PHYSICAL

SCIENCE
Grade Level: 12- GAS, 12- HE, 12-ICT
References: Exploring Life through Science, Karen S. Santiango, Angelina A. Silverio
https://images.app.goo.gl/CLPvWPVryHuPXdn27 https://images.app.goo.gl/9Fgn3a4kRXnPgskZ8
Topic: Formation of Heavier Elements
Concept: Heavy elements are formed in a supernova, a massive explosion of a star. In supernova, neutron capture
reaction takes place, leading to formation of heavy elements. In a neutron capture reaction, heavy elements are created
by addition of more neutrons to existing nuclei instead of fusion of light nuclei.
Objectives: Learners discuss the stellar nucleosynthesis.
Learners describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution.

Quarter
Formati
1–
on of
Module
Heavier
The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and Evolution
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar nucleosynthesis
is the process by which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of these elements change as the
stars evolve.

Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a
molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core called protostar. Due
to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and its temperature increases. When the core
temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and
neutrinos which increase pressure and stop the contraction. When the contraction stops, the gravitational
equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence star.

In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton chain. When
most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core decreases.
Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon
in the core while hydrogen is converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a
red giant.

When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate of fusion
decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass),
there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer
material of the star is blown off into space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The
star becomes a white dwarf
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such that
temperature and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes through a series of
stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in the shells around the core. The element oxygen
is formed from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from
magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter than iron can be
fused because when two of these elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their
masses. The missing mass is released as energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy.
However, this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei requires an
input of energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron can be produced in a massive star, but no elements
heavier than iron are produced.

When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity squeezes the core
until the star explodes and releases a large amount of energy. The star explosion is called a supernova.

Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the 20th century provided a
crucial piece of evidence to support the star formation theory. Other pieces of evidence come from the study of
different stages of formation happening in different areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.

Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star formation. For instance,
astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and compare it to the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction.

Extinction in astronomy means the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust
particles between an emitting astronomical object and an observer. The IR measurements are then used to approximate
the energy, temperature, and pressure in the protostar.

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed in the cores and shells of the stars through
nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter elements to form heavier ones. It
requires very high temperatures and pressures. It is the reaction that fuels the stars since stars have very high
temperatures and pressures in their cores.

Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant in space. Thus, the formation of heavier elements
starts with hydrogen. Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that produces energy in the stars. There are two dominant
hydrogen burning processes, the proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.

Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the main source of energy
radiated by the sun and other stars. It happens due to the large kinetic energies of the protons. If the kinetic energies of
the protons are high enough to overcome their electrostatic repulsion, then proton-proton chain proceeds.

The sequence proceeds as follows:

1. The chain starts when two protons fuse. When the fused proton breaks, one proton is transmuted into a neutron.
2. The proton and neutron then pairs, forming an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium.
3. Another proton collides with a deuterium forming a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma ray.
4. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a helium-4 is created with the release of two protons
 arbo -Nitrogen- (CNO)
n Oxygen Cycle
For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more favorable route in converting
hydrogen to helium.

The cycle proceeds as follows:

1. Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off a gamma ray, producing an unstable nitrogen-13.
2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form carbon-13.
3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray to become nitrogen14.
4. Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton and releases a gamma ray to produce oxygen-15.
5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-15.
6. Finally, nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off helium (alpha particle) ending the cycle and returning to
carbon-12.

Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic process. Carbon12 acts a catalyst for the cycle. It
is used in the initial reaction and is regenerated in the final one.

Nucleosynthesis is the process by which new nuclei are formed from pre-existing or seed nuclei. Previously, you have
learned about the types of nucleosynthesis. The big bang nucleosynthesis produced hydrogen and helium, whereas the
stellar nucleosynthesis produced elements up to iron in the core of the stars.
 The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction becomes
unfavourable. This is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the nucleus intact,
decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different pathways are needed for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.

Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.

The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction becomes
unfavourable. This is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the nucleus intact,
decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different pathways are needed for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.

Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes. In neutron capture, a neutron is added to
a seed nucleus. The addition of neutron produces a heavier isotope of the element.

A 1 a+1
X+ n X
Z 0 z
For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.
56 1 59
Fe + 3 n Fe
26 0 26
The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta (_ 01β) decay. This decay results in an increase in the
number of protons of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.

Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens when there is a large number of neutrons. It is
termed rapid because the rate of neutron capture is fast that an unstable nucleus may still be combined with another
neutron. The r-process is associated with a supernova. The temperature after a supernova is tremendously high that the
neutrons are moving very fast. Because of their speed, they can immediately combine with the already heavy isotopes.
This kind of nucleosynthesis is also called supernova nucleosynthesis.

Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It happens after a supernova, when there
is a tremendous amount of energy available. It is because the addition of a proton to the nucleus is not favourable
because of Coulombic repulsion, which is the repulsive force between particles with the same charge. Proton capture
produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the seed nucleus.
Post-test
Determine whether the provided statements are correct or incorrect. Write FACT if it is correct and BLUFF if it is
incorrect.

_________ 1. Protostar was formed due fragment contraction from the star formation theory.
_________ 2. Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through nuclear nucleosynthesis.
_________ 3. A large amount of energy was released during the supernova explosion which lead to the formation of
heavier elements.
_________ 4. The energy detected from different stages of star formation was Infrared Radiation
_________ 5. The element silicon was formed through the fusion of magnesium.
_________ 6. Iron element was formed from silicon fusion.
_________ 7. The interstellar medium of gas and dust were sufficient evidences which supported the star formation
theory.
_________ 8. The main sequence star evolved from protostar by which hydrogen was fused into helium through
proton-proton chain.
_________ 9. The star turned into a red giant as the helium converted to carbon in the core and in the surrounded core
hydrogen was converted into helium.
_________ 10. The element oxygen was formed from carbon fusion while neon was formed from the fusion of
nitrogen.

Multipl Choi . Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on the space provided before each
e ce number.

___ 1. The formation of the elements is known as _______________.

a. Nucleotides b. nuclear fission
c. Synthogenesis d. Nucleosynthesis
___ 2. How many types of nucleosynthesis are there?
a. 1 b. 2
c. 3 d. 4
___ 3. The first elements were formed in what is known as _____________.
a. Big bang nucleosynthesis b. Supernova nucleosynthesis
c. Stellar nucleosynthesis d. Genonucleosynthesis
___ 4. The two elements formed in Big Bang Nucleosynthesis where _________.
a. Hydrogen and helium b. Hydrogen and lithium
c. Hydrogen and oxygen d. Helium and lithium
___ 5. ______________ Nucleosynthesis happens in the center of the stars and is where the elements helium through
iron (Fe) is formed.
a. Big Bang b. Stellar
c. Supernova d. Red Giant