UNIT II

SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

The scientist is not a person who gives the right answers; he’s one who
asks the right question. —Claude Lévi–Strauss

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Semiconductors form a class of materials with electrical conductivity
lying in between that of conductors and that of insulators. The energy
band theory explains the electrical properties of a semiconductor by
the presence of a narrow energy gap of about 1 to 3 eV between the

small, thermal excitation can excite electrons in the valence band to the
conduction band. When an electron is excited to the conduction band,

called a hole. lt also contributes to electrical conductivity. It has the same

properties as an electron, except that a positive charge is assigned to it.

2.2 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

and the chemical impurity content can serve as the criteria for classifying
the semiconductors into various types.

2.2.1 Classification I

as elemental semiconductors and compound semiconductors.

Elemental Semiconductors
They consist of only one chemical element. Examples are Ge, Si, Te,
a–Sn, etc.
Semiconducting Materials 43
The elemental semiconductors Si and Ge are extensively used in
electronic devices such as diodes, bipolar transistors, Field Effect

logic gates, LSF and VLSI chips, solar cells, etc.

Compound Semiconductors
They consist of more than one element. Examples are GaAs, InP,
A1P, CdS, CdSe, etc. Due to its wider energy gap, the compound
semiconductor has a range of applications. Some selected compound
semiconductors are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Selected Compound Semiconductors
Type Semiconductor Eg(eV) Applications
III-IV Compounds A1P 3 LED, Laser
InSb 0.18 Photovoltaic cell
AlAs 2.3 Gaussmeter
GaAs 1.34 Hall effect devices
II-VI Compounds CdS 2.45 LDR
CdSe 0.24 Photoconducting cell
CdTe 1.45 Photometer
IV-VI Compounds PbSe 0.37 Thermoelectricity
generation
PbSe 0.27 Thermoelectric
PbTe 0.33 cooling
Ternary Compounds CuInS – Photovoltaic material
CuInSe –
CuInTe –
ZnO 3.3
Oxide Semiconductor MgO 7.3
TiO –
VO –

2.2.2 Classification II

direct bandgap semiconductors and indirect

bandgap semiconductors.
44 Engineering Physics - II

Direct Bandgap Semiconductors

The electrons at the conduction band bottom and at the valence band
top have the same momentum. That is, when an electron in the valence
band is excited to the conduction material band, its momentum does
not change.
Examples: GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, InSb, a–Sn, Te.

Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors

The electrons at the conduction band bottom and at the valence band
top have different momentum. That is, when an electron in the valence
band is excited to the conduction band, its momentum changes.
Examples: Ge, Si, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaP.
Thus, the excitation of electrons in an indirect bandgap semiconductor

for laser production.

2.2.3 Classification III

Based on the chemical impurity content, the semiconductors are
intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors.
Further, depending upon the nature of the doped chemical impurity, the
n-type semiconductors and
p-type semiconductors.

2.3 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

These semiconductors are chemically pure without any impurity. That is,
these are non-doped semiconductors. Electron-hole pairs are generated
within an intrinsic semiconductor by thermal excitation. Obviously, the
intrinsic carrier concentration depends on temperature. The intrinsic
semiconductor has an equal number of conduction electrons and
holes, since for every conduction electron produced there must be a
corresponding hole created.
That is,
n = p = ni
where n is the electron concentration in conduction band, p is the hole
concentration in valence band and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
Semiconducting Materials 45

2.3.1 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

In an intrinsic semiconductor, both electrons and holes contribute to

an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron-concentration in the conduction

band and the hole-concentration in the valence band are to be determined.
For this purpose, the concepts of density of states and Fermi–Dirac
distribution can be used.

2.3.2 Electron Concentration in the Conduction Band

Conduction Band

EC
Eg
EF
Ev

Valence Band

Fig. 2.1 Energy Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor

The Fermi–Dirac distribution function (i.e. the probability that a

quantum energy state E is occupied by an electron) for the conduction
band is given as
1
fc ( E ) = (2.1)
⎛ E − EF ⎞
1 + exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠
where EF is the Fermi energy level, k is the Boltzmann constant and T
is the absolute temperature.
The density of energy states (i.e. number of energy states in the
interval E and E + dE) in the conduction band is given as
N c (E ) dE = γ n (E − Ec )1 2 dE (2.2)
where Ec is the conduction band-bottom;
4π
( )
32
γn = 3
2mn* = const.;
h
h is the Planck’s constant and mn* is the effective mass of electrons.
46 Engineering Physics - II

Then, the electron concentration in the energy interval E and E + dE

of conduction band may be regarded as the product of fc (E) and Nc (E)
dE. Hence, electron concentration in conduction band is given as
∞
n= ∫ f c ( E ) N c ( E ) dE
Ec

∞
γ n ( E − Ec )
12
n= ∫ dE
Ec 1 + exp
⎛ E − EF ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠
∞
( E − Ec )1 2
i.e. n = γn ∫ dE
Ec 1 + exp
⎛ E − E F ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠
At room temperature, kT = 0.025 eV and in the conduction band
E – EF > 1 eV.
Therefore, we have
⎛ E − EF ⎞
exp ⎜ ⎟ >> 1
⎝ kT ⎠
Then, the expression for n is reduced to
∞
⎛ E − EF ⎞
∫ ( E − Ec )
12
n = γn exp ⎜ − ⎟ dE
Ec ⎝ kT ⎠
∞
⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ E − Ec ⎞
∫ ( E − Ec )
12
n = γn exp ⎜ − c ⎟ exp ⎜ − kT ⎟ dE
Ec ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
∞
⎛ E − EF ⎞ E − Ec
n = γ n exp ⎜ − c ⎟ ∫ ( E − Ec )1 2 exp ⎜⎛ − ⎞
⎟ dE
⎝ kT ⎠ E
c
⎝ kT ⎠

E − Ec
Introducing a new variable ≡ x , the above equation may
be rewritten as kT
∞
⎛ E − EF ⎞
n = γ n exp ⎜ − c ⎟ ∫ ( kT )3 2 x1 2 exp ( − x ) dx
⎝ kT ⎠ 0
Semiconducting Materials 47

∞
⎛ E − EF ⎞ 1 2
n = γ n ( kT ) x exp ( − x ) dx
32
kT ⎟⎠ ∫0
exp ⎜ − c
⎝

On the other hand, as a standard integral, we have

∞
π
∫x
12
exp ( − x ) dx =
0
2
Therefore, we get

π ⎛ E − EF ⎞
γ n ( kT ) exp ⎜ − c
32
n=
2 ⎝ kT ⎟⎠

⎛ E − EF ⎞
i.e. n = Gc exp ⎜ − c (2.3)
⎝ kT ⎠⎟

π
γ n ( kT )
32
where Gc = (2.4)
2
The factor Gc is called the effective density of states in the conduction
band. Equation (2.3) gives the density or concentration of electrons
in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor as a function of
temperature.

2.3.3 Hole Concentration in the Valence Band

By a method similar to that was employed above, we can derive the
expression for the hole concentration in the valence band.
For the energy states in the valence band, Fermi–Dirac distribution
function may be obtained from the fact that an electron in a semiconductor
may be present in the conduction band or in the valence band. That is,
fc (E) + fv (E) = 1
fV (E) = 1 – fc (E) (2.5)
Substitution of Eq. (2.1) into Eq. (2.5) gives
⎛ E − EF ⎞
exp ⎜ ⎟
fv ( E ) = ⎝ kT ⎠ (2.6)
⎛ E − EF ⎞
1 + exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠
48 Engineering Physics - II

At room temperature, we have

⎛ E − EF ⎞
exp ⎜ ⎟ << 1
⎝ kT ⎠
Hence, the expression for fv(E) reduces to

⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ EF − E ⎞
f v ( E ) = exp ⎜ ⎟ = exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠
The density of states in the valence band is given as
Nv (E) dE = gp (Ev – E)1/2 dE (2.7)
4π
( )
12
∗
where gp = 2 m p = const. and mp* is the effective mass of a hole.
h3
The concentration of holes is, then, given as
Ev
p= ∫ f v ( E ) N v ( E ) dE (2.8)
−∞

Substitution of Eqs (2.6) and (2.7) into Eq. (2.8) gives

Ev
⎛ E −E⎞
∫ γ p ( Ev − E )
12
p= exp ⎜ − F ⎟ dE
−∞ ⎝ kT ⎠
Ev
⎛ E −E⎞
∫ ( Ev − E )
12
p =γp exp ⎜ − F ⎟ dE
−∞ ⎝ kT ⎠
Ev
⎛ E − Ev ⎞ ⎛ Ev − E ⎞
∫ ( Ev − E )
12
p =γp exp ⎜ − F ⎟ exp ⎜ − kT ⎟ dE
−∞ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
E
⎛ E − Ev ⎞ E −E
( Ev − E )1 2 exp ⎛⎜ − v ⎞⎟ dE
v
p = γ p exp ⎜ − F
⎝
⎟ ∫
kT ⎠ −∞ ⎝ kT ⎠

Introducing a new variable ( Ev – E )/kT ∫ x, the above equation may

be rewritten as

∞
⎛ E − Ev ⎞ 1 2
p = γp ( kT ) x exp ( − x ) dx
32
kT ⎟⎠ O∫
exp ⎜ − F (2.9)
⎝
Semiconducting Materials 49
Substituting the value of standard integral into Eq. (2.9), we get
π ⎛ E − Ev ⎞
p= γ p (kT )3 2 exp ⎜ − F
2 ⎝ kT ⎟⎠
⎛ E − Ev ⎞
i.e. p = Gv exp ⎜ − F (2.10)
⎝ kT ⎟⎠
π
where Gv = γ p (kT )3 2 (2.11)
2
The factor Gv is called the effective density of states in the valence
band. Equation (2.10) gives the concentration of holes in the valence
band of an intrinsic semiconductor as a function of temperature.

2.3.4 Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor

In an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = ni (here index i implies the intrinsic
semiconductor). Therefore, from Eqs (2.3) and (2.10), we get
⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ EF − Ev ⎞
Gc exp ⎜ − c ⎟ = Gv exp ⎜ − kT ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Gv ⎛ E − Ec + EF − Ev ⎞
= exp ⎜ F ⎟
Gc ⎝ kT ⎠
Gv ⎛ 2 E − ( Ec + Ev ) ⎞
= exp ⎜ F ⎟
Gc ⎝ kT ⎠
Taking logarithm on both sides and rearranging the terms, we get
Ec + Ev kT ⎛ Gv ⎞
EF = + ln ⎜ ⎟ (2.12)
2 2 ⎝ Gc ⎠
The ratio Gv/Gc depends upon the effective masses of hole and
electron. Equation (2.12) represents the temperature dependence of
Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor. At T = 0 K, Eq. (2.12)
reduces to
E + Ev
EF = c (2.l3)
2
2.3.5 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature
That is, in an intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies
at the middle of the forbidden energy gap. Figure 2.2 shows the plot
50 Engineering Physics - II

of Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor versus temperature as

given by Eq. (2.12).
Conduction Band
Ec
Eg/2
(a)
E EF (b)

Ev
Valence Band
T

Fig. 2.2 Plot of Fermi Energy Versus Temperature for an Intrinsic

Semiconductor

As seen, at T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies at the middle of the forbidden

energy gap. With the increase in temperature, the Fermi level moves

Fermi level is located in the conduction band.

2.3.6 Carrier Concentration

Considering Eq. (2.13), Eqs (2.3) and (2.10) may now be rewritten as
⎛ Eg ⎞
n = Gc exp ⎜ − ⎟ (2.14)
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
⎛ Eg ⎞
p = Gv exp ⎜ − ⎟ (2.15)
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
Now, it is seen that the intrinsic carrier concentration at a given
temperature strongly depends upon the width of the forbidden energy
gap. This is quite obvious. If Eg is large, there will be few carriers for
conduction of electricity.
The multiplication of Eqs (2.14) and (2.15) leads to
⎛ Eg ⎞
ni2 ≡ np = Gc Gv exp ⎜ − ⎟ (2.16)
⎝ kT ⎠
Substituting Eqs (2.4) and (2.11) into Eq. (2.16), we get
⎛ Eg ⎞
ni2 = BT 3 exp ⎜ − ⎟ (2.17)
⎝ kT ⎠
Semiconducting Materials 51

π 3
where B ≡ γn γ p k = constant
4
The intrinsic carrier concentration is then given as
⎛ Eg ⎞
ni = AT 3 2 exp ⎜ − ⎟ (2.18)
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
12
12 ⎛ π ⎞
where A≡ B = ⎜ γ n γp k 3 ⎟ = constant
⎝ 4 ⎠
This result shows that the intrinsic carrier concentration ni is
dependent on forbidden energy gap width and temperature, but not on
the position of the Fermi level.

2.3.7 Intrinsic Electrical Conductivity

addition to the thermal motion, the free electrons and holes exhibit a

jn = nevn
where e is the charge of electron and vn is the drift velocity of free
electrons.

Jp = pevp
where vp is the drift velocity of holes.
Then, the conductivity due to the electrons is given by
j nevn
σn = n = = neμn (2.19)
E E
where E mn ∫ vn/E is the mobility of free

Similarly, the conductivity due to the holes is given by

j p pev p
σp = = = peμ p (2.20)
E E
where mp ∫ vp/E is the mobility of holes.
52 Engineering Physics - II

semiconductor, the total conductivity in an intrinsic semiconductor is

given as
si = sn + sp = eni (mn + mp) (2.21)
where si is called the intrinsic conductivity.
Considering Eq. (2.18) along with the fact that the mobilities of
electrons and holes are proportional to T –3/2, we get
⎛ Eg ⎞
σ i ∝ exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
⎛ Eg ⎞
i.e. σ i = σ o exp ⎜ − ⎟ (2.22)
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
where so is a constant for the given intrinsic semiconductor which
represents its electrical conductivity at T = 0 K.
Equation (2.22) shows that s (T) of an intrinsic semiconductor
varies in an exponential manner. A plot ln s versus 1/T for an intrinsic
semiconductor is shown in Fig. 2.3.
ln s

1/T
Fig. 2.3 Plot of Electrical Conductivity versus Temperature
for an Intrinsic Semiconductor
As the temperature is increased, more and more electrons are shifted
to the conduction band and an equal number of holes are generated in
the valence band. It leads to an increase in carrier concentrations. As a
result, electrical conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor increases
with the increase in temperature. Then, obviously, electrical resistivity
(ri = 1/si) of an intrinsic semiconductor decreases with the increase
in temperature. In other words, intrinsic semiconductors have negative
ri (T) has a
Semiconducting Materials 53

negative value. This result differentiates the intrinsic semiconductors

Although in an intrinsic semiconductor n = p, about two-thirds of

the total current is carried by the free electrons. This is because of the
higher mobility of free electrons as compared to that of holes. The term
‘intrinsic’ simply means that it is a property of the crystal in its purest
form.

Typical Intrinsic Semiconductors

The characteristic parameters of selected intrinsic semiconductors at
300 K are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Characteristic Parameters of Selected Intrinsic Semiconductors
at 300 K
Semi Eg ni mn mp si
conductor eV m–3 2
m /V.sec 2
m /V.sec ohm–1.m–1
Si 1.12 1.45 ¥ 1016 0.15 0.05 4.35 ¥ 10–4
Ge 0.66 2.40 ¥ 1019 0.39 0.19 2.13
GaAs 1.42 1.79 ¥ 1012 0.85 0.04 10–6

2.3.8 Bandgap Determination

Theory As already seen, the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor is
⎛ Eg ⎞
σ i = σ o exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
where Eg is the bandgap energy, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the
absolute temperature and so is a constant for the given material.
Then, its electrical resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as
1 ⎛ Eg ⎞
ρi = exp ⎜ ⎟ (2.23)
σo ⎝ 2 kT ⎠
Let us consider a wire of intrinsic semiconductor of length l. Let Ri
be its resistance and A be its cross-sectional area. The resistivity of the
wire is then given as
R A
ρi = i
l
54 Engineering Physics - II

Hence, Eq. (2.23) may be rewritten as

Ri A 1 ⎛ Eg ⎞
= exp ⎜ ⎟
l σo ⎝ 2 kT ⎠
Ri A 1 ⎛ Eg ⎞
= exp ⎜ ⎟
l σo ⎝ 2 kT ⎠
l ⎛ Eg ⎞
or Ri = exp ⎜ ⎟ (2.24)
Aσ o ⎝ 2 kT ⎠
That is, the plot of ln Ri versus 1/T is a straight line. Its slope gives
the value of Eg/2k.
ln Ri

dy
dx

1/T
Fig. 2.4 Plot of Resistance versus Temperature for an Intrinsic
Semiconducting Wire

The resistance of the given wire is measured at various temperatures.

The results are represented as a graph of ln Ri versus 1/T in Fig. 2.4.
The slope dy/dx of the straight line is determined. Then, the bandgap
of the semiconductor is determined by
dy
E g = 2k (2.25)
dx

2.4 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

By suitable doping, a semiconducting crystal can be made to have unequal
values of electron and hole concentrations. The resulting semiconductor
is said to be an extrinsic one. For an extrinsic semiconductor, therefore,
we have
nπp
Most of the engineering applications of semiconductors involve
Semiconducting Materials 55
impurities, rather than intrinsic material. From X-ray diffraction data,
it has been established that the impurity atoms occupy lattice positions
which in the pure material are occupied by the host atoms. Of particular
importance is the case of Ge or Si doped with elements from the third

Addition of a fraction of a percent of such elements may increase the

conductivity by several powers of ten. Also, the temperature dependence
of the conductivity is strongly affected by the impurity content.
Depending upon the added impurities, the resulting semiconductors
become n-type or p-type semiconductors.

2.4.1 n -Type Semiconductors

These are doped semiconductors with greater electron concentration in
the conduction band than hole concentration in the valence band,
i.e. n > p, n > ni
Consider a crystal of silicon doped with a very small amount of
pentavalent atoms, say, phosphor. Upon incorporation into the crystal,
these impurities occupy lattice sites that are otherwise occupied by Si
atoms. Having the tetravalent host atoms in Excess Ge
its surroundings, the pentavalent atom now electron
requires only four valence electrons to form
Ge P Ge
electron-pair bonds with neighbours. Thus,
the dopant has one valence electron which
Ge
is not being used in chemical bonds with
its neighbours. This ‘extra’ electron is not Fig. 2.5 Extra Electron in
strongly bound as other valence electrons. Conduction Band

This extra electron may be pictured as moving around a positive ion of

charge +e, in a way similar to the motion of electron in a hydrogen atom,
around a proton of charge +e
of positively charged dopant ion sees the ion embedded in a dielectric
medium, viz., silicon (host material). The presence of a dielectric

strength and hence reduces the binding energy of the electron. Thus, in
silicon, the ionization energy of phosphor is found to be about 0.01 eV.
Note: Since germanium has a somewhat higher dielectric constant
of er = 16, the ionization energies of these elements in germanium are
56 Engineering Physics - II

somewhat lower than in silicon with er = 12. Moreover, the ionization

energy decreases with the increase in impurity content.

2.4.2 Energy Band Structure of n-type Semiconductors

At T = 0 K, the energy band structure is similar to that of an intrinsic

band is empty of electrons. However, the ‘extra’ dectrons associated

with donor atoms occupy states which lie only a fraction of a volt
(ª 0.01 eV) below the conduction band.
As the temperature is increased, the lattice Conduction Band
vibrations become more intense and by
absorbing the proper amount of energy,
EC
some of the donor atoms may become EF
ionized, i.e. they release their electrons to Ed
Donor level
the conduction band (Fig. 2.6). Since the
ionization energy of the donor atoms is
much smaller than the energy Eg required Valence Band
to break one of the valence bonds, the
donor atoms will donate electrons to
Fig. 2.6 Conduction Band
the conduction band at much lower
temperatures than the valence band
will.
When kT > DE, nearly all donor atoms are ionized, and n approaches,
Nd, where n is the electron concentration in the conduction band and Nd
is the donor concentration.

2.4.3 Electron Concentration in Conduction Band of n-Type

Semiconductor
To determine the concentration of charge carriers, it is necessary to know
their statistics in an impurity semiconductor. The donor states are each
occupied by a single electron in contrast to the levels in the conduction
band where each level is occupied by two electrons of opposite spins.
Let Nd be the density of donor energy levels (hence, Nd also represents
the concentration of donor atoms).
Let f (Ed
level Ed (i.e., Fermi–Dirac distribution function).
Semiconducting Materials 57
Thus, we have
1
f ( Ed ) = (2.26)
⎛ E − EF ⎞
1 + exp ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠

At low temperatures, the number of electrons in the conduction band

is equal to the number of ionized donor atoms (or) to the number of
empty donor energy levels.
Then, the electron concentration in the conduction band is given as

⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥
n ≡ N d (1 − f ( Ed )) = N d ⎢1 − ⎥ (2.27)
⎢ 1 + exp ⎛ Ed − EF ⎞⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜ kT ⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦

At low temperatures, exp [(Ed – EF)/kT] << 1. Hence, Eq. (2.27)

reduces to

⎛ E − EF ⎞
n ≡ N d (1 − f ( Ed )) = N d exp ⎜ d ⎟ (2.28)
⎝ kT ⎠
The low temperature approximation may be understood by the fact
that in an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level is located between the
conduction band bottom Ec and the donor energy level Ed.
On the other hand, we had previously derived an expression for
electron concentration in the conduction band of a semiconductor,
which has the form

⎛ E − Ec ⎞
n = Gc exp ⎜ F ⎟ (2.29)
⎝ kT ⎠

We had nowhere assumed in the derivation of Eq. (2.29) that the

material is intrinsic. Therefore, the result holds in the presence of
impurities as well. It should be noted that an appropriate expression for
Fermi level EF in an n-type semiconductor is to be substituted in Eq.
(2.28). It is so, since the Fermi energy level has been shifted upwards
in an n-type semiconductor in comparison with that of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
58 Engineering Physics - II

2.4.4 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature and Impurity

Concentration
Hence, Eqs (2.28) and (2.29) give
⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ EF − Ec ⎞
N d exp ⎜ d ⎟ = Gc exp ⎜ kT ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Rearranging the terms, we get

⎛ 2 E − ( Ec + Ed ) ⎞ N d
exp ⎜ F ⎟= G
⎝ kT ⎠ c

Taking logarithms on both sides, we get

2 EF − ( Ec + Ed ) ⎛N ⎞
= ln ⎜ d ⎟
kT ⎝ Gc ⎠
Thus, we have
Ec + Ed kT ⎛ N d ⎞
EF = + ln ⎜ ⎟ (2.30)
2 2 ⎝ Gc ⎠

Equation (2.30) gives the dependence of Fermi energy of an n-type

semiconductor on temperature and on donor concentration.
At T = 0 K, Eq. (2.30) gives
Ec + Ed
EF = (2.31)
2
That is, at absolute zero, the Fermi level in a n-type semiconductor
lies exactly halfway between donor energy level and the conduction
band bottom.

Fig. 2.7 Fermi Energy of n-type Semiconductor vs Temperature

Semiconducting Materials 59
Figure 2.7 shows the plot of the Fermi energy of a n-type semicon-
ductor versus temperature. As seen, at T = 0 K, the Fermi level lies
exactly halfway between the donor energy level and the conduction
band bottom with the increase in temperature, the Fermi level drops. At
n-type semicon-
ductor reaches its intrinsic level.
Using Eq. (2.30), we get

EF − Ec Ed − Ec 1 ⎛ N d ⎞
= + ln ⎜ ⎟
kT 2 kT 2 ⎝ Gc ⎠

12
⎛ E − Ec ⎞ ⎛ Nd ⎞ ⎛ E − Ec ⎞
exp ⎜ F ⎟=⎜ G ⎟ ⋅ exp ⎜ d ⎟ (2.32)
⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2kT ⎠

2.4.5 Carrier Concentration

Substituting Eq. (2.31) into Eq. (2.29), we get the electron concentration
in an n-type semiconductor as
⎛ E − Ec ⎞
n = (Gc ⋅ N d )1 2 exp ⎜ d ⎟ (2.33)
⎝ 2kT ⎠
Equation (2.33) shows that the electron concentration in the conduction
band of a n-type semiconductor is proportional to the square root of
donor concentrations. This equation is valid only at low temperatures.
At high temperatures, the contribution of electrons to the conduction
band from the valence band increases and at very high temperatures
(ª 500 K for Ge) far exceeds the donor contributions. Thus, the intrinsic
behaviour predominates at higher temperatures.

2.4.6 p-Type Semiconductors

These are impurity semiconductors with greater hole concentration in
valence band than electron concentration in conduction band,
i.e. p > n, p > ni
Consider a crystal of silicon doped with a very small amount of
trivalent atoms, say boron. Upon incorporation into the crystal, the
impurities occupy lattice sites that are otherwise occupied by silicon
atoms. The three valence electrons of dopant atoms, now, complete
60 Engineering Physics - II

three of the covalent bands, leaving one bond Ge

vacant which is called the hole. Initially, the Hole
hole is ‘bound’ to the impurity atom, at least Ge Al Ge
at absolute zero.
Actually, the hole may be pictured as Ge

revolving around the impurity ion (negatively Fig. 2.8 Electron-Hole

charged with – e) in a Bohr-like orbit. At Concentration
higher temperatures, an electron from a normal

electrons from other electron-pair bonds lead to hole conduction. The

impurity atom that contributes a hole is called an acceptor atom as it
accepts a bound electron from a covalent bond.

2.4.7 Energy Band Structure of a p-Type Semiconductor

The energy required for a valence Conduction Band
electron to be excited into the hole is
approximately equal to the ionization
EC
energy of donor atoms in the same
material. That is, the bound holes of Acceptor Level
Ea
the acceptor atoms may be represented EF
Ev
in the energy level diagram (Fig. 2.9)
as occupying levels slightly above the Valence Band
top of valence band.
At T = 0 K, the holes remain bound Fig. 2.9 Energy-Level Diagram
to the impurities. As the temperature is
raised, electrons from valence band are excited to acceptor energy levels
to make the hole-concentration in the valence band higher in comparison
with the intrinsic material. However, the electron-concentration in the
conduction band remains the same as in the intrinsic semiconductor. At
kT > DE, nearly all the acceptor
atoms have accepted electrons, and p approaches Na, where p is the hole
concentration in valence band and Na is the concentration of acceptor atoms.

2.4.8 Hole Concentration in the Valence Band of a p-type

Semiconductor
The acceptor states accept only one electron each in contrast to the
valence band energy levels which accommodate two electrons with
opposite spins.
Semiconducting Materials 61
Let Na be the density of acceptor energy levels (hence, Na also
represents the concentration of acceptor atoms).
Let f (Ea
energy level Ea (i.e. Fermi–Dirac distribution function).
Thus, we have

1
f ( Ea ) = (2.34)
⎛ E − EF ⎞
1 + exp ⎜ a ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠

At low temperatures (when the transitions of electrons from valence

band to conduction band are negligible), the number of holes in the valence
band is equal to number of electrons in the acceptor energy level.
Thus, the hole concentration in the valence band is given as

1
p = Na (2.35)
⎛ E − EF ⎞
1 + exp ⎜ a ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠
As the Fermi level in a p-type semiconductor is located between the
acceptor energy level and the valence band top at low temperature (such
as room temperature), we have
exp [(Ea – EF)/kT] >> l
Therefore, we get

⎛ E − Ea ⎞
p = N a exp ⎜ F ⎟ (2.36)
⎝ kT ⎠
The previously obtained expression for hole concentration in the
valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor has the form:

⎛ E − EF ⎞
p = Gv exp ⎜ v ⎟ (2.37)
⎝ kT ⎠
Equation (2.37) holds even for an impurity semiconductor as nowhere
in its derivation the material was assumed to be an intrinsic one. But,
the appropriate expression for Fermi level in a p-type semiconductor
is to be taken into account.
62 Engineering Physics - II

2.4.9 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature and

Impurity Concentration
Therefore, Eqs (2.36) and (2.37) give
⎛ E − Ea ⎞ ⎛ Ev − EF ⎞
N a exp ⎜ F ⎟ = Gv exp ⎜ kT ⎟
⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Rearranging the terms, we get

⎛ 2 E − ( Ea + Ev ) ⎞ Gv
exp ⎜ F ⎟= N
⎝ kT ⎠ a

Taking logarithms on both sides, we get

2 EF − ( Ea + Ev ) ⎛G ⎞
= ln ⎜ v ⎟
kT ⎝ Na ⎠
Hence, we get
Ea + Ev kT ⎛ Gv ⎞
EF = + ln ⎜ ⎟ (2.38)
2 2 ⎝ Na ⎠

At T = 0 K, we have
Ea + Ev
EF = (2.39)
2
That is, at absolute zero, the Fermi level in a p-type semiconductor lies
exactly halfway between acceptor energy level and the valence band top.
Figure (2.10) shows the plot of the Fermi energy of a p-type
semiconductor versus tempe-
Conduction Band
rature. As seen, at T = 0 K, EC
the Fermi energy lies exactly Na = 1021 atoms/m3
Ea
half-way between the acceptor
energy level and the valence EF Na = 1024 atoms/m3
band top. With the increase in Ev
temperature, the Fermi level 0K T 500 K
Valence Band
temperature, the Fermi level of Fig. 2.10 Fermi Energy of p-type
a p-type semiconductor reaches Semiconductor versus
its intrinsic level. Temperature
Semiconducting Materials 63
Equation (2.38) express the temperature dependence of Fermi energy
level in a p-type semiconductor at low temperatures. Considering
Eq. (2.38), we get
Ev − EF Ev − Ea 1 ⎛ Gv ⎞
= − ln ⎜ ⎟
kT 2 kT 2 ⎝ Na ⎠
12
⎛ E − EF ⎞ ⎛ Na ⎞ ⎛ E − Ea ⎞
exp ⎜ v ⎟=⎜G ⎟ exp ⎜ v ⎟ (2.40)
⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ v⎠ ⎝ 2 kT ⎠

2.4.10 Carrier Concentration

Substitution of Eq. (2.40) into Eq. (2.37) gives the hole concentration
in valence band of a p-type semiconductor as

⎛ E − Ea ⎞
p = (Gv ⋅ Na )1 2 exp ⎜ v ⎟ (2.41)
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
That is, the hole concentration in valence band of a p-type semicon-
ductor is proportional to the square root of acceptor concentrations.
Equation (2.41) is valid only at low temperatures. At high temperatures,
intrinsic behaviour predominates.

2.4.11 Law of Mass Action

Considering Eqs (2.3) and (2.10), we get
3
⎛ kT ⎞ ∗ ∗ 32 ⎛ Eg ⎞
np = 4 ⎜ ⎟ ( mn m p ) exp ⎜− ⎟ (2.42)
⎝ 2π h 2 ⎠ ⎝ kT ⎠
This result does not involve the Fermi level EF. It is an expression
of the law of mass action which implies that the product np is constant
at a given temperature. In the derivation of Eq. (2.42), it is nowhere
assumed that the material is intrinsic. Therefore, this results holds in
the presence of impurities as well. The only assumption made is that
the distance of the Fermi level from the edge of both bands is large in
comparison with kT.
Suppose that the equilibrium population of electrons and holes is
maintained by black-body photon radiation at temperature T. The photos
generate electron-hole pairs at a rate A(T), while B(T) np is the rate of
recombination reaction (i.e. electron + hole Æ photon).
64 Engineering Physics - II

Then, we have
dn dp
= A(T ) − B(T ) np =
dt dt
In equilibrium, dn/dt = 0; dp/dt = 0.
Hence, np = A(T)/B(T).
The product of the electron and hole concentrations is a constant
independent of impurity concentration at a given temperature. The
introduction of a small portion of a suitable impurity to increase n, say,
must decrease p. This result is important. In practice, we can reduce
the total carrier concentration n+p in an impure crystal, sometimes
enormously, by the controlled introduction of suitable impurities. Such
a reduction is called compensation.

2.4.12 Physical Interpretation of Effective Mass

An electron of mass m when put into a crystal respond to applied
m*, is the effective mass. The effective mass
approximation removes the quantum features of electron motion in a
crystal and allows us to use Newton’s classical mechanics to determine
the effect of external forces on the electrons and holes within the crystal.

expression for the density of states.

2.4.13 Fermi Energy Level

For metals at temperatures below their melting point, we have
EF = 3.64 ¥ 10–19 n2/3
where n is the concentration of free electrons. Since the value of n varies
from metal to metal, EF will also vary among metals. For most metals,
FF < 10 eV. The Fermi energy level EF also varies with temperature,
but this variation is very small.
As already established, Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor
lies at the centre of the forbidden energy gap (at absolute zero). In an

bottom of a n
of the valence band of a p-type semiconductor. In highly doped (with
atleast 1018 impurity atoms/cm3) n-type semiconductors, Fermi level is
located well inside the conduction band. Similarly, in highly doped p-type
semiconductors, Fermi level is located well inside the valence band.
Semiconducting Materials 65

2.4.14 Electrical Conductivity of an Extrinsic Semiconductor

The variation of electrical conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor
as a function of temperature is graphically shown in Fig. 2.11. As seen,
the plot ln r versus 1/T may be divided into three regions.

III

II

ln s

1/T
Fig. 2.11 Electrical Conductivity of an Extrinsic Semiconductor as a
Function of Temperature

Extrinsic Region (I) The carrier concentration increases with increase

in temperature. This is due to the shifting of electron from the donor
level to the conduction band. Any device making use of n-type or
p-type semiconductor should be operated at this temperature range.

Exhaustive Region (II) When the temperature further is increased, the

carrier concentration does not change and it remains almost constant.
This is so because the donor level has exhausted all its free electrons.
Since the impure atoms which are responsible for donor levels are lim-
ited in number, there is no further addition of electrons from the donor
level to the conduction band when the temperature is increased. This
range is called exhaustive range.

Intrinsic Region (III) When the temperature is further increased, the

carrier concentration again increases in the same way as exhibited in
an intrinsic case. In this temperature range, the electrons from valence
-
trons not from the impurity atom but from the parent atoms. Hence, the
conductivity increases with temperature.
Note: A similar behaviour is exhibited by a p-type semiconductor
with the only difference that now the holes are responsible for electrical
conduction.
66 Engineering Physics - II

2.5 HALL EFFECT

The Hall effect is observed in all metals, but it is very prominent in

semiconductors.

Ex Bz
+ + + + + + +

Ey Vx
z
y
x

Fig. 2.12 Rectangular n-type Semiconductor

2.5.1 Determination of Hall Coefficient

Let the rectangular specimen of an n-type semiconductor be

r
Ex (acting along the x
r
Bz (acting along z axis).
r r r
Ex exerts a force of F = –e Ex on the electrons,
r
making them move with a drift velocity vx . Here, e is the electronic
r r
H z exerts the so-called Lorentz force FL
r r
= – e [Vx × Bz ] on electrons. The Lorentz force acting along the y axis
makes the electrons to accumulate at the bottom surface and the positive
charges collect at the top surface. The edge surfaces act like charged
electrodes and the potential difference measured between the top and
bottom edges is called the Hall potential or Hall voltage. It increases
r r
with increase in Ex and Bz .
The build-up of the charges on the edge surfaces will, in turn, develop

the collection of charges on the surfaces. The forces on electrons due

required to reach this equilibrium is about 10–14 second.

Semiconducting Materials 67
At equilibrium, we have
Force exerted on electrons Force exerted on electrons
=

i.e. – eEy = – evx Bz

Ey = vx Bz (2.43)
Considering the expression for mobility of charge carriers m ∫ vx/
Ex, we get
Ey = mEx Bz (2.44)
On the other hand, current density in the specimen is given as
jx = –ne vx
i.e. vx = –jx /(ne)
Thus, Eq. (2.43) may be reduced to
⎛ j ⎞
E y = ⎜ − x ⎟ Bz
⎝ ne ⎠
Ey 1
RH ≡ =− (2.45)
jx Bz ne
where RH RH is negative for
n-type semiconductors and it is positive for p-type semiconductors. Thus,
it follows from Eq. (2.45) that the carrier type as well as concentration

2.5.2 Hall Angle

From Eq. (2.44), we get
Ey
= m Bz (2.46)
Ex
Hall angle f
Ey
f= (2.47)
Ex
From Eqs (2.46) and (2.47), we have
f = mBz
Equation (2.45)
Ey = RH Jx Bz (2.48)
68 Engineering Physics - II

From Eqs (2.44) and (2.48), we get

RH jx Bz = mEx Bz
jx
μ = RH (2.49)
Ex
As the electrical conductivity is s = jx /Ex, the Eq. (2.49) reduces to
m = RH s (2.50)

mobility and electrical conductivity of a specimen.

2.5.3 Experimental Determination of Hall Coefficient

Fig. 2.13 n-type Ge

Let us consider a thin strip of n

r
H normal to its surface while it carries a current I along the length
r
of the strip, but normal to H . Let t be the thickness of the specimen and
b be the breadth of the specimen.

a battery and the current may be altered using a rheostat. The current I
through the specimen is measured using an ammeter. The Hall voltage
VH is measured using a sensitive voltmeter and the current through the
specimen is noted.
RH is given as
Ey
RH =
jx Bz
Semiconducting Materials 69
Since jx = I/(t.b) and Ey = VH/b
V ⋅t
RH = H m3c −1 (2.51)
I Bz

determined using Eq. (2.51).

Table 2.3 Experimental Determination of RH

VH ⋅ t 3 −1
S. No. Bz I VH RH = mc
I Bz
Weber/m2 amp volts

To take number of readings, either Bz is kept constant and by varying

I using rheostat, the corresponding Hall voltage is measured; or I is
kept constant by varying Bz and the corresponding Hall voltage is
measured. The readings are tabulated. Using the above formula, the Hall

the last column are to be constant. By taking the average value of the
RH is determined.

2.5.4 Applications of Hall Effect

∑ The sign of the current-carrying charge is determined.
∑ Carrier concentration can be calculated.
∑ Mobility of charge carriers is determined.
∑ Electrical conductivity is determined.
∑ Hall effect can be used to determine the electronic structure of
the specimen: whether the specimen is a conductor, insulator or
semiconductor.
∑ Knowledge of RH
70 Engineering Physics - II

∑ Hall elements are used in electronic multimeters and electronic

wattmeters.

2.6 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2.6.1 Solar Cell

It is a semiconducting device which converts solar energy into electrical
energy. It is also known as photovoltaic cell or optoelectronic device.

2.6.2 Construction
1
An n-type silicon wafer of mm thickness is taken and over it boron
2
is diffused at 1000°C for about 20 minutes forming a p-type layer.
The top p layer is of thickness of few microns. This ensures that much
solar radiation is not absorbed by the top layer. The top layer is given
conducting grid coatings. This enables us to collect the carriers as soon
as it is produced. When a pn
develops and this is an essential criteria for power generation. The
commercial silicon solar cell is shown in Fig. 2.14. Ohmic contacts are
taken from the top and bottom by nickel plating. Leads are connected
to the ohmic contacts and these leads are in turn connected to external
loads to deliver power.

Fig. 2.14 Solar Cell

2.6.3 Principle of Power Generation

When solar radiation falls on the thin p layer of the solar cell, the
radiation will reach the pn
produced by the barrier potential VB.
Semiconducting Materials 71
This incident photons produce electron hole pairs. They are separated

the n side and holes are swept to the p side by the potential barrier. On
the p side, we have the accumulation of positive charges and on the n
side, accumulation of negative charges. These accumulated charges
of opposite sign give rise to an emf which sends current through the
external load (Fig. 2.15).
Solar radiation

VB P
+ + + + + + + +

N
Ohmic
contact

Fig. 2.15 Power Generation in a Solar Cell

Pmax

Power

Load
Fig. 2.16 Load versus Power

2.6.4 Quantum Efficiency

No. of electron-hole pairs produced
Quantum efficiency =
No. of photons incident
h = Electric Power Output/Light Power Input
The graph plotted between the load and output power is shown in
Fig. 2.16. The system delivers maximum power Pmax
and it is found out.

2.6.5 Methods to Increase Efficiency

∑
∑
radiation is incident on multilayer cells of different materials,
72 Engineering Physics - II

then each cell will absorb a particular range of wavelength

suited for it. So the output will be the sum of the outputs of
all the cells. Hence, for the same input power we get large
output power because all the wavelengths of the incident

Fig. 2.17 (a) Current versus Voltage (b) Light Intensity versus Intensity
Short Circuit Current (c) Light versus Open Circuit Voltage

∑ Figure 2.17(a) shows the current voltage characteristic of the

solar cell. From this graph, short circuit current Isc, open circuit
voltage Voc are measured for different light intensities. It is found
from Fig. 2.17(b) that Isc varies linearly with light intensity.
This principle is utilized in the construction of lightmeters.
Figure 2.17(c) shows that Voc remains constant beyond a certain
light level. This principle is utilized in charging batteries.

2.6.6 Advantages
∑ As solar energy is available in plenty, there is no shortage of
fuel in power generation using solar cell.
∑ It does not cause any pollution threats unlike thermal power
stations.
∑ It is free from any health hazards unlike nuclear reactors.
∑ It is noise-free unlike hydroelectric power stations.

2.6.7 Disadvantages
∑ Solar cells are costly and hence it not suitable for large-scale
power generation.
∑
Semiconducting Materials 73

2.6.8 Applications
∑ They are used in charging batteries.
∑ They are used in the operation of street lights.
∑ They are used in the operation of electric motors.
∑ They are used in calculators.
∑ They are used in road signals.

2.6.9 LDR
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a semiconducting device and its
resistance varies depending upon the intensity and wavelength of the
incident light.
An LDR is made up of a piece of semiconductor material which
has high sensitivity to light. When light falls on a semiconductor, its
resistance decreases and hence the conductivity of the material increases.
This occurs due to the rupture of covalent bonds and hence electron-
hole pairs are created. It results in an increase of charge carriers in
the material. As light changes the conductivity of the semiconductor
material, it is known as LDR.
At room temperature, the conductivity of LDR is low and a small

it gets illuminated, its resistance decreases and the current in the circuit
increases in proportion to the illumination.
LDR is made up of Cadmium Sulphide (CdS), Lead Sulphide (PbS)

depositing a thin layer of semi-conductor on an insulating substrate with

electrodes previously deposited
on it.

lied to the semiconductor, the

electrons and holes generated
by the illumination of light get
separated and drift towards
positive and negative electrodes
of the voltage source and an
electric current flows in the Fig. 2.18 Electric Current in a
circuit as shown in Fig. 2.18. Semiconductor
74 Engineering Physics - II

2.6.10 Characteristics
Figure 2.19 shows the resistance of the semiconductor versus illuminated
light intensity characteristics of LDR. It is seen that the resistance of
LDR decreases rapidly with the increase in intensity of the incident light.

Resistance
(W)

Light Intensity

Fig. 2.19 Resistance of a Semiconductor w.r.t. Light Intensity

2.6.11 Applications
∑ They are used in street light control.
∑ They are used in camera exposure control.
∑ They are used in automatic head light control.
∑ They are used in optical switches.
∑ They are used in position sensors.

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 2.1 The resistivity of silicon at 300 K is 3.16 ¥ 103 ohm.m.

The mobilities of electrons and holes in silicon are 0.14 m2 / V.s and
0.05 m2/V.s, respectively. Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration
of silicon at 300 K.
Given Data
ri = 3.16 ¥ 103 ohm.m
me = 0.14 m2/V.s
mp = 0.05 m2/V.s
ni = ?
Semiconducting Materials 75
The electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as
si = nie (mn + mp)
1
i.e. = ni e ( m n + m p ) (1)
ri
where ri is the electrical resistivity and e is the charge of the electron.
Equation (1) may be rewritten as
1
ni = (2)
ri e ( m n + m p )

Substituting the given data for ni, e, mn, mp into Eq. (2), we get
1
ni =
3.16 ¥ 10 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 ¥ (0.14 + 0.01)
3

i.e. ni = 1.6 ¥ 1016 m–3

Example 2.2 The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge

is 2.37 ¥ 1019 m3. If the electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18
m2/V.s, respectively, calculate the resistivity.
(A.U., B.Tech(Chem.), May/June 2006)
Given Data
ni = 2.37 ¥ 1019/m3
mn = 0.38 m2/V.s
mp = 0.18 m2/V.s
ri = ?
Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as
1
si ∫ = nie(mn + mp) (1)
ri

Equation (1) gives the resistivity as

1
ri = (2)
n i e( m n + m p )
76 Engineering Physics - II

Substituting the given values of ni, e, mn, mp into Eq. (2), we get
1
ri =
2.37 ¥ 10 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 ¥ (0.38 + 0.18)
19

i.e. ri = 0.47 ohm.m

Example 2.3 Calculate the conductivity of germanium at 200°C.

Given that at 300 K, ni = 23 ¥ 1018 m–3, mn = 0.364 m2 V–1 s–1 and
mp = 0.19 m2 V–1 s–1.
(A.U., B.E.(Mech.), May/June 2006)
Given Data
ni = 23 ¥ 1018/m–3
mn = 0.364 m2 V–1 s–1
mp = 0.19 m2 V–1 s–1
si = ?
Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as
si = nie (mn + mp) (1)
Substituting the given values of ni, e, mn, mp into Eq. (1), we get
si = 23 ¥ 1018 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10–19 ¥ (0.36 + 0.19)
i.e. si = 2.04 ohm–1.m–1

Example 2.4 The electron mobility and hole mobility in silicon are
0.17 m2/V. s and 0.035 m2/V. s, respectively at room temperature. If the
carrier concentration is 1.1 ¥ 1016 m–3, calculate the resistivity of silicon
at room temperature.
(A.U., B.E. (ECE), May/June 2005)
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
Given Data
ni = l.l ¥ l016 m–3
mn = 0.17 m2/V-s
mp = 0.035 m2/V-s
ri = ?
Semiconducting Materials 77
Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as
1
si ∫ = nie (mn + mp) (1)
ri
Equation (1) gives the resistivity as
1
ri = (2)
ni e( m n + m p )

Substituting the given values of ni, e, mn, mp, into Eq. (2), we get
1
ri =
1.1 ¥ 1016 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 ¥ (0.17 + 0.035)
i.e. ri = 2.77 ¥ 103 ohm.m
Example 2.5 In an intrinsic semiconductor, the energy gap is 1.2 eV.
What is the ratio between its conductivity at 600 K and that at 300 K?
Given: 1 eV = 1.602 ¥ 10–19 J.
(A.U., B.E.(ECE), May/June 2005)
Given Data
Eg = 1.2 eV = 1.2 ¥ l.6 ¥ 10–19 J
T1 = 600 K
T2 = 300 K
s T1
=?
s T2

The electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as

Ê Eg ˆ
s = s0 exp Á -
Ë 2 kT ˜¯

Hence, we have
Ê Eg ˆ
s T1 = s 0 exp Á - (1)
Ë 2 kT1 ˜¯

Ê Eg ˆ
s T2 = s 0 exp Á - (2)
Ë 2 kT2 ˜¯
78 Engineering Physics - II

From Eqs (l) and (2), we get

s T1 Ê Eg Ê 1 1 ˆ ˆ
= exp Á - ˜ (3)
s T2 Ë 2 k ÁË T2 T1 ˜¯ ¯
Substituting the given values of Eg, k, T1, T2, into Eq. (3), we get
s T1 Ê 1.2 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 Ê 1 1 ˆˆ
= exp Á -23 Á
- ˜˜
s T2 Ë 2 ¥ 1.38 ¥ 10 Ë 300 600 ¯ ¯
s T1
i.e. = 1.1 × 105
s T2
Example 2.6 The conductivity of a semiconductor at 20°C is 250
ohm–1 m–1 and at 100°C is 110 ohm–1. m–1. What is its bandgap, Eg?
(A.U., B.E.(ECE), May/June 2005)
Given Data
T1 = 20ºC = 293 K
sT1 = 250 ohm–1.m–1
T2 = 100°C = 373 K
sT1 = 1100 ohm–1.m–1
Eg = ?
The electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as
Ê Eg ˆ
s = s 0 exp Á -
Ë 2 kT ˜¯
Hence, we have
Ê Eg ˆ
s T1 = s 0 exp Á - (1)
Ë 2 kT1 ˜¯
Ê Eg ˆ
s T2 = s 0 exp Á - (2)
Ë 2 kT2 ˜¯
From Eqs (1) and (2), we get

s T1 Ê Eg Ê 1 1 ˆ ˆ
= exp Á - ˜ (3)
s T2 Ë 2 k ÁË T2 T1 ˜¯ ¯
Semiconducting Materials 79

2 kT1T2 Ê sT ˆ
i.e. Eg = ¥ ln Á 2 ˜ (4)
(T2 - T1 ) Ë s T1 ¯

Substituting the given values of k, T1, T2, sT1, sT2, into Eq. (4), we get

2 ¥ 1.38 ¥ 10-23 ¥ 293 ¥ 373 Ê 1100 ˆ

Eg = ¥ ln Á
80 Ë 250 ˜¯

i.e. Eg = 0.56 ¥ 10–19 J

or Eg = 0.35 eV

Example 2.7 Germanium at 20°C has the electrical conductivity

of 2 ohm–1.m–1. It has a bandgap of 0.72 eV. Calculate the electrical
conductivity of germanium at 40°C.
Given Data
s1 = 2 ohm–1 · m–1
Eg = 0.72 eV = 0.72 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
T1 = 20°C = 293 K
T2 = 40°C = 313 K
s2 = ?

The temperature dependence of electrical conductivity of an intrinsic

semiconductor is given as
Ê Eg ˆ
s 0 = s 0 exp Á - (1)
Ë 2 kT ˜¯

where s0 k is the Boltzmann constant.

Applying Eq. (1) to the given cases, we get
Ê Eg ˆ
s T1 = s 0 exp Á - (2)
Ë 2 kT1 ˜¯

Ê Eg ˆ
s T2 = s 0 exp Á - (3)
Ë 2 kT2 ˜¯
80 Engineering Physics - II

Equations (2) and (3) give

s T2 È Eg Ê 1 1 ˆ ˘
= exp Í ÁË T - T ˜¯ ˙
s T1 Î 2 k 1 2 ˚

È Eg Ê 1 1 ˆ ˘
i.e. s T2 = s T1 exp Í ÁË T - T ˜¯ ˙ (4)
Î 2 k 1 2 ˚

Substitution of the given values for s1, Eg, T1, T2 , k into Eq. (4) gives
È 0.72 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 Ê 1 1 ˆ˘
s T2 = 2 ¥ exp Í ÁË - ˜˙
Î 2 ¥ 1.38 ¥ 10
-23
293 313 ¯ ˚

i.e. sT2 = 4.97 ohm–1. m–1

Example 2.8 The electron mobility in a pure semiconductor is

50 m2/Volt-s at 4.2 K. What is the mobility at 300 K?
(A.U., B.Tech(Chem.), May/June 2006)
Given Data
mT1 = 50 m2 Volt-s
T1 = 4.2 K; T2 = 300 K
mT 2 = ?
Mobility of charge carriers is given as
m μ T–3/2
That is, we have
m = CT–3/2 (1)
where C is the proportionality constant.
In the given case, Eq. (1) gives
mT1 = CT1–3/2 (2)
mT2 = CT2–3/2 (3)
From Eqs (2) and (3), we get
32
ÊT ˆ
mT2 = mT1 Á 1 ˜ (4)
ËT ¯
2
Semiconducting Materials 81

Substitution of mT1, T1, T2 into Eq. (4) gives

32
Ê 4.2 ˆ
mT2 = 50 ¥ Á
Ë 300 ˜¯

i.e. mT2 = 0.083 m2/ V. s

Example 2.9 The bandgap of diamond at 27°C is 5.6 eV. Find the
probability that an electron in diamond at 27°C is thermally promoted
to the conduction band.
(A.U., B.E. (Mech) May /June 2006)
Given Data
Tl = 27°C = 300 K
Eg = 5.6 eV = 5.6 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10–19 J
f (Ec) = ?
The probability that an electron being thermally promoted to the
conduction band is given as

1
f ( Ec ) = (1)
Ê Eg ˆ
1 + exp Á
Ë 2kT ˜¯

where k is the Boltzmann constant.

Substituting the given data for Eg, T, k into Eq. (l), we get
1
f ( Ec ) =
Ê 5.6 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 ˆ
1 + exp Á
Ë 2 ¥ 1.38 ¥ 10-23 ¥ 300 ˜¯

i.e. f (Ec) = 1.7 ¥ 10–47

Since the probability fc(Ec) is extremely small, electrons cannot be

thermally promoted to the conduction band of diamond at 27°C.

Example 2.10 Estimate the fraction of electrons in the conduction

band of germanium at 300 K. The bandgap of germanium is 0.72 eV.
82 Engineering Physics - II

Given Data
Eg = 0.72 eV = 0.72 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
T = 300 K
n
=?
N
The fraction of electrons in the conduction band to that in the valence
band is given as
n 1
∫ f ( Ec ) = (1)
N Ê E - EF ˆ
1 + exp Á c
Ë kT ˜¯

Equation (1) may be rewritten as

n 1
= (2)
N Ê Eg ˆ
1 + exp Á
Ë 2 kT ˜¯

Moreover, Eg/2 >> kT at room temperature. Hence, we have

n 1
=
N Ê Eg ˆ
exp Á
Ë 2 kT ˜¯

Substitution of the given values for Eg, T, k into Eq. (2), gives
n 1
=
N Ê 0.72 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 ˆ
exp Á
Ë 2 ¥ 1.38 ¥ 10-23 ¥ 300 ˜¯

n
i.e. = 9.7 ¥ 10–7
N
Example 2.11
found to be 3.66 ¥ 10–4 m3 coulomb–1, and the resistivity of the specimen
is 8.93 ¥ 10–3 ohm . m. Find the mobility and density of charge carriers,
assuming single carrier conduction.
Semiconducting Materials 83
Given Data
RH = 3.66 ¥ 10–4 m3 coulomb–1
r = 8.93 ¥ 10–3 ohm . m
m=? n=?
Mobility of the charge carriers is given as
RH
m = RH s ∫ (1)
r

Substitution of the given data for RH, r into Eq. (l) gives
m = 0.041 m2/V.sec.

1
RH =
ne
1
i.e. n= (2)
RH ◊ e
Substitution of the given data for RH, e into Eq. (l) gives
n = 1.707 ¥ 1022/m3

Example 2.12
of 3.66 ¥ 10–4 m3 coulomb–1 and has a resistivity of 8.93 ¥ 10–3 ohm.m.
–2
is
used. Find the Hall angle.
Given Data
ri = 8.93 ¥ 10–3 ohm.m
RH = 3.66 ¥ 10–4 m3. coulomb–1
Bz = 0.5 weber . m–2
f=?
Hall angle is given as
def Ey
f = ∫ mH z (1)
Ex
84 Engineering Physics - II

On the other hand, we have

1
m = RH ◊ s ∫ RH ◊ (2)
r
From Eqs (1) and (2), we get
RH .Bz
f=
r
Substitution of the given values of RH, Bz, r into Eq. (3) gives
3.66 ¥ 10-4 ¥ 0.5
f=
8.93 ¥ 10-3
i.e. f = 0.021

Example 2.13 In an n-type germanium, the electron and hole

concentrations are 3.5 ¥ 1025 m–3 and 1.5 ¥ 1015 m–3, respectively. The
electron and hole mobilities in the given semiconductor are 0.39 m2/V.s
and 0.19 m2/V.s, respectively. Compare the conductivities of doped and
intrinsic germanium.
Given Data
nn = 3.5 ¥ 1025 m–3
pn = 1.5 ¥ 1025 m–3
mn = 0.39 m2/V.s
mp = 0.19 m2/V.s
sn
=?
si
The electrical conductivity of an n-type semiconductor is given as
sn = nn e mn (1)
On the other hand, the law of mass action gives the concentration of
the intrinsic semiconductor as
ni2 = nn pn

i.e. ni = nn pn
The electrical conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is given as
si = nie(mn + mp)
Semiconducting Materials 85

i.e. σ i = nn pn ( μn + μ p )e (2)
From Eqs (l) and (2), we get

σn nn μn
= (3)
σi pn ( μn + μ p )

Substituting the given values of nn, Pn, mn, mp, into Eq. (3), we get

σn 3.5 × 1025 0.39

=
σi 1.5 × 10 (0.39 × 0.19)
15

sn
i.e = 1.03 ¥ 105
si
This is, upon doping, the conductivity of the given semiconductor
increases by a factor of 1.03 ¥ 105.

Example 2.14 The intrinsic carrier concentration of germanium at

300 K is 1.7 ¥ 1019 m–3. Density of germanium at 300 K is 5320 kg/m3
and its atomic weight is 72.59. It is doped with a pentavalent impurity
in the concentration of 1 ppm. Assume that all the impurity atoms are
ionized at the given temperature. Calculate the hole concentration in
the doped germanium at 300 K.
Given Data
ni = 1.7 ¥ 1019 m–3
Dopant concentration = 1 ppm
r¢ = 5320 kg/m3
M = 72.59 g/mol = 72.59 ¥ 10–3 kg/mol
Pn = ?
Law of mass action gives the hole concentration in the p-type semi-
conductor as
ni2 = nn pn

ni2
i.e. pn = (1)
nn
86 Engineering Physics - II

Obviously, the concentration of germanium atoms is

ρ′⋅ N A
N=
M
As the dopant concentration is 1 ppm, we get the concentration of
pentavalent impurity atoms as
Nd = N ¥ 10–6
Hence, we have
ρ′⋅ N A
Nd = ×10−6
M
As all the impurity atoms are ionized, we get
nn = Nd

ρ ′N A
i.e. nn = ×10−6 (2)
M
From Eqs (1) and (2), we get
ni2 ⋅ M
pn = (3)
ρ ′N A ×10−6
Substituting of the given values for ni, M, r¢ and for NA into Eq. (3)
gives
(1.7 × 1019 ) 2 × 72.59 × 10−3
pn =
5320 × 6.023 × 1023
i.e. pn = 6.6 ¥ 1015 m–3

Example 2.15
found to be –7.35 ¥ 10–5 m2/C from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature
of the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found to be 200 ohm–1.m–1.
Calculate the density and mobility of the charge carrier.
(A.U., B.Tech(Chem.), May/June 2006)
Given Data
RH = 7.35 ¥ 10–5 m2/C
s = 200 ohm–1◊ m–1
M = 72.59 g/mol = 72.59 ¥ 10–3 kg/mol
Nature of semiconductor = ?; n = ?; m = ?
Semiconducting Materials 87

is an n-type semiconductor.
n-type semiconductor is given as
1
RH = − (1)
ne
Equation (1) may be rewritten as
1
n=− (2)
RH ⋅ e
Substituting the given values of RH, e into Eq. (2), we get
1
n=−
(−7.35 × 10−5 ) × 1.6 × 10−19
i.e. n = 8.5 ¥ 1022 m–3
Mobility of the n-type semiconductor is given as
m = |RH |◊s (3)
Substitution of the given values of RH, s into Eq. (3), gives
m = 7.35 ¥ 10–5 ¥ 200
i.e. m = 0.0147 m2/V.sec

Example 2.16 The sample of silicon is doped with 1016 phosphor

atoms/cm3. Find the Hall voltage in a sample with 500 mm thickness,
2.5 ¥ 10–3 cm–2
Bz as 10 Wb/cm2.
(A.U., B.E.(ECE), May/June 2005)
Given Data
Nd ∫ n = 1016/cm+3 = 1022/m3
t = 500 mm = 500 ¥ 10–6 m
A = 2.5 ¥ 10–3 cm–2 = 2.5 ¥ 10–2 m–2
Bz = 10 Wb/cm2 = 10 ¥ 104 Wb/m2
I = IA
VH = ?
88 Engineering Physics - II

In a Hall effect arrangement, the Hall voltage is given as

RH ⋅ I . Bz
VH =
t
IBz
or VH = (1)
net
Substituting the given values of I, Bz, n, e, t into Eq (l), we get
1 × 10 × 104
VH =
1022 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 500 × 10−6
i.e. VH = 1.25 ¥ 105 volts

Example 2.17 The intrinsic carrier density of an unknown material

is 1.5 ¥ 1016/m3. If the electron and hole mobilities are 0.13 and
0.05 m2/V/s. Calculate its electrical conductivity.
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
Given Data
ni = 1.5 ¥ 1016/m3
mn = 0.13 m2/V/s
m1 = 0.05 m2/V/s
si = ?
si = nie (mn + mp)
= 1.5 ¥ 1016 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10–19 ¥ (0.13 + 0.05)
si = 4.32 ¥ 10–4 ohm–1 m–1

Example 2.18 An n-type germanium sample has a donor density of

1021/m3. It is arranged in a Hall experiment having B = 0.5 W/m2 and
T = 500 A/m2. Find the Hall voltage if the sample is 3 mm thick.
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
Given Data
Nd = n = 1021/m3
t = 3 ¥ 10–3 m
Bz = 0.5 W/m2
Ix = 500 A/m2
Vy = ?
Semiconducting Materials 89

I x Bz
Vy =
net
500 ¥ 0.5
=
10 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 ¥ 3 ¥ 10-3
21

Vy = 52.08 V

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are semiconductors?

Semiconductors are the materials with electrical conductivity ly-
ing in between that of conductors and insulators. The energy band
theory explains the electrical properties of a semiconductor by the
presence of a narrow energy gap of about 1 to 3 eV between the
conduction and valence bands.
2. What are elemental semiconductors? Give examples.
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech)
They consist of only one chemical element.
Examples : Ge, Si, Te, a–Sn etc.
3. What are compound semiconductors? Give examples.
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
They consist of more than one element.
Examples: GaAs, InP, A1P, CdS, CdSe etc.
4. What are direct bandgap semiconductors? Give examples.
The electrons at the conduction band bottom and at the valence
band top have the same momentum. That is, when an electron in
the valence band is excited to the conduction material band, its
momentum does not change.
Examples: GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, InSb, a–Sn, Te.
5. What are indirect bandgap semiconductors? Give examples.
The electrons at the conduction band bottom and at the valence
band top have different momentum. That is, when an electron in
the valence band is excited to the conduction band, its momentum
changes.
Examples: Ge, Si, A1P, AlAs, AlSb, GaP.
90 Engineering Physics - II

6. What are intrinsic semiconductors?

These semiconductors are chemically pure without any impurity
in which n = p = ni
where n is the electron concentration in conduction band, p is the
hole concentration in valence band and ni is the intrinsic carrier
concentration.
7. Give the expression for the carrier concentration of an intrinsic
semiconductors at low temperatures.
The intrinsic carrier concentration is then given as
⎛ Eg ⎞
ni = AT 3 2 exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 kt ⎠
12
12 ⎛ π 3⎞
where A ≡ B = ⎜ γ nγ p k ⎟ = const.; Eg is the energy bandgap,
⎝ 4 ⎠
k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature.
8. Give the expression for the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
The electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is
⎛ Eg ⎞
σ i = σ o exp ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
where so is a constant for the given intrinsic semiconductor which
represents its electrical conductivity at T = 0 K; Eg is the energy
bandgap, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature.
9. Give the expression for the Fermi energy of an intrinsic semi-
conductor at 0 K.
Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor at 0 K given as
Ec + Ev
EF =
2
where Ec is the conduction band bottom and Ev is the valence band
top.
10. Give the expression for the temperature dependence of Fermi
energy of an intrinsic semiconductor at a non-zero temperature.
Semiconducting Materials 91
Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor at a non-zero
temperature is given as
Ec + Ev kT ⎛ Gv ⎞
EF = + ln ⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎝ Gc ⎠
where Ec is the conduction band bottom and Ev is the valence band
top; k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature; Gv and Gc
are the effective densities of states in the valence and conduction
bands, respectively.
11. What are extrinsic semiconductors?
By suitable doping, a semiconducting crystal can be made to have
unequal values of electron and hole concentrations. The result-
ing semiconductor is said to be an extrinsic one. For an extrinsic
semiconductor, therefore, we have n π p.
12. What are n-type semiconductors?
These are doped semiconductors with greater electron concent-
ration in conduction band than hole concentration in valence band.
i.e. n > p, n > ni
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
13. What are p-type semiconductors?
These are impurity semiconductors with greater hole concentration
in valence band than electron concentration in conduction band
i.e. p > n, p > ni
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
14. Give the expression for the carrier concentration in an n-type
semiconductor at low temperatures.
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
The electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor is
⎛ E − Ec ⎞
n = (Gc ⋅ N d )1 2 exp ⎜ d ⎟
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
where Gc is the effective density of states in the conduction band,
Nd is the donor concentration, Ed is the donor energy level, Ec is
the conduction band bottom, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is
the temperature.
92 Engineering Physics - II

15. Give the expression for the Fermi energy of an n-type semi-
conductor at 0 K. (A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
Fermi energy of an n-type semiconductor at 0 K is given as
Ec + Ed
EF =
2
where Ed is the donor energy level and Ec is the conduction band
bottom.
16. Give the expression for the temperature dependence of Fermi
energy of an n-type semiconductor at a non-zero temperature.
Fermi energy of an n-type semiconductor at a non-zero tempera-
ture is given as
E + Ed kT ⎛ N d ⎞
EF = c + ln ⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎝ Gc ⎠
where Gc is the effective density of states in the conduction band,
Nd is the donor concentration, Ed is the donor energy level, Ec is
the conduction band bottom, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is
the temperature.
17. Give the expression for the carrier concentration in a p-type
semiconductor at low temperatures.
The hole concentration in valence band of a p-type semiconductor
is
⎛ E − Ea ⎞
p = (Gv . N a )1 2 exp ⎜ v ⎟
⎝ 2 kT ⎠
where Gv is the effective density of states in the valence band, Na
is the acceptor concentration, Ea is the acceptor energy level, Ev
is the valence band top, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the
temperature.
18. Give the expression for the Fermi energy of a p-type semicon-
ductor at 0 K.
Fermi energy of a p-type semiconductor at 0 K is given as
Ea + Ev
EF =
2
where Ea is the acceptor energy level and Ev is the valence band
top.
Semiconducting Materials 93
19. Give the expression for the temperature dependence of Fermi
energy of a p-type semiconductor at a non-zero temperature.
Fermi energy of a p-type semiconductor at a non-zero temperature
is given as
Ea + Ev kT ⎛ Gv ⎞
EF = + ln ⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎝ Na ⎠

where Gv is the effective density of states in the valence band, Na

is the acceptor concentration, Ea is the acceptor energy level, Ev
is the valence band top, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the
temperature.

Hall effect.

in the specimen (of metal or semiconductor), an electric potential

difference is established in a direction mutually perpendicular to
-
ference is called the Hall voltage.

Ey 1
RH ≡ =−
jx Bz ne

where Ey jx is the current density, Bz is the

n is the electron concentration and e is the
charge of the electron.

Ey
φ=
Ex

where Ey Ex
94 Engineering Physics - II

∑ Sign of the current-carrying charge is determined.

∑ Carrier concentration can be calculated.
∑ Mobility of charge carriers is determined.
∑ Electrical conductivity is determined.
∑ Hall effect can be used to determine the electronic structure of
the specimen: whether the specimen is conductor, insulator or
semiconductor.
∑ Knowledge of RH enables us to measure unknown magnetic

∑ Hall elements are used in electronic multimeters and electronic

wattmeters.

A solar cell is a semiconductor device that converts the energy of

sunlight directly into electricity by photovoltaic effect.

A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a semiconductor device whose

resistance decreases with increase in incident light intensity.

EXERCISE PROBLEMS

-A
1. Calculate the number of silicon atoms per cubic metre. The density
of silicon is 2.33 Mg/m3 (2.33 g/cm3), and its atomic mass is 28.08
g/mol. (Ans. 5.00 ¥ 1028 atoms/m3)
2. Calculate the electrical resistivity of intrinsic silicon at 300 K. For
Si at 300 K, ni = 1.5 ¥ 1016 carriers/m3. mn = 0.135 m2/v.s., and
mp = 0.048 m2/v.s. (Ans. 2.28 ¥ 103 W m)
3. The electrical resistivity of pure silicon is 2.3 ¥ 103 W.m at room
temperature, 27°C (300 K). Calculate its electrical conductivity at
200°C (473 K). Assume that the Eg of silicon is 1.1 eV; k = –8.62
¥ 10–5 eV/K. (Ans. 1.04 (W m)–1)
4. A silicon water is doped with 1021 phosphorus atoms/m3. Calculate
Semiconducting Materials 95
concentration, and (c) the electrical resistivity of the doped silicon
at room temperature (300 K). Assume complete ionization of the
dopant atoms; ni (Si) = 1.5 ¥ 1016 m–3. mn = 0.135 m2/(V.s), and
mp = 0.048 m2/(V.s). (Ans. 0.463 W m)
5. A semiconducting crystal that is 10 mm long, 4 mm wide and
2 applied

from front to back perpendicular to largest faces. When a current

measured across its width is found to be 47 mV. What is the Hall

(Ans. 7.8 ¥ 107 C–1m3)
6.
–6.33 ¥ 10–5 m3 C–1 from 90 to 350 K. Determine the nature of
the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found to be 150 m–1 W–1,
calculate the density and mobility of the charge carrier.
(Ans. ne = 9.8736 ¥ 1022/m3, me 9.49 ¥ l0–3 m2/Vs)
7. An n ¥ 10–4 m3
C–1. The conductivity is 100 ohm–1 m–1. Calculate its charge carrier
density and electron mobility at room temperature.
(Ans. ne = 3.40712 ¥ 1022/m3,
me = 0.01834 m2/Vs)
8.
–7.35 ¥ 10–5 m–3 C–1 from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of
the semiconductor. If the conductivity was found to be 200 m–1W–1,
calculate the density and mobility of the charge carrier.
(Ans. ne = 8.503 ¥ 1022/m3,
me = 0.0147 m2/VS)
9. The mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic Ge
at 300 K are 0.36 m2V–1s–1 and 0.17 m–3V–1s–1 respectively. Find
the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers if the resistivity of
the specimen is 2.12 Wm. (Ans. ni = 5.5 ¥ 1018/m3)
10. For germanium at 300 K, ni = 2.4 ¥ 1019/m3, me and mh are
0.39 m2 V–1s–1 and 0.19 m2V–1s–1 respectively. Calculate the
conductivity. (Ans. s = 2.2 W–1m–1)
96 Engineering Physics - II

QUESTIONS

1. Derive an expression for carrier concentration of an intrinsic semi-

conductor. (A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011,
May/June 2013, May/June 2014)
2. Prove that at temperature 0 K, the Fermi level lies exactly halfway
between the valence band and conduction band in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
3. Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
4. Discuss in detail the bandgap determination of an intrinsic semi-
conductor.
5. Derive an expression for carrier concentration of electrons in an
n-type semiconductor. (A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
6. Explain the variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity
atom in an n-type semiconductor.
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
7. Derive an expression for carrier concentration of holes in a p-type
semiconductor. (A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
8. Explain the variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity
atom in a p-type semiconductor.
(A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011)
9. Give the theory of Hall effect in the case of extrinsic semicon-
ductors. Using Hall effect how will you determine the mobility of
charge carriers? (A.U., B.E./B.Tech, May/June 2011,
May/June 2013, May/June 2014))
10. n-type
semiconductor using Hall effect.
11. Explain solar cells in detail.
12. Explain LDR in detail.
Semiconducting Materials 97

SUMMARY

∑ Semiconductors are materials having electrical conductivities

intermediate between metals and insulators.
∑ The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with increase in tem-
perature.
∑ Intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic conductors are the two types
of semiconductors.
∑ Semiconductors in an extremely pure form are called intrinsic
semiconductors.
∑ At 0 K, intrinsic semiconductor behave as perfect insulator.
∑ Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor at 0 K is given by
F + Ev
EF = c .
2
∑ Semiconductors in an impure form are called extrinsic semi-
conductors.
∑ n-type and p-type semiconductors are the two types of extrinsic
semiconductors.
∑ n-type semiconductors are formed by doping a pure semiconductor
with pentavalent impurities.
∑ p-type semiconductors are formed by doping a pure semiconductor
with trivalent impurities.
∑ Fermi energy of an n-type semiconductor at 0 K is given by
E + Ed
EF = c .
2
∑ Fermi energy of a p-type semiconductor at 0 K is given by
E + Ev
EF = a .
2
∑ Hall effect measurements help us in the determination of a semi-
conductor type, and in determining carrier concentration and carrier
mobility.
98 Engineering Physics - II

∑ Solar cell is a semiconductor device which converts solar energy

into electrical energy.
∑ Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a semiconducting device and
its resistance varies depending upon the intensity and wavelength
of the incident light.