductors
are suitable for making
light-emitting devices,
whereas the indirect
semiconductors are not.

Eg: GaAs, InP

Eg: Si, Ge

- A semiconductor is direct if the maximum - A semiconductor is indirect if the maximum of

of the valence band and the minimum of the valence band and the minimum of the
the conduction band do have the same k conduction band do not have the same k value
value
Semi-conductors: Intrinsic
• A semi-conductor in pure form

• At any given temperature ‘T’ the number of electrons generated will be equal to the holes
generated

• If ‘n’ is the electron density in conduction band and p is the number of holes in the valence
band ’p’
n=p=ni, where ni is called intrinsic concentration or intrinsic density
Electrons and holes!
• The motion of electrons and holes constitutes the current in the material

• The absence of electrons in the semiconductor is represented by holes

• The role of holes is critical in explaining the conductivity of metals like zinc, etc.

• In the absence of an external field, the motion of these two carriers is random in their
respective bands

• It also helps in understanding the concept of doping

Effective mass of Electron and Holes
• When in crystal lattice the free electrons are considered to be in Quasi state whose mass is
different than that of free electrons in vacuum

• The “wave-particle” motion of electrons(matter waves!!!) in a crystal lattice is not the same
as that for a free electron, due to the periodic potential of the lattice

• In order to assume the electron as “free”, the influence of the neighboring electrons and the
lattice has to be taken into account
Effective mass of Electron and Holes
• Consider an electron in a crystal lattice in a electric field of strength ‘E’
• The force acting on the electron is given by F=-eE
• For an electron in a crystal lattice, there is contribution from neighboring ions and electrons.
Hence,
ma= -eE + Force due to neighboring ions and electron
• It is hard to quantitatively account for the second term, the above equation changes to
−𝑒𝐸
m*a= -eE => m*=
𝑎
• Thus, it can be inferred that the effective mass of an electron depends on its location in the
energy band
• Electrons at the bottom of the conduction band have a mass as close to free electrons due
low electron density
• Electrons at the bottom of the valence band have a mass identical to negative effective mass
Carrier Concentration of Intrinsic Semiconductor
The integral in equation 4 changes to
3 𝐸−𝐸𝑐 1 𝑥
4𝜋 −( ) ∞ −( )
𝑛= 3 (2𝑚)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ‫׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ⅆ𝑥 (5)
ℎ

The solution of standard form of eqn.(5) is given by



x
1/ 2  ax
e dx  , where a=1/kT
0 2a a
3/ 2
4     2 me*kT 
 n = 3  2me  e
* 3 2 ( EF  Ec ) kT

3/ 2
( KT )  Let N C  2  2 
h  2   h 
 n  NCe ( EC  EF ) kT
Nc is temperature-dependent material constant known as effective density of states in the conduction band.
Carrier Concentration of Intrinsic Semiconductor
E  EF
1 e kT
Now, 1  f E   1  
 E  EF   E  EF 
1  e  1  e  
 kT   kT 
For E<EF  E  EF 
For E<EF e   1
 kT 
 E E 
 E  EF   F 
Therefore 1  e  1 = 1  f E   e  kT 

 kT 

Substituting back in the equation for p,

 EF  E 
and
4
E 1
p   3 2mh  ( E v  E ) e
3 
* 2 2 kT
dE

h
1
 E E  E  E E 
4
3  F v  v 2  v 
p  3 ( 2m ) e  E  E e
* 2  kT   kT 
h v dE
h 
Carrier Concentration of Intrinsic Semiconductor
Above equation is of the standard form
 1


 ax
x e2
dx 
1 0 2a a
Where Ev-E= x and a= kT
 E E 
4 
3  F v  3
=> p  3 ( 2m ) e * 2
h
 kT 
(kT ) 2
h 2
3
 2mh * kT   ( EFkT Ev )
2
=> p  2 2  e
 h 
3/ 2
 2 mh*kT  ( E E )
 F v
Let N v  2  2  => p  N e kT
 h  v

Where Nv is temperature-dependent material constant known as effective density of states

in the valence band
Intrinsic Density (ni)
In an intrinsic semiconductor at T=0K, the electron concentration in the conduction band is
identical to hole concentration in the valence band.
n=p=ni
From this, we get np=ni2
( Ec  E F ) ( E F  EV ) ( Ec  EV )
2   
ni  N C e kT
Nve kT
 ( N C N V )e kT

2  E g / kT  E g / 2 kT
But Ec-Ev =Eg => ni  ( N C N V )e => n i  ( N C N V )1 / 2 e

Substituting the values of Nc and Nv we get,

2k 3 / 2 * *  E / 2 kT
ni  2[ 2 ] (me mh ) 3 / 4 T 3 / 2 e g
h
Intrinsic Density (ni)
The following important points may be inferred from the above relation
1. The intrinsic density is independent of Fermi level position

2. The intrinsic density is a function of band gap Eg, which represents the energy needed to
break a bond

3. The intrinsic density strongly depends on the temperature. The contribution of

temperature increase to ni is mostly due to the exponential term and only to a marginal
extent due to the term T3/2
Expression for the band gap of a Semiconductor
The band gap is the energy separation between the conduction band and the valence band of a
semiconducting material
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
  ni e( e  h )
Substituting the value of ni, we get
3 3

 2kTm   me mh 
2
* *
  Eg 
4
  2 2  x  2  exp  e(  e   h )
 h   m   2kT 
The above equation can be written as
  Eg 
  A exp 
 2 kT 
Expression for the band gap of a Semiconductor
Where 3 3

 2kTm  2m
*
m
*
 4
A  2  e(  e   h )
e h
2  x 2
 h   m 

1 ,  Eg 
As,     B exp 
  2 kT 
RA l  Eg 
We know that   then, R  B exp 
l A  2 kT 
 Eg  Bl
=> R  C exp  Where, C 
 2kT  A

where
Expression for the band gap of a Semiconductor
Eg
Taking log on both sides ln R  ln C 
2kT
The band gap is given by E g  2kT (ln R  ln C )
Eg
ln R  ln C  is of the form y  mx  c
2kT
1
If a graph is plotted between ln R(y-axis) and (x-axis),
𝑇
we get a straight line.
The energy band gap can be determined by the relation
given below
1
Eg = 2K ∗ slope of the straight line drawn between R&
T
Extrinsic Semiconductor
• The impurity added is called dopant. The semiconductor doped with impurity atoms is
called extrinsic semiconductor.
• There are two types of extrinsic semiconductor namely p-type & n-type

• n-type semiconductors are produced when pure semiconductors are doped with
pentavalent impurity atoms such phosphorous, arsenic etc
• p-type semiconductors are produced when pure semiconductors are doped with trivalent
impurity atoms such as aluminum, boron etc.
Atom Structure- Intrinsic Semiconductor
Extrinsic Semiconductors- Doping with Penta & Trivalent Impurities
Fermi level in extrinsic Semiconductor (n-type)
• In n-type semiconductor, in low temperature region the electron in the conductor band is only due to the
transition of electrons from donor levels. Therefore Fermi level lies between the donor level ED & the bottom
edge of conduction band
• As temperature increases the donor level gradually get depleted & the Fermi level shift downward. At the
temperature of depletion Td, the Fermi level coincides with the donor level ED i.e. EFn = ED.

As temperature increases further above Td, the Fermi level shifts downward approximately in
linear fashion, This is in accordance with the relation

E c  E D kT N c
E Fn   ln
2 2 ND
• At temperature Ti, where intrinsic process contributes to electron concentration significantly, the Fermi level
approaches the intrinsic value EFi = Eg/2.
Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductor (n-type)
• With further increase in temperature the
behavior of extrinsic semiconductor transitions
into that of an intrinsic type & Fermi level stays
at EFi .
Thus
EFn = EFi= Eg/2.
Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductor (p-type)
• In case of p-type semiconductor the Fermi level EFp rises with increasing temperature from
below the acceptor level to intrinsic level EFi
(ionization region)

• As temperature increases further above Ts, the Fermi level shifts downward approximately
in linear fashion, though hole concentration in the valence band remains constant. This is in
accordance with the relation

EFp = EA (at T=Ts)

and EFp = Eg/2.
Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductor (p-type)
Effect of impurity concentration on band structure
Diffusion
• Diffusion occurs when there exists a concentration
gradient
• In the figure below, imagine that we fill the left
chamber with a gas at temperate T
• If we suddenly remove the divider, what happens?
• The gas will fill the entire volume of the new
chamber. How does this occur?
Depletion Region

• As free electrons and holes diffuse across the

junction, a region of fixed ions is left behind. This
region is known as the “depletion region.”
32
Conduction in p/n-type Semiconductors

33
34
Recombination – Generation I
• Generation (G): How e
-

and h+ are produced or

created. • The concepts are visually seen in
the energy band diagram below.
• Recombination (R): How
e- and h+ are destroyed or Ee
removed G R
EC

• At equilibrium: r = g and hv
EV
hv

• since the generation rate

x
is set by the temperature,
we write it as: r = gthermal

35
 excess carriers

• Photons with hv  Eg can be absorbed

• Photons with hv ≤ Eg will pass through the material

 Solar cell LED
• Light to electricity • Electricity to light
• No external bias • External bias required
• Both direct and (forward bias)
indirect band gap • Direct band gap
semiconductors semiconductors are
are suitable for suitable for
fabrication of LEDs fabrication of LEDs
 Temperature variation of carrier concentration in
extrinsic semiconductor
• At low T, corresponding to region- I, there is neither enough
energy to ionize the donor electrons nor to break the covalent
bond

• As T increases, the donor atoms get ionized and transition

to the conduction band. The region-I is known as ionization
region

• At about 100K, all donor atoms are ionized from donor level and are excited to the conduction band, any
further temperature increase does not create additional electrons and the curve levels off. This region-II is
called depletion region

• As temperature grows further, electron transitions from valence band to conduction band increases. At high
temperature (region-III) the number of electron transition becomes so large that the intrinsic electron
concentration exceeds the electron concentration due to donor. This region is therefore called intrinsic region
Hall Effect: P-Type semiconductor
• Discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879

• When a transverse magnetic field ‘B’ is applied

perpendicular to a current carrying conductor. A potential
difference is developed across the specimen in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field. The
phenomenon is called Hall Effect and the voltage is called
Hall Voltage

• Hall effect helps in :

• Determination of charge carriers, either electrons or holes
• Carrier concentration of the charge carriers
• Mobility of charge carrier
Edwin Herbert Hall
Hall Effect: p-Type semiconductor
• Consider a rectangular plate p-type semiconductor. When potential difference is
applied across its ends, a current ‘I’ flows through it along x-direction.
• The current is given by I=pAeVd (1)
Where p- concentration of holes
A- area of cross section of end face
e- charge of holes
Vd- drift velocity of holes
∴ current density (J): I/A= peVd (2)
• Any plane perpendicular to current flow direction is an equipotential
surface. The potential difference between front and rear faces is zero
Hall Effect: p-Type semiconductor
• Before the application of magnetic field B, the holes
move in an orderly way parallel to faces F & F/
• On the application of magnetic field B, the holes
experience a sideway deflection due to the Lorentz
force FC
• The magnitude of this force is given by
FL = e B vd
• Because of this force, holes are deflected towards the
front face F
• As holes pile up on the front side, a corresponding
equivalent negative charge is left on the rear face F/
• The direction of electric field will be from front face to
rear face.
• It is such that it opposes the further pile up of holes on * Change the thickness ‘d’ in figure to ‘t’ in the
the front face F derivation
• Condition of equilibrium is reached when FE due to
transverse electric field EH balances the Lorentz force.
The transverse electric field EH is known as Hall field
Hall Effect: p-type semi-conductor

In equilibrium condition
FE = F H
FE = e EH = e(VH/w) (3)
Where w- width of semiconductor plate
From eqn (2) vd= Jx/Pe

Therefore (4)

Equating (3) and (4) we get

Hall Effect: p-type semi-conductor
If ‘t’ is the thickness of the semiconductor plate, A=wt. Then above equation reduces to

Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic field is called Hall co-efficient RH
Thus,

(6)

Substitute (6) in (5) we get

(7)

(8)

The Hall voltage is a real voltage & can be measured with a voltmeter with the direction of magnetic field & current
depicted in this fig, the sign of Hall voltage is +ve
Hall Effect: n-type semi-conductor
• Therefore by knowing the sign of Hall voltage the type of semiconductor & the sign of the majority charge
carriers will be known

• The carrier concentration is given by

• For n-type semiconductor Hall voltage will be negative

• When the direction of current is same as in the figure

• In case of n-type semiconductor

• A Hall probe calibrated to read 1.00 μV when placed in a
2.00-T field is placed in a 0.150-T field. What is its output
voltage?
Applications with Semiconductors
 Thermistor (Temperature Sensor)
 The thermistor was invented by Samuel Ruben in 1930
 Thermistor is a combination of the words thermal and resistor
 A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature
changes, relying on the changes in its resistance with changing
temperature
 A semiconductor used as a temperature sensor
 Mixture of metal oxides (semiconductors) pressed into a bead or
wafer shape(less than 1 mm in size)
 The resistance decreases as temperature increases for negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor
 Thermistor materials have temperature
coefficient of resistance () given by

 Where R is the change in resistance due to

a temperature change T and Rs is the
material resistance at reference temperature
 These type thermistors have sensitivity
which can be up to a 10% change per degree
Celsius (0C), make them the most sensitive Non-linear decrease in
resistance with temperature
temperature elements
 Photo Sensor (Photo-voltaic Sensor)
Photo Sensor: It’s a photoelectric device which
converts light into electric current or voltage
Working Principle:
1. Photons hit a light-sensitive semiconductor,
producing electron-hole pairs
2. Electrons move across the semiconductor’s p-n
junction, producing a voltage across it
3. The current produced by this voltage is measured
Applications with Photo Sensors:
 Burglar alarm where the light is send from one to another sensor, if the light is
interrupted, the alarm will go on
 Barcode scanner where the scanner illuminates the barcode and collects information
 Remote control with infrared light sensor
 Telecommunication use light emitting diode to send information with the optical fiber
 Mobile phones have many different light sensors Photo Sensor
 Magnetic Field Sensor (Hall Field Sensor)
 Hall field Sensor: These are the devices which
are activated by an external magnetic field
 The output voltage (Hall voltage) is directly
proportional to strength of the magnetic field
passing through the semiconductor material

 Voltage out put can be quite small, few µV to

mV even when subjected to strong magnetic
fields
 Most commercial Hall field sensors are
manufactures with built-in DC amplifiers Graphene Based Hall Field Sensor
 Non-invasive Sensor (Medical Diagnosis)
 Pulse Oximeter: Pulse Oximeter used to measure oxygen saturation in the blood i.e
how much of the hemoglobin in the blood is carrying the oxygen
 Normal oxygen saturation values are 97% to 99% in a healthy individual
 Working Principle: (a) Pulse Oximeter consists of RED and IR light emitting LEDs and
a photo detector (b) Oxygenation and deoxygenation hemoglobin have different light
absorption rate (Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more IR light and deoxygenated
hemoglobin absorbs more RED light).
Thank You
Problems
 Introduction
Explain the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic
semiconductors.

An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor which contains foreign elements

capable of contributing mobile charge carriers, electrons, to the conduction band
(n–type) or holes to the valence band (p–type). An intrinsic semiconductor
contains no foreign elements.
Problem-1
Problem-2
Problem-3
Problem-4
Problem-5
Problem-6
Problem-7
Problem-8.1
Problem-8.2
Problem-8.3
Problem-9
Problem-10
Problem-11
Problem-12
SOLUTIONS
To
Problems
Solution to Problem-1
Solution to Problem-2
Solution to Problem-3
Solution to Problem-4
Solution to Problem-5
Solution to Problem-6
Solution to Problem-7
Solution to Problem-8.1
Solution to Problem-8.2
Solution to Problem-8.2 Cont…
Solution to Problem-8.3
Solution to Problem-9
Solution to Problem-10
Solution to Problem-11
Solution to Problem-12
THANKS