CSE 314: STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN

LECTURE NOTES

31 March 2023

1 Timber Design ................................................................................ 2

1.1 Introduction To Structural Design ......................................................... 2

1.2 The structural Eurocodes General ......................................................... 4

1.3 EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures ...................................... 6

1.3.1 The structure of EC 5 includes ....................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Principles/Application rules ........................................................................... 6
1.3.3 Nationally Determined Parameters .................................................................. 7
1.3.4 Symbols ................................................................................................. 7

2 Design Philosophy ........................................................................... 9

2.1 Actions.......................................................................................... 10

2.2 Material Properties ........................................................................... 11

2.3 Factor of safety ............................................................................... 14

2.4 Wind Loads .................................................................................... 15

2.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 15
2.4.2 Wind design............................................................................................ 16

2.5 Structural Element Design .................................................................. 20

2.5.1 Design of Flexural Elements ......................................................................... 20
2.5.2 Design of members subjected to axial compression to Euro code 5 ........................... 31

2.6 Examples ....................................................................................... 34

2.6.1 Example. Column Design to EC5 ................................................................... 34
2.6.2 Beam Example. Design of timber floor joists (EC5) .............................................. 37
2.6.3 Beam Example : Design of a notched floor joist to EC5 ......................................... 43
2.6.4 Beam Example, Design of a solid timber beam restrained at supports EC5 .................. 44
2.6.5 Column Example, Column resisting and axial load to EC5 ...................................... 46
2.6.6 Column Example, Column resisting and axial load to EC5 ...................................... 47

3 CONNECTIONS IN TIMBER STRUCTURES ............................................... 50

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3.1 CONNECTIONS IN TIMBER STRUCTURES ................................................... 50

3.1.1 Factors affecting the detailing of connections. .................................................. 50
3.1.2 Selection of Fasteners. ............................................................................... 52
3.1.3 Designing for durability .............................................................................. 54
3.1.4 Joint Detailing Principles ............................................................................ 54

3.2 Timber connection design ................................................................... 69

3.2.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 69
3.2.2 Load Carrying capacity of nails , bolt, screws, and dowels ..................................... 70
1.1.1 Characteristic Embedment strengths ............................................................... 71
1.1.2 Minimum Edge and Spacing distances ............................................................. 73

1.2 Screws .......................................................................................... 74

1.2.1 Laterally loaded screws............................................................................... 74
1.2.2 Axially loaded screws. ................................................................................ 75

1.3 Nails ............................................................................................. 75

1.3.1 Laterally loaded nails. ................................................................................ 75
1.3.2 Axially Loaded Nails .................................................................................. 77

3.3 Bolts ............................................................................................. 78

3.3.1 Laterally loaded bolts ................................................................................ 78
3.3.2 Axially loaded bolts ................................................................................... 78

3.4 Dowels........................................................................................... 78

3.5 Examples........................................................................................ 79
3.5.1 Timber joints .......................................................................................... 79
3.5.2 Example ................................................................................................ 81

4 Bibliography ................................................................................ 83

1 Timber Design

1.1 Introduction To Structural Design

Structural engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering in which structural

engineers are trained to design the supporting structure that create the form and
shape of man-made structures. Structural engineers also must understand and

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calculate the stability, strength, rigidity, and earthquake-susceptibility of built

structures for buildings and nonbuilding structures.

The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as
architects and building services engineer and often supervise the construction of
projects by contractors on site.

Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical
knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries.

Structural engineering design uses several structural concepts to build complex

structural systems. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and
efficient use of funds, structural elements, and materials to achieve these goals.

Design process

i. Structural planning
ii. Structural analysis
iii. Structural element design
iv. Structural detailing
v. Costing
vi. Specifications of materials and workmanship
vii. Supervision

The task of a structural engineer is to design a structure which satisfies the needs
of the client and the user. The designer should consider

 safety
 economy
 aesthetics
 environment

The designer needs to make realistic estimates of the strengths of the materials
composing the structure and the loading to which it may be subjected to during
its design life. He/she will need to understand the structural behaviour of the
materials to be used.

The aim of design is to achieve the probabilities that a structure will not become
unfit for its intended use. The design process should ensure that the structure
performs satisfactory under both ultimate load and service load conditions.

- the structure should be able to carry the least ultimate design loads
- sudden-collapse should not take place
- failure of one element should not lead to progressive collapse of
other elements

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1.2 The structural Eurocodes General

The Structural Eurocodes are a set of documents clustered into nine major areas
of design:

 EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design

 EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
 EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
 EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
 EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
 EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
 EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
 EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
 EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
 EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures

Figure 1-1. The3 Eurocodes

These documents serve as references for:

 compliance of building and civil engineering works with the essential

requirements of Council Directive 89/106/EEC, particularly Essential
Requirement N°1 -Mechanical resistance and stability - and Essential
Requirement N°2 - Safety in case of fire;
 as a basis for specifying contracts for construction works and related
engineering services.

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 as a framework for drawing up harmonized technical specifications for

construction products

The Eurocode standards provide common structural design rules for everyday
use for the design of whole structures and component products of both a
traditional and an innovative nature. Unusual forms of construction or design
conditions are not specifically covered, and additional expert consideration will
be required by the designer in such cases.

Although the Eurocodes are the same across the different countries, for matters
related to safety and economy or for aspects of geographic or climatic nature
national adaptation is allowed if therein explicitly foreseen. These are the so-
called Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) that are listed at the
beginning of each Eurocode. For these parameters, each country, in a National
Annex included in the corresponding National Standard, may take a position,
either keeping or modifying them.

The possible contents and extent of the Nationally Determined Parameters is also
described in the common Foreword to all Eurocodes as reproduced below:

National Standards implementing Eurocodes

The National Standards implementing Eurocodes will comprise the full text of the
Eurocode (including any annexes), as published by CEN, which may be preceded
by a National title page and National foreword, and may be followed by a National
annex.

The National annex may only contain information on those parameters which are
left open in the Eurocode for national choice, known as Nationally Determined
Parameters, to be used for the design of buildings and civil engineering works to
be constructed in the country concerned, i.e. :

 values and/or classes where alternatives are given in the Eurocode,

 values to be used where a symbol only is given in the Eurocode,
 country specific data (geographical, climatic, etc.), e.g., snow map,
 the procedure to be used where alternative procedures are given in the
Eurocode.

It may also contain

 decisions on the application of informative annexes,

 references to non-contradictory complementary information to assist the
user to
 apply the Eurocode.

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1.3 EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures

Eurocode 5 applies to the design of building and civil engineering structures in

timber. It is based on limit state principles and comes in three Parts as shown in
Table 1-1.

Part 1.1 of Eurocode 5, which is the subject of this discussion, gives the general
design rules for timber structures together with specific design rules for buildings.
Part 1.1 of Eurocode 5, hereafter referred to as EC 5.

Design of building structures cannot wholly be undertaken using EC 5, however.

Reference will have to be made to other documents, notably EN 1990 and
Eurocode 1 to determine design values of actions and combination of actions,
including values of the partial factors for actions, and EN 338 for material
properties of timber such as bending and shear strength, elastic modulus,
density, etc. Reference may also have to be made to Part 1.2 of Eurocode 5 (EN
1995–1–2) which gives the general design rules for timber structures in fire
conditions.

Table 1-1 Scope of Eurocode 5:

Part Subject
1.1 General – common rules for buildings
1.2 General rules – Structural Fire Design
2 Bridges

1.3.1 The structure of EC 5 includes

i. Chapter 1: General
ii. Chapter 2: Basis of design
iii. Chapter 3: Material properties
iv. Chapter 4: Durability
v. Chapter 5: Basis of structural action
vi. Chapter 6: Ultimate limit states
vii. Chapter 7: Serviceability limit states
viii. Chapter 8: Connections with metal fasteners
ix. Chapter 9: Components and assemblies
x. Chapter 10: Structural detailing and control
xi. Chapter 11: Special rules for diaphragm structures

1.3.2 Principles/Application rules

The clauses in EC 5 have been divided into Principles and Application rules. \

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i. Principles comprise general statements, definitions, requirements, and

models for which no alternative is permitted. Principles are indicated by
the letter P after the clause numbers.
ii. Application rules are generally recognised rules which follow the
statements and satisfy the requirements given in the principles. The
absence of the letter P after the clause number indicates an application
rule. The use of alternative application rules to those recommended in the
Eurocode is permitted provided it can be show that the alternatives are at
least equivalent and do not adversely affect other design requirements. It
is important to note that if an alternative application rule is used the
resulting design will not be deemed Eurocode compliant.

1.3.3 Nationally Determined Parameters

EC 5 allows some parameters and procedures to be determined at the national

level. Where a national choice is allowed this is indicated in a note in the
normative text under the relevant clause. The note may include the
recommended value of the parameter, or preferred method, etc., but the actual
value, methodology, etc., to be used in a particular

Member State country is given in the appropriate National Annex.

The recommended values of these parameters and design methods/procedures

are collectively referred to as Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs). The
NDPs determine various aspects of design but perhaps most importantly the level
of safety of structures during execution (i.e. construction/fabrication) and in-
service, which remains the responsibility of individual nations.

1.3.4 Symbols

1.3.4.1 Geometric Symbols

𝑏 breadth of beam
ℎ depth of beam
𝐴 area
𝑖 radius of gyration
𝐼 second moment of area
𝑊 ,𝑊 elastic modulus about y–y (major axis) and z–z (minor axis)

1.3.4.2 Bending
𝑙 span
𝑀 design moment
𝐺 permanent action
𝑄 variable action
𝜎 , design normal bending stress
𝑓 , characteristic bending strength
𝑓 , design bending strength

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𝛾 partial coefficient for permanent actions

𝛾 partial coefficient for variable actions
𝛾 partial factor for material properties, modelling uncertainties and geometric
variations
𝑘 modification factor to strength values
𝑘 sys load sharing factor
𝑘 instability factor for lateral buckling
𝐸 , fifth percentile value of modulus of elasticity
𝐸 mean value of modulus of elasticity(parallel) to grain
𝐺 mean value of shear modulus =

1.3.4.3 deflection
𝑢 instantaneous deformation
𝑢 , instantaneous deformation due to a permanent action 𝐺
𝑢 , , instantaneous deformation for the leading variable action 𝑄
𝑢 final deformation
𝑢 , final deformation due to a permanent action 𝐺
𝑢 , , final deformation for the leading variable action 𝑄
𝑘 deformation factor
𝑤 , net final deflection
𝑢 bending deflection
𝑢 shear deflection

1.3.4.4 vibration
fundamental frequency of
𝑓1
vibration
𝐵 floor width
𝑙 floor length
𝑣 unit impulse velocity
𝜁 damping coefficient
number of first order modes
𝑛 40
with natural frequencies below
40 Hz

1.3.4.5 Shear
𝑉 design shear force
𝜏 design shear stress
𝑓, characteristic shear strength
𝑓, design shear strength

1.3.4.6 Bearing
𝐹 , design bearing force
𝑙 length of bearing
𝜎 , , design compression stress perpendicular to grain

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𝑓, , characteristic compression strength perpendicular to grain

𝑓, , design compression strength perpendicular to grain

1.3.4.7 Compression
𝑙 effective length of column
𝜆
slenderness ratios about y–y and z–z axes
𝜆
𝜆 ,
Relative slenderness ratios about y–y and z–z axes
𝜆 ,
𝑁 design axial force
𝜎, , design compression stress parallel to grain
𝑓, , characteristic compression strength parallel to grain
𝑓, , design compression strength parallel to grain
𝜎 , ,
design bending stresses parallel to grain
𝜎 ,,
𝑓 , ,
design bending strengths parallel to grain
𝑓 ,,
𝑘 compression factor

2 Design Philosophy

EC 5 is based on limit state principles. EC 5 recommends that the two principal

categories of limit

states to be considered in design are

i. ultimate and
ii. serviceability limit states.
iii. A third limit state of durability (section 4 of EC 5). Covers the risk of timber
decay due to fungal or insect attack as well as the risk of corrosion of metal
fasteners and connections, e.g., nails, screws, and staples.

Measures to reduce the risk of timber decay include selecting materials which are
naturally durable or the use of appropriate preservative treatments. Possible
measures against corrosion attack of metal fasteners include the use of zinc
coatings or stainless steel.

Design is based on Limit States Design philosophy. Ultimate limit state

addresses load carrying capacity limits

Serviceability limit state addresses deformations and vibration limits. It is

important to check that the design criteria for both limit states are satisfied.

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For checking ultimate limit states, the characteristic values of both the loads and
material properties are modified by specified partial safety factors. The factors
increase the values of loads and decrease the values of material properties.

To check serviceability limit states, EC5 requires that both instantaneous and time
dependant (creep) deflections are calculated and ensure that vibrations are not
excessive.

ultimate limit states are those associated with collapse or with other forms of
structural failure which may endanger the safety of people.

serviceability limit states correspond to states beyond which specific service

criteria are no longer met. The serviceability limit states which must be checked
in EC 5 are

i. deflection and
ii. vibration.

The ultimate limit states, which must be checked (singly or in combination),

include

i. bending,
ii. shear,
iii. compression and
iv. buckling.

2.1 Actions

Action is the Eurocode terminology for loads and imposed deformations.

Permanent actions, G, are all the fixed loads acting on the structure, including the
finishes, fixtures, and self-weight of the structure.

Variable actions, Q, include the imposed, wind and snow loads. Clause 2.3.1.1 of
EC 5 recommends that the actions to be used in design, principally characteristic
permanent, 𝐺 , and variable, 𝑄 , actions, should be taken from Eurocode 1:
Actions on structures. Guidance on determining the design values of actions and
combination of actions, including the partial safety factors for actions, are given
in EN 1990: Basis of structural design. The design value of an action (𝐹 ) is
obtained by multiplying the representative value (𝐹 ) by the appropriate partial
safety factor for actions (𝛾 ):

𝐹 = 𝛾 𝐹

Table 2-1 shows the relevant partial safety factors for the ultimate limit state of
strength. Other safety factors will apply in other design situations.

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The partial safety factor 𝛾 takes account of errors and inaccuracies due to :

i. Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation

ii. Possible unusual increases in magnitude of actions
iii. Unforeseen stress redistributions
iv. Constructional inaccuracies

𝐹 is generally taken as the characteristic value of a permanent or variable

action (i.e., 𝐹 ). Assuming that the member being designed is subjected to one or
more permanent actions and one variable action only, i.e. load combination 1 in
Table 2-1, the partial safety factor for permanent actions, 𝛾 , will normally be
taken as 1.35 and for the variable action, 𝛾 as 1.5. It is possible to improve
structural efficiency by using expressions 6.10a and 6.10b of EN 1990
(respectively, load combination 3(a) and 3(b)/3(c) in Table 2-1) to estimate the
design values of actions.
Table 2-1 Load combinations and partial safety / combination factors for the ultimate limit sate of
strength

Load type
Limit state / load
Permanent load (𝐺 ) Imposed, 𝑄 Wind,
combination
Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable Favorable 𝑊
Strength
1. Permanent and -
1.35/1.35ξ 1.0 1.5 0
variable
2. Permanent and 1.5
1.35/1.35ξ 1.0 - 0
Wind
3. Permanent,
imposed, and wind
(a) 1.35 1.0 1.5𝜓 , 0 1.5𝜓 ,
(b) 1.35/1.35ξ 1.0 1.5 0 1.5𝜓
(c) 1.35/1.35ξ 1.0 1.5𝜓 , 0 1.5

2.2 Material Properties

Timber as a building material is unique as it is entirely natural. There is no control

over its quality during growth, unlike steel and concrete where quality control can
be done during manufacture.

To classify its strength, timber must be graded, and this is based on assessment
of the features in timber that influence strength such as knots, slope of grain,
wane, resin pockets and distortion.

Assessment can be done by visual inspection or by use of stress grading machine

to determine the strength class. Visual stress grading is a manual process where

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the number of defects is compared with the permitted limits to determine whether
the timber is accepted or rejected.

Machine grading of timber is carried out on the principle that strength is related
to stiffness. The machine exerts pressure and bending is induced at increments
along the timber length. The resulting deflection is then measured and compared
with the standard grade. The timber is also visually inspected during machine
grading to ensure major defects do not exist.

EC 5 does not contain the material properties, e.g. bending and shear strengths,
necessary for sizing members. This information is to be found in a CEN
supporting standard for timber products, namely EN 338: Structural Timber:
Strength classes.
Table 2-2. Extract EN 338; Table 1

Table 2-2 shows the range of timber strength classes available for design. In
practice the most commonly recommended strength classes are C16 and C24.
The table also gives the characteristic strength and stiffness properties and
density values for each class. Note that the strength class indicates the
characteristic bending strength of the timber. The strengths in EN 338 are fifth
percentile values derived directly from laboratory tests of five minutes duration.
One benefit of using characteristic values of material properties rather than grade
stresses is that it will make it easier to sanction the use of new materials and
component for structural purposes, since such values can be utilised
immediately, without first having to determine what reduction factors are needed
to convert them to permissible or working values. The characteristic values of
strength in Table 2-2 are related to a depth in bending and width in tension of 150
mm. For depths in bending or widths in tension of solid timber, h, less than 150

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mm the characteristic bending and tension strengths may be increased by the

factor 𝑘 given by
.
150
𝑘 = lesser of and 1.3
ℎ
Table 2-3 Recommended partial factors, for material properties and resistances.

Design situation 𝜸𝑴
Fundamental combinations for solid timber 1.3
LVL , Plywood, OSB 1.2
Glue laminated timber 1.25
Accidental combinations 1.0
Serviceability limit states 1.0
Punched metal plate fasteners 1.25

The characteristic strengths, 𝑋 , are converted to design values, 𝑋 , by dividing

by a partial factor, 𝛾 taken from Table 2-3 (EC5 Table 2.3) , and multiplying by
a factor 𝑘 , obtained from Table 2-4.

Note that 𝛾 is not simply a partial factor for materials but also takes account of
modelling and geometric uncertainties.

𝑋
𝑋 =𝑘 Eqn. 2-1
𝛾

The factor γm takes account of

i. uncertainties in the strength of materials in the structure

ii. uncertainties in the accuracy of the method used to predict the behaviour
of members
iii. variations in member sizes and building dimensions

EC 5, allows the design strengths determined using Eqn. 2-1 to be multiplied by

a number of other factors as appropriate such as 𝑘 (section 11.4.4), 𝑘
(section 11.4.5), 𝑘 , (section 11.4.6) and the loading sharing factor, 𝑘 , where
several equally spaced similar members are able to resist a common load.
Typical members which fall into this category may include joists in flat roofs or
floors with a maximum span of 6m and wall studs with a maximum height of 4m
(clause 5.4.6, ENV EC 5). According to clause 6.6 of EC5 a value of 𝑘 = 1.1
may generally be assumed.

𝑘 takes into account the effect on strength parameters of the duration of load
and the environmental conditions that the structure will experience in service.
Table 2-4 Values of 𝒌𝒎𝒐𝒅 for solid timber (EC5 Table 3.1)

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Service class
Load duration class
1 2 3
Permanent 0.6 0.6 0.5
Long-term 0.7 0.7 0.55
Medium-term 0.8 0.8 0.65
Short-term 0.9 0.9 0.7
Instantaneous 1.1 1.1 0.9

Table 2-5 Service classes (EC5; cl. 2.3.1.3)

Service Moisture Typical service conditions

class content
1 ≤ 12% 20oC, 65% RH, i.e.
internal, heated conditions
2 ≤ 20% 20oC, 85% RH, i.e.
internal but cold
3 > 20% Climatic conditions leading to a higher moisture
content than in service class 2, i.e. external

Where a load combination consists of actions belonging to different load duration

classes the value of 𝑘 should correspond to the action with the shortest
duration. For example, for a permanent load and medium-term combination, a
value 𝑘 corresponding to the medium-term load should be used.

2.3 Factor of safety

These are determined using statistics and pre-selected probability of failure. They
are used to take care of the following.

- Variability of construction
- Inconsistency of construction material
- Possible increase in load
- Inaccurate assessment of loads
- Unforeseen stress distributions
- Variation in dimensional accuracy

A factor of unity or less is applied to the resistances of the material, and a factor
of unity or greater to the loads. These factors can differ significantly for different
materials or even between differing grades of the same material. The factors
applied to resistance also account for the degree of scientific confidence in the
derivation of the values i.e. smaller values used when there is not much research
on the specific type of failure mode. Factors associated with loads are normally
independent on the type of material involved but can be influenced by the type of
construction.

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Design code is a document that sets rules for design of new development. It is a
tool that can be used in the design and planning process but goes further and
more regulatory than other forms of guidance commonly used. It is a mechanism
which operationalize design guidelines or standards which have been established
through master plan process. It ensures that aspirations for quality and quantity
for development, particularly for large projects, are realized in the final schemes.
That is, it has a potential to deliver the consistency of quality.

Design stress ≤ Design strength Eqn. 2-2

2.4 Wind Loads

2.4.1 Introduction

All structures are composed of interconnected elements such as slabs, beams,

columns, walls and foundations. They enable the loads acting on the structure to
be transmitted safely to the ground.

The designer must make an assessment on the future likely level of loading to
which the structure may be subjected to during its design life.

In structural design, assumed loads are specified in national codes for types of
structures, geographic locations, and usage. In addition to the magnitude, its
frequency of occurrence, distribution and nature (static or dynamic) are important
factors of design. Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in
structures. Assessment of their effects is carried out by methods of structural
analysis. Excess load or overloading may cause structural failure and hence such
possibility should be either considered in design or strictly controlled.

Wind Loads (W): are in the form of pressure or suction on the exterior surfaces
of the building. They cause horizontal lateral loads (forces) on the structure, which
can be critical for tall buildings. Wind loads also cause uplift of light roof systems.

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Figure 2-1: Wind-map of Kenya source; from Korkovelos, A., 2015. Energy modelling to support
subnational sustainable planning in developing countries: The case of Kakamega County in Kenya.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.29602.94400

Values of structural loads are given in the publication BS 6399 and BS EN

1991.

2.4.2 Wind design

Example: Determination of wind loads on a building using Eurocode BS EN 1991-

1-4

This worked example explains the procedure of determination of wind actions

loads on a portal frame building.

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Figure 2-2: Wind loading example portal frame

Design data:

•Total length: 𝑏 = 72 𝑚 • Height (max): ℎ = 7.3 𝑚

•Spacing: 𝑠 = 7.2 𝑚 • Roof slope: 𝛼 = 5°
•Bay width: 𝑑 = 30 𝑚
REF CALCS OUTPUT
Height above ground:
ℎ = 7.3 𝑚, 𝛼 = 5°
leads to:
ℎ´ = 7.30 – 15 tan 5 ° = 5.988 𝑚
EC1-1- Basic values
4(§4.2) Determination of basic wind velocity:
𝑣 = 𝑐 × 𝑐 × 𝑣 ,
Where:
𝑣 basic wind velocity
𝑐 directional factor
𝑐 seasonal factor
𝑣 , fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
Basic wind velocity for Kakamega (approx.) 𝑣 , =
𝑣 , = 16.2m/s (see Figure 2-1) 16.2m/s
EC1-1-4 𝑣 = 𝑐 × 𝑐 × 𝑣 , =1.0 × 1.0 × 16.2=16.2 m/s 𝑐 = 1.0
(§4.2) see Note 2

𝑐 = 1.0
see Note 3

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REF CALCS OUTPUT

(§4.5) Basic velocity pressure
eqn 4.10 1
×𝜌 𝑞 = × (𝑣 )
Note2 2
𝜌 = 1.25 from Note 2 𝑞
𝑁
= 164.025
𝑚
𝑞 = × 1.25 × (16.2) = 164.025

EC1-1-
§4:4.3.2
Table 4.1

𝑧 = 0.05
𝑧 =2
𝑧 , = 0.05

(§4.3.2) 𝑧 = 7.3𝑚
. .
.
𝑘 = 0.19 = 0.19 × = 0.19
, .
. 𝑧 <𝑧
𝑐 (𝑧) = 𝑘 × ln = 0.19 × ln = 0.947 <𝑧
.
§4.3.1 𝑣 (𝑧) is the mean wind velocity
𝑣 (𝑧) = 𝑐 (𝑧) × 𝑐 (𝑧) × 𝑣
𝑣 (𝑧) = 0.947 × 1.0 × 16.2 = 15.34 𝑐 = 1.0
§4.4 (eqn 𝜎 =𝑘 ×𝑣 ×𝑘
4.6) 𝑘 = 1.0
(eqn 4.7) Turbulence intensity 𝑙 (𝑧)
𝑙 (𝑧) = ( ) =
( )

(§4.5) Peak pressure

eqn 4.8 𝑞 (𝑧) = [1 + 7 × 𝑙 (𝑧)] × 0.5 × 𝜌 × 𝑣 (𝑧)
.
𝑞 (𝑧) = 1 + 7 × × × 𝜌 × 𝑣 (𝑧) ×
( )×

𝑘 × ln

𝑞 (7.3) = 1 + . × × 1.25 × (16.2) × 0.19 ×

. 𝑞 (7.3) =
.
ln = 2.4046 × 164.025 × 0.947 = 0.374 0.374
.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

REF CALCS OUTPUT

EC1-1- Wind pressures
4(§7.2) 𝑤 = 𝑞 (𝑧 ) × 𝑐
Vertical walls

Coefficients
D: 𝑐 = 0.7
ℎ 7.3 E: 𝑐 = −0.3
= = 0.243 ≤ 0.25
𝑑 30
EC1-1-4 Duo-pitch roof
(§7.2)

𝛼=5
𝜃 = 0 (wind direction)
𝑒 = min(𝑏; 2ℎ) = min(72,14.6) = 14.6𝑚
Table
7.4a

F: 𝑐 = −1.7
G: 𝑐 = −1.2
H: 𝑐 = −0.6
I: 𝑐 = −0.6
J: 𝑐 = −0.6

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

REF CALCS OUTPUT

§7.2.9(6) Internal pressure coefficients
Note 2 𝑐 = +0.2
Wind loads
Wind loading per frame, where spacing (s) = 7.2m
𝑤 𝑐 +𝑐 ×𝑞 ×𝑠
Wind loads (on a frame)

cpe cpi w (kN/m)

D 0.7 0.2 2.42
E 0.3 0.2 1.34
G 1.2 0.2 3.76
H 1.2 0.2 3.76
I 0.6 0.2 2.15
J 0.6 0.2 2.15

2.5 Structural Element Design

Once the design loads acting on the structure have been estimated, it is then
possible to calculate the design loads acting on individual elements. isolate the
elements and design them individually. Depending on the subjected loading,
structural elements may be grouped as Flexural , Compression or Tension
elements.

2.5.1 Design of Flexural Elements

The design of flexural members principally involves consideration of the following

actions:

i. Bending iv. Lateral buckling

ii. Deflection v. Shear
iii. Vibration vi. Bearing

20
2.5.1.1 Bending (EC 5; Cl. 6.1.6)

The following conditions need to be met to ensure that the members do not fail in
bending
𝜎 , , 𝜎 , ,
+𝑘 ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-3
𝑓 , , 𝑓 , ,
𝜎 , , 𝜎 , ,
𝑘 + ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-4
𝑓 , , 𝑓 , ,

Where

𝜎 , , and 𝜎 , , are the design bending stresses about axes y–y

and z–z (see Figure 2-3)
𝑓 , , and 𝑓 , , are the design bending strengths about
axes y–y and z–z (see Figure 2-3)
𝑘 is a factor that allows for the redistribution of
secondary bending stresses and assumes the
following values:
– for rectangular or square sections; 𝑘 = 0.7
– for other cross-sections; 𝑘 = 1.0

Figure 2-3: Beam axes

For beams with rectangular cross-sections

𝑀, 𝑀 ,
𝜎 , , = = Eqn. 2-5
𝑊 𝑏ℎ
6
𝑀, 𝑀 ,
𝜎 , , = = Eqn. 2-6
𝑊 ℎ𝑏
6

Where

𝑀 , and 𝑀 , are the design bending moments about axes y–y (major axis)
and z–z(minor axis); see Figure 2-3
𝑊 and 𝑊 are elastic modulus about axes y–y and z–z
 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

2.5.1.2 Deflection (EC5; Cl. 7.2)

Deflection control prevents the possibility of damage to surfacing materials,

ceilings, partitions, and finishes, and to the functional needs as well as aesthetic
requirements. EC5 recommends various limiting values of deflection of beams.
Table 2-6 Limiting values for deflections of beams

Type of member Deflection limits for individual members,

𝒘𝒇𝒊𝒏
A member of span, 𝒍 A member with a
between two supports cantilever, 𝒍
Roof of floor members with a 𝑙 𝑙
plastered or plasterboard ceiling 250 125
Roof of floor members without a 𝑙 𝑙
plastered or plasterboard ceiling 150 75

𝑤 Is the final deflection due to permanent and variable actions = 𝑤 +𝑤

𝑤 , Is the net final deflection due to permanent and variable actions = 𝑤 + 𝑤

Figure 2-4 Deflection components

The components of deflection are shown in Figure 2-4 where the symbols are
defined as

𝑤 Is the pre-camber (if applied)

𝑤 Is the instantaneous deflection due to permanent and variable actions
𝑤 Is the creep deflection due to permanent and variable actions

If there is not pre-camber the net final deflection is equal to the final deflection.

According to clause 2.2.3(5) when the member supports one or permanent

actions but only a single variable action (i.e. Q1) the final deflection, 𝑢 , is given
by

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

𝑢 = 𝑢 , + 𝑢 , Eqn. 2-7

Where

𝑢 , = 𝑢 1 + 𝑘 Eqn. 2-8
𝑢 , = 𝑢 1 + 𝜓 𝑘 Eqn. 2-9

Where

𝑘 is the deformation factor

𝜓 is the factor for quasi permanent value of permanent actions (Table 2-7)

Table 2-7 𝜳𝒐 , 𝜳𝟐 values

Variable actions 𝚿𝒐 𝚿𝟐
Imposed loads
- Dwellings 0.7 0.3
- Offices 0.7 0.3
- Shopping and congregation areas 0.7 0.6
- Storage 1.0 0.8
- Parking (vehicle weight < 30 kN) 0.7 0.6
Snow loads (where latitudes< 1000 m above sea level) 0.5 0.0
Wind loads 0.5 0.0

The instantaneous deflections, i.e. 𝑢 and 𝑢 , can be calculated by means

of the expressions given in Table 2-8 and using 𝐸 , or 𝐸 , as
appropriate.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Table 2-8 Bending and shear deflections (assuming 𝑮 = 𝑬 𝟏𝟔 )

Deflection is the center C or at end E

Load distribution
Bending Shear
5 𝑤𝑙 12 𝑤𝑙
× ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
1 𝑤𝑙 24 𝑤𝑙
× ×
48 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
𝑤𝑎 𝐿 𝑎 96 𝑤𝑎
− ×
𝐸𝐼 8 6 5 𝐸𝐴
1 𝑤𝑙 12 𝑤𝑙
× ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
1 𝑤𝑙 24 𝑤𝑙
× ×
192 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
1 𝑤𝑙 48 𝑤𝑙
× ×
8 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
1 𝑤𝑙 96 𝑤𝑙
× ×
3 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴

In EC5 it is necessary to calculate the deflections produced by permanent and

variable actions separately in EC 5. The final deflections are derived from the
instantaneous deflection via 𝑘 which takes into account the combined effect of
creep and moisture content. Recommended values of 𝑘 are given in Table 2-9

Table 2-9 Values of 𝒌𝒅𝒆𝒇 for solid timber to EN 14081-1 and glue
laminated tember to EN 14081 (extracted from EC5; Table 3.2)

Service class
Material
1 2 3
Solid timber 0.60 0.80 2.0
Glued laminated timber 0.60 0.80 2.0

2.5.1.3 VIBRATION (CL. 7.3, EC 5)

EC 5 gives procedures for calculating the vibration characteristics of residential

floors which must satisfy certain requirements otherwise the vibrations may
impair the functioning of the structure or cause unacceptable discomfort to users.

The fundamental frequency of vibration of a rectangular residential floor, 𝑓 , can

be estimated using the following expression and should normally exceed 8 Hz

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

𝜋 (𝐸𝐼) Eqn. 2-10

𝑓 =
2𝑙 𝑚

Where

Mass equal to the self-weight of the floor and other permanent action per unit
𝑚
area [𝑘𝑔 𝑚 ]
𝑙 Floor span in 𝑚
(𝐸𝐼) Equivalent bending stiffness in the beam direction [𝑁𝑚 𝑚 ]

For residential floors with a fundamental frequency greater than 8 Hz the following
conditions should also be satisfied
𝑤
≤ 𝑎 [𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑁 ] Eqn. 2-11
𝐹
𝑣 ≤ 𝑏( ) [𝑚
/ (𝑁𝑠 )] Eqn. 2-12

Where

𝜁 is the modal damping coefficient, normally taken as 0.02

𝑤 is the maximum vertical deflection caused by a concentrated static force 𝐹 = 1.0
𝑣 is the unit impulse velocity
𝑎 is the deflection of floor under a 1 kN point load obtained from Table 2-10
𝑏 is the velocity response constant obtained from Table 2-10.
Table 2-10 Values of parameters 𝒂 and 𝒃

Parameter Limit
1.8 𝑚𝑚 For 𝑙 ≤ 4000 𝑚𝑚
16500
𝑎 𝑚𝑚 For 𝑙 > 4000 𝑚𝑚
𝑙 .
𝑙 is the joist span in mm
For 𝑎 ≤ 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑏 = 180 − 60𝑎
𝑏
For 𝑎 > 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑏 = 160 − 40𝑎

The value of w in Eqn. 2-11 may be estimated using

1000 𝑘 𝑙 𝑘
𝑤= Eqn. 2-13
48(𝐸𝐼)

where

𝑘 is the proportion of point load acting on a single joist

𝑙 is the equivalent floor span in mm
𝑘 is the amplification factor to account for shear deflection in the case of solid
timber

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

(𝐸𝐼) is the bending stiffness of a joist in 𝑁𝑚𝑚 (calculated using 𝐸 )

14 (𝐸𝐼)
𝑘 =𝑘 0.38 − 0.08 ln ≥ 0.30 Eqn. 2-14
s
Where

= 0.97 for appropriately installed single or multiple lines of

𝑘
strutting, or otherwise 1.0
(𝐸𝐼) Is the floor flexural rigidity perpendicular to the joists in [𝑁 𝑚𝑚 𝑚 ]
𝑠 Is the joist spacing in 𝑚𝑚
𝑙 is the span, l, in mm, for simply supported single span joists
𝑘 1.05 for simply supported solid timber joists

The value of ν may be estimated from

( . . )
𝑣= in 𝑚 𝑁𝑠 Eqn. 2-15

Where

𝑏 is the floor width in m

𝑙 is the floor length in m
𝑛 is the number of first order modes with natural frequencies below 40 Hz and
is given by Eqn. 2-16
(𝐸𝐼) is the equivalent plate bending stiffness parallel to the beams and the other
symbols are as defined above.
.
40 𝑏 (𝐸𝐼) Eqn. 2-16
𝑛 = −1
𝑓 𝑙 (𝐸𝐼)

2.5.1.4 LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS (CL. 6.3.3, EC 5)

Where both lateral displacement of the compression edge throughout the length
of the member and twisting of the member at supports are prevented, lateral
buckling should not occur. Otherwise, the member may be vulnerable to lateral
buckling and the rules in Cl. 6.3.3 (3) of EC 5 should be used to assess the
bending behaviour. Generally, the following condition should be verified.

𝜎 , ≤𝑘 𝑓 , Eqn. 2-17

Where

𝜎 , design bending stress

𝑓 , design bending strength
is a factor which takes into account the reduction in bending strength due to
𝑘
lateral buckling and is given by Eqn. 2-18

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

𝜆 , is the relative slenderness ratio for bending given by Eqn. 2-19

𝑓 , Characteristic bending stress
𝜎 , Is the critical bending stress generally given by Eqn. 2-20 and Eqn. 2-21

1 for 𝜆 , ≤ 0.75
1.56 − 0.75𝜆 , for 0.75 < 𝜆 , ≤ 1.4 Eqn. 2-18
𝑘 =
1 for 𝜆 > 1.4
,
𝜆 ,
𝑓 ,
𝜆 , = Eqn. 2-19
𝜎 ,
𝑀 𝜋 𝐸. 𝐼 𝐺 , 𝐼
𝜎 , = = Eqn. 2-20
𝑊 𝑙 𝑊

And for softwoods with solid rectangular sections should be taken as

0.78 𝑏
𝜎 , = 𝐸 . Eqn. 2-21
ℎ𝑙

Where

𝑙 is the effective length of the beam, according to Table 2-11 Effective length as
a ratio of span (from EC5; Table 6.1)
𝐼 is the second moment of area about z-z
𝐼 is the torsional moment of inertia
𝑓 , characteristic bending strength
𝐸, is the fifth percentile modulus of elasticity parallel to grain (Table 2-2)
𝐺, is the fifth percentile shear modulus = ,

Table 2-11 Effective length as a ratio of span (from EC5; Table 6.1)*

𝒍𝒆𝒇
Beam type Loading type
𝒍
Constant moment 1.0
Simply supported Uniformly distributed load 0.9
Concentrated force at the middle of the span 0.8

* 𝑙
The ratios 𝑙 are valid for beams with torsionally restrained supports, loaded at the center of
gravity . if the load is applied at the ccompressio edge of the beam 𝑙 should be increased by 2ℎ
and may be decreased by 0.5ℎ for a load at the tension edge of the beam.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Uniformly distributed load 0.5

Cantilever
Concentrated force at the free end 0.8

2.5.1.5 SHEAR (EC; CL. 6.1.7 & 6.5)

For shear, the condition in Eqn. 2-22 should be satisfied:

𝜏 ≤𝑓, Eqn. 2-22

where

𝜏 Is the design shear stress

𝑓, Is the design shear strength (Table 2-2)

(a) (b)

Figure 2-5 Shear Stress components (a) shear component parallel to the grain (b) both shear
components perpendicular to the grain (rolling shear situation)

For a beam with a rectangular cross-section, the design shear stress occurs at
the neutral axis and is given by Eqn. 2-23

𝑉
𝜏 = 1.5 Eqn. 2-23
𝐴
where

𝑉 Is the design shear force

The design shear strength, 𝑓 , , is given by Eqn. 2-24

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

𝑘 𝑓,
𝑓, = Eqn. 2-24
𝛾

Where 𝑓 , is the characteristic shear strength (Table 2-2)

(b)
(a)
Figure 2-6 (a) & (b) End notched beams (EC5; Fig 6.11)

For beams notched at their ends as shown in Figure 2-6, the condition Eqn. 2-25
should be checked.

𝜏 ≤𝑘 𝑓, Eqn. 2-25

Where

1.5𝑉
𝜏 =
𝑏ℎ Eqn. 2-26
See Figure 2-6 for ℎ

𝑘 is the shear factor which may attain the following values:

For beams notched at the opposite side to support (Figure 2-6.b) 𝑘 = 1.0
For beams of solid timber notched at the same side as
See Eqn. 2-27
support (Figure 2-6.a)

1.1 𝑖 .
𝑘 1+
𝑘 ≤ √ℎ ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-27
𝑥 1
√ℎ 𝛼(1 − 𝛼) + 0.8 −𝛼
ℎ 𝛼

Where

𝑘 = 5 for solid timber

𝑖 is the notched inclination as defined in Figure 2-6
ℎ is the beam depth in mm
𝑥 is the distance from line of action to the corner

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

ℎ
𝛼= Eqn. 2-28
ℎ
2.5.1.6 COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN (CL. 6.1.5, EC 5)

For compression perpendicular to the grain the condition Eqn. 2-29 should be
satisfied:

𝜎 , , ≤𝑘 , 𝑓, , Eqn. 2-29

Where

𝜎, , is the design compressive stress perpendicular to grain

𝑓, , is the design compressive strength perpendicular to grain
𝑘, is the compressive strength factor.

The factor 𝑘 , principally takes into account the effect of support position and
bearing length on bearing strength. For example in the case of a beam 𝑏 wide
and ℎ deep, resting on end and internal supports, bearing length 𝑙 and overhang
𝑎 ≤ (Figure 2-7), 𝑘 , at the end support is given by Eqn. 2-30 .

𝑙 ℎ
𝑘 , = 2.38 − 1+ ≤ 4.0 Eqn. 2-30
250 12𝑙
and at internal supports is given by Eqn. 2-31

𝑙 ℎ
𝑘 , = 2.38 − 1+ ≤ 4.0 Eqn. 2-31
250 6𝑙

Figure 2-7 Compression perpendicular to grain (EC5, Fig 6.2)

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Figure 2-8 Member on discrete support

Clause 6.1.5(4) of EC 5 gives details of other ‘member arrangements’ and

associated expressions for 𝑘 , . In all cases the higher value of 𝑘 , will apply
but with an upper limit of 4. If none of the member arrangements are appropriate,
however, the value of 𝑘 , should be taken as 1. Thus for Eqn. 2-29

𝐹, ,
𝜎 , , ≤ Eqn. 2-32
𝐴

where 𝐴 is the effective contact area in compression perpendicular to the grain.

According to clause 6.1.5, 𝐴 should be determined taking into account an

effective contact length parallel to the grain, where the contact length, 𝑙, at each
side is increased by 30 𝑚𝑚 but not more than 𝑎, 𝑙 or (Figure 2-8). The value of
𝑘 , should generally be taken as 1.0. For members on discrete supports,
provided 𝑙 ≥ 2ℎ ,the value of 𝑘 , may be taken as 1.5 for solid support
softwood timber. Other values apply for members on continuous supports and for
glued laminated softwood timber.

2.5.2 Design of members subjected to axial compression to Euro code 5

Columns are normally subjected to either axial load or combined axial load and
bending. Axially loaded members may fail in compression or flexural buckling
depending upon the relative slenderness ratios, 𝜆 , and 𝜆 , . Members
subject to axial load and bending are also susceptible to these modes of failure
but may additionally fail due to lateral torsional buckling. The following
subsections discuss the rules relevant to the design of members subject to these
two types of stress states.

2.5.2.1 COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD ONLY (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)

The relative slenderness ratios 𝜆 , and 𝜆 , are defined in EC 5 as follows

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

𝜆 𝑓, ,
𝜆 , = Eqn. 2-33
𝜋 𝐸,

𝜆 𝑓, ,
𝜆 , = Eqn. 2-34
𝜋 𝐸,

where

𝜆 and are slenderness ratios corresponding to bending about the y-axis

𝜆 , (deflection in the z-direction)
𝜆 and 𝜆 , are slenderness ratios corresponding to bending about the z-axis
(deflection in the y-direction)
𝐸 , is the fifth percentile value of the modulus of elasticity parallel to the
grain.

The slenderness ratio, 𝜆, is given by:

𝑙
𝜆= Eqn. 2-35
𝑖
where

𝑙 is the effective length

𝑖 is the radius of gyration

𝐿 is the effective length and this depends on end conditions

Figure 2-9: Effective Lengths

EC 5 does not include a method for determining the effective length of a column.
Therefore, designers can refer to the recommendation in BS5268: Part 2 (Figure

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

2-9).
Where both 𝜆 , and 𝜆 , are less than or equal to 0.3, columns subject to
axial load only should satisfy the following condition:

𝜎 , , ≤ 𝑓, , Eqn. 2-36

where

𝑓, , is the design compressive strength

𝜎, , is the design compressive stress given by Eqn. 2-37

𝑁
𝜎, , = Eqn. 2-37
𝐴
Where

N is the axial load

A is the cross-sectional area

In cases where either 𝜆 , or 𝜆 , exceed 0.3, the column should satisfy the
more stringent of the following:

𝜎, , =𝑘 , 𝑓, , Eqn. 2-38
𝜎, , =𝑘 , 𝑓, , Eqn. 2-39

where

1
𝑘 , =
Eqn. 2-40
𝑘 + 𝑘 −𝜆 ,
1
𝑘 , =
Eqn. 2-41
𝑘 + 𝑘 −𝜆 ,

Where

𝑘 = 0.5 1 + 𝛽 𝜆 , − 0.3 + 𝜆 , Eqn. 2-42

𝑘 = 0.5 1 + 𝛽 𝜆 , − 0.3 + 𝜆 , Eqn. 2-43

Where 𝛽 = 0.2 (for solid timber)

2.5.2.2 COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING (CL. 6.3.2, EC 5)

In this case if the relative slenderness ratios about both the 𝑦– 𝑦 and 𝑧– 𝑧 axis of
the column, 𝜆 , and 𝜆 , respectively, are less than or equal to 0.3 the

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

suitability of the section can be assessed using the more stringent of the following
conditions;

𝜎, , 𝜎 , , 𝜎 , ,
+ +𝑘 ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-44
𝑓, , 𝑓 , , 𝑓 ,
𝜎, , 𝜎 , , 𝜎 , ,
+𝑘 + ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-45
𝑓, , 𝑓 , , 𝑓 ,

Where

𝜎, , is the design compressive stress from Eqn. 2-37

𝑓, , is the design compressive strength

𝑘 = 0.7 for rectangular sections

𝑘 =
𝑘 = 1.0 for other sections

Where either 𝜆 , and 𝜆 , exceeds 0.3, the column is vulnerable to flexural

buckling and the more stringent of the following expressions should be satisfied
𝜎 , , 𝜎 , , 𝜎 ,,
+ +𝑘 ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-46
𝑘 , 𝑓, , , 𝑓 , 𝑓 ,
𝜎, , 𝜎 , , 𝜎 ,,
+𝑘 +𝑘 ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-47
𝑘 , 𝑓, , 𝑓 , , 𝑓 ,

Moreover, in cases where𝜆 , and 𝜆 , exceeds 0.3 and when a combined

compressive force and a moment about the major axis (𝑦– 𝑦) act, the column may
be susceptible to lateral torsional buckling. The risk of this mode of failure
occurring can be assessed using the following expression taken from clause
6.3.3(6):

𝜎 , 𝜎 , ,
+ ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 2-48
𝑘 𝑓 , 𝑘 , 𝑓, ,

where 𝜎 , is the design bending stress, 𝜎 , is the design compressive strength

parallel to the grain, 𝑘 is given by Eqn. 2-18 and 𝑘 , is given by Eqn. 2-41

2.6 Examples

2.6.1 Example. Column Design to EC5

The column shown has a cross-section 150 𝑚𝑚 × 200 𝑚𝑚, is of strength class
C18 to BS EN 338:2003, and functions under service Class 2 conditions. It
supports a characteristic permanent compressive axial action (including its self-
weight) of 30 𝑘𝑁 and a characteristic variable medium-term compressive axial

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

action of 50 𝑘𝑁. The column is 3.75 𝑚 high and at each end is effectively held in
position but not in direction about the 𝑧– 𝑧 and the 𝑦– 𝑦 axes.

Check that the column will meet the ultimate limit state (ULS) requirements of
EC5.

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Column Geometry properties
Column length, 𝐿 = 3.75𝑚
Effective length about y-y axis, 𝐿 = 1.0𝐿 𝐿 = 3.75𝑚
Effective length about z-z axis, 𝐿 = 1.0𝐿 𝐿 = 3.75𝑚
Width of section, 𝑏 = 150𝑚𝑚 𝐴
Depth of the section ℎ = 200𝑚𝑚 = 3(10) 𝑚𝑚
Cross-sectional area 𝐴 = 𝑏. ℎ
Second moment of area about y-y axes; 𝐼 = 𝐼 = 10 𝑚𝑚
𝑖 = 57.74 𝑚𝑚
Radius of gyration about y-y axis; 𝑖 =
𝜆 = 64.95
,
Slenderness ratio, 𝜆 = <𝜆
𝐼
Second moment of area about z-z axes; 𝐼 = = 5.63
× 10 𝑚𝑚
Radius of gyration about z-z axis; 𝑖 =
𝑖 = 43.3 𝑚𝑚
Slenderness ratio, 𝜆 = , 𝜆 = 86.6
<𝜆

35
 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Timber properties Strength class C18
Characteristic compression strength parallel to the 𝑓, = 18
BS EN 338, ,
grain
Table 1 𝐸 = 6.0
Fifth percentile modulus of elasticity parallel to the .
grain
Partial Factors of Safety
EC 0 Table For ULS
A1.2(B) Permanent Actions, 𝛾 = 1.35
Variable actions, 𝛾 = 1.5
EC5 Table
Partial Factors for solid timber, 𝛾 = 1.3
2.3
Actions
Characteristic permanent action, 𝐺 = 30 𝑘𝑁
Characteristic medium-term compressive variable
action 𝑄 = 50 𝑘𝑁
Design compressive action for the critical load
combinations for unfavorable conditions 𝑁 = 115.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑁 = 𝛾 . 𝐺 + 𝛾 . 𝑄 = 115.5 𝑘𝑁
Modification factors
EC5. Table Factor for
𝑘 = 0.8
3.1 - medium duration loading and
- service class 2
System strength factor
𝑘 = 1.0
𝑘 not relevant
Compression of column 𝜎, , =
. ( )
Design compression stress, 𝜎 , , = = ( )
3.85
Design compressive strength
𝑓, , =
𝑘 .𝑘 .𝑓 , . 0.8 × 1.0 × 18
𝑓, , = = 11.08
𝛾 1.3
EC5, 6.3.2 Buckling resistance condition
Relative slenderness about the y-y axis , 𝜆 ,
𝜆 𝑓, , 64.95 18
EC5 §6.3.2 𝜆 , = =
𝜋 𝐸. 𝜋 6 𝜆 = 1.13
,
(Eq.6.21 ,
Relative slenderness about the y-y axis , 𝜆 𝜆 = 1.51
Eq.6.22) , ,

𝜆 𝑓, , 86.6 18
𝜆 , = =
𝜋 𝐸. 𝜋 6000
EC5, 6.3.2(2 As both relative slenderness ratios are greater than
& 3) 0.3, the conditions in EC5, 6.3.2(3) apply
EC5, Maximum slenderness ratio of the column;
6.3.2(3) 𝜆 , = 1.51

36
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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

EC5,
Factor, 𝛽 for solid timber 𝛽 = 0.2
Eq.6.29
EC5,
Factor 𝑘 = 0.5[1 + 𝛽 𝜆 +𝜆 ] 𝑘 = 1.76
Eq.6.28 , ,

EC5, Instability Factor, 𝑘 , = 𝑘 , = 0.37

Eq.6.26 ,

Design buckling strength, 𝑘 , × 𝑓 , , = 4.15

Design stress / design buckling strength ratio
EC5, Eq. 𝜎, ,
6.23 + 0 = 0.93 < 1.0
𝑘 , 𝑓, ,
This means that the design stress is less than the
design buckling strength; therefore the 150 mm by
200 mm timber section in strength class C18 meets
the ULS requirements of EC5.

2.6.2 Beam Example. Design of timber floor joists (EC5)

Design the timber floor joists for a domestic dwelling using timber of strength class
C22 given that the:

 floor width, 𝑏 = 3.6 𝑚 and floor span, 𝑙 = 3.4 𝑚

 joists are spaced at 600 mm centres
 flooring is tongue and grove boarding of thickness 21 𝑚𝑚 and a self-
weight of 0.1 𝑘𝑁 𝑚
 ceiling is of plasterboard with a self-weight of 0.2 𝑘𝑁 𝑚
 the bearing length is 100 mm.

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Design actions
Permanent action, 𝐺
- Tongue and groove boarding = 0.10 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐺 =
- Ceiling = 0.2 𝑘𝑁𝑚 0.4 𝑘𝑁𝑚
- Joists (assumption) = 0.10 𝑘𝑁𝑚
Total characteristic permanent action = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵𝒎 𝟐

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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Variable action, 𝑄 𝑄 =
Imposed load for domestic dwelling = 1.5 𝑘𝑁𝑚 1.5 𝑘𝑁𝑚
Design action
EC 0
𝛾 𝐺 + 𝛾 𝑄 = 1.35 × 0.4 + 1.5 × 1.5 = 2.79 𝑘𝑁 𝑚
Table
𝐹 = joist spacing × effective span × load
A1.2(B)
𝐹 = 0.6 × 3.4 × 2.79 = 5.7 𝑘𝑁
Characteristic strengths and modulus of elasticity for Timber
class C22
 Bending strength, 𝑓 , = 22 Nmm-2
Table 1.  Compression perpendicular to the grain, 𝑓 , , =
EN 338
2.4 Nmm-2
 Shear parallel to grain, 𝑓 , = 3.8 Nmm-2
 Modulus of elasticity, 𝐸 , = 10,000 Nmm-2
Applied bending moment.
𝐹 𝑙 5.7 × 3.4
𝑀 , = = = 2.42 𝑘𝑁𝑚
8 8
Assuming that the average moisture content of the timber
service
§2.3.1.3 joists does not exceed 20 per cent during the life of the
class 2
structure, design the joists for hence service class 2
Since the joists are required to carry permanent and variable
EC5
(imposed) actions, the critical load duration class is ‘medium- 𝑘 = 0.8
Table 3.1
term’
EC5
Partial Factors for solid timber, (for ultimate limit states) 𝛾 = 1.3
Table 2.3
since the joists form part of a load sharing system the design
§6.6(2) 𝑘 = 1.1
strengths can be multiplied by a load sharing factor,
Depth Factor
§3.2(3) For assumption ℎ > 150 𝑚𝑚 Assuming 𝑘 = 1 that is the 𝑘 =1
section depth will be greater than 150mm,
design bending strength about the y-y axis is
𝑓 , 22
𝑓 , , =𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 = 1.0 × 1.1 × 0.8 × = 14.9 Nmm-2
𝛾 1.3
§6.1.6(2) For rectangular sections 𝑘 = 0.7
Design bending stress
For bending the condition , ,
+𝑘 , ,
≤ 1.0 must be
, , , ,

§6.1.6(1) satisfied
𝜎 , , 𝜎 , , 𝜎 , , 0
+𝑘 = + 0.7 × ≤ 1.0
𝑓 , , 𝑓 , , 14.9 𝑓 ,,
⇒𝜎 , , ≤ 14.9 N mm-2

38
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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

𝑀 , 2.42 × 10
⇒𝑊 , = ≥ = 162 × 10 𝑚𝑚
𝜎 , , 14.9
𝑊 = 𝑏ℎ 6
× × ( )
Assuming a ℎ = 200𝑚𝑚 ⇒ 𝑏 ≥ = = 24.3𝑚𝑚
Take 63 𝑚𝑚 × 200 𝑚𝑚 joist with 𝑊 = 420(10) 𝑚𝑚 , 𝐼 =
42(10) 𝑚𝑚 , 𝐴 = 12.6(10) 𝑚𝑚
Since ℎ > 150 𝑚𝑚 𝑘 = 1 (as assumed)
Deflection
Instantaneous deflection due to permanent action, 𝑢
For serviceability state 𝛾 = 1.0, and the factored permanent
load, 𝐺 = 𝛾 𝐺 = 1.0 × 0.4 = 0.4 𝑘𝑁 𝑚
Factored permanent load per joist, 𝐹 , is
𝐹 , = total load × joist spacing × span length
= 0.4 × 0.6 × 3.4 = 0.82 𝑘𝑁
𝑢 = bending deflection + shear deflection
. ( ) ×
𝑢 = × + × = × ( ) × ( )
+
. ( ) ×
× ( ) ×
= 1 𝑚𝑚
. ( )
Instantaneous deflection due to variable action, 𝑢
For serviceability state 𝛾 = 1.0, and the factored permanent
load, 𝑄 = 𝛾 𝑄 = 1.0 × 1.5 = 1.5 𝑘𝑁 𝑚
Factored permanent load per joist, 𝐹 , is
𝐹 , = total load × joist spacing × span length
= 1.5 × 0.6 × 3.4 = 3.06 𝑘𝑁
𝑢 = bending deflection + shear deflection
5 𝑤𝑙 12 𝑤𝑙
𝑢 = × + ×
384 𝐸𝐼 5 𝐸𝐴
5 3.06(10) × 3400
= ×
384 10(10) × 42(10)
12 3.06(10) × 3400
+ × = 3.9 𝑚𝑚
5 10(10) × 12.6(10)
Deformation factor 𝑘
Table 3.2 𝑘 = 0.8
For solid timber service class 2 and medium-term loading
Final deflection due to permanent actions
𝑢 , =
Final deflection, 𝑢 , = 𝑢 1+𝑘 = 1.0(1 + 0.8) =
= 1.8 𝑚𝑚
1.8 𝑚𝑚
Final deflection due to variable actions
𝜓 = 0.3, hence Final deflection,
𝑢 , =𝑢 1+𝜓 𝑘 = 3.9(1 + 0.3 × 0.8) = 4.9 𝑚𝑚

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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Final deflection
Deflection
Total final deflection 𝑢 = 𝑈 , + 𝑈 , = 1.8 + 4.9 =
OK
6.7 𝑚𝑚
Permissible deflection (assuming floor supports brittle
finishes) , 𝑤
Table 7.2
span 3400
𝑤 = = = 13.6 𝑚𝑚 > 6.7mm
250 250
Vibration
§7.3.3(2) Assuming 𝑓 > 8 𝐻𝑧 check
≤ 𝑎 and 𝑣 ≤ 𝑏( )

Partial factor for install strutting, 𝑘 𝑘

(Jelušič and Kravanja, 2022; Porteous and Kermani, 2007) = 1.0
Check w/F ratio
21
UKNA (𝐸𝐼) = 10(10) × 1000 × = 7.72(10) Nmm2 m-1
12
Joint spacing, 𝑠 = 600𝑚𝑚
𝑘 ; Proportion of the point load (Jelušič and Kravanja,
2022; Porteous and Kermani, 2007)
14 (𝐸𝐼)
𝑘 =𝑘 0.38 − 0.08 ln ≥ 0.30
s
14 × 7.72(10)
𝑘 = 1.0 × 0.38 − 0.08 ln = 0.4
600
𝑙 = 3400 mm
𝑘 = 1.05
63 × 200
(𝐸𝐼)joist = 10(10) × = 4.2(10) Nmm2 m-1
12
Maximum vertical deflection caused by the concentrated
static force 𝐹 = 1.0 , (Jelušič and Kravanja, 2022; Porteous
UK and Kermani, 2007)
1000 𝑘 𝑙 𝑘 OK
NA.2.6.2 1000 × 0.4 × 3400 × 1.05
𝑤= =
48(𝐸𝐼)joist 48 × 4.2(10)
= 0.82 𝑚𝑚 < 𝑎 = 1.8 mm

40
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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Check impulse velocity.

Floor width, 𝑏 = 3.4𝑚 and floor span, 𝑙 = 3.6𝑚
𝐼 is the second moment of area of the joist (the tongue-&-
groove boarding is ignored unless a specific shear
calculation at the interface of the joist and board is made.
𝐼 = 42(10) 𝑚𝑚 = 42(10) 𝑚
𝐸 ,mean = 10000 𝑁 𝑚𝑚 = 10(10) 𝑁 𝑚
𝐸 ,mean 𝐼 10(10) × 42(10)
(𝐸𝐼) = = = 7(10) Nm2 m-1
joist spacing 0.6
Mass due to permanent action per unit area, 𝑚 ,is
permanent action 0.4(10)
𝑚= = = 40.8 kg m-2
gravitation constant 9.8
Fundamental frequency of vibration, 𝑓 , is
𝜋 (𝐸𝐼) 𝜋 7(10)
§7.3.3(4) 𝑓 = == = 17.8 𝐻𝑧 > 8 𝐻𝑧
2𝑙 𝑚 2 × 3.4 40.8

The number of first order modes, 𝑛 , is

.
40 𝑏 (𝐸𝐼)
𝑛 = −1
§7.3.3(5) 𝑓 𝑙 (𝐸𝐼)
.
40 3.4 7(10)
= −1 = 4.13
17.8 3.6 7.72(10)
Unit impulse velocity
4(0.4 + 0.6 𝑛 ) 4(0.4 + 0.6 × 4.13)
§7.3.3(5) 𝑣= =
(𝑚 × 𝑏 × 𝑙) + 200 (40.8 × 3.4 × 3.6) + 200
= 0.016 m N-1 s-2

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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Assuming damping coefficient 𝜁 = 0.02
Since 𝑎(= 0.82) < 1.0 𝑏 = 180 − 60𝑎 = 180 − 60 × 0.82 =
131
Hence permissible floor velocity
-1 -1
𝑣 = 𝑏( )
= 131( . × . )
= 0.04 mN s-2 > 0.016 mN s-2
Thus ok
Lateral buckling
In this example, this is ignored because the 𝑡&𝑔 floor deck
provides lateral restraint.
Shear
Design shear
𝑓, 3.8
§6.1.7 𝑓, =𝑘 𝑘 = 1.1 × 0.8 × = 2.57 Nmm-2
𝛾 1.3
§6.5.2(2)
Maximum shear force
Shear ok
𝐹 5.7 × 10
UK.NA 𝑉 = = = 2.85(10) N
2 2
Design Shear at neutral axis
1.5 𝑉 1.5 × 2.85(10)
𝜏 = = = 0.34 Nmm < 𝑓 ,
𝐴 12.6(10)
Bearing
𝐹 5.7 × 10
𝐹 , = = = 2.85(10) N
2 2

§6.1.5(1)
Assuming that the floor joists spans onto 100 wider walls as
shown, the bearing stress is given by
𝐹, , 2.85(10)
𝜎, , = = = 0.45 Nmm-2
𝑏𝑙 63 × 100
Design compressive strength
𝑓, , 2.4
𝑓, , =𝑘 𝑘 = 1.1 × 0.8 × = 1.62 Nmm-2
𝛾 1.3

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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Bearing capacity

For the support 𝑎 = 0; 𝑙 = 100mm, and ℎ = 200mm

§6.1.5(3)
For 𝑎 < = = 66.6;
𝑙 ℎ 100 200
𝑘 , = 2.38 − 1+ = 2.38 − 1+
250 12𝑙 250 12 × 100
= 2.31 < 4.0
𝑘 , 𝑓 , , = 2.31 × 1.62 = 3.74 Nmm-2 > 𝜎 , ,
= 0.45 Nmm-2
Checking the assumed self-weight of the beam
The density of C22 is 410 kg m-3 hence Self weigh, 𝑆𝑊
63 × 200(10) × 410 × 9.8(10) SW ok
𝑆𝑊 = = 0.084 kN m-2
0.6
< assumed value

2.6.3 Beam Example : Design of a notched floor joist to EC5

Consider the notched beam support at the bearings with a 75mm depth notch as
shown. Check if the notch is adequate.

The presence of notches only affects the shear stress in the joists.

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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Factor 𝑘
For beams notched at the loaded side using the figure

150
𝑥 = 75, 𝑖 = =2
75
ℎ 125
𝛼= = = 0.625
ℎ 200
cl. 6.5.2(2) 𝑘 =5
1
⎧
⎪
⎪ 1.1 𝑖 .
𝑘 = min 𝑘 1+
⎨ √ℎ
⎪
⎪√ℎ 𝑥 1
𝛼(1 − 𝛼) + 0.8 −𝛼
⎩ ℎ 𝛼
. × .
√
𝑘 = min (1) ;
√ . ( . ) . × .
.

1
𝑘 = min = 0.53
0.53

𝑓, 3.8
𝑓, =𝑘 𝑘 = 1.1 × 0.8 × = 2.57 Nmm-2
𝛾 1.3
𝑘 𝑓, = 0.53 × 2.57 = 1.36 Nmm-2
( )
Notched
. . × .
𝜏 = = = 0.54Nmm-2 < 1.36 Nmm-2 section
×
OK

2.6.4 Beam Example, Design of a solid timber beam restrained at supports EC5

A solid timber beam, 75 mm wide × 250 mm deep , in strength class C16, 3.5 m
simply supported, supports uniformly distributed permanent (including self-weight
of beam) and variable actions of respectively 0.2 kNm-1 and 2 kNm-1 .
Assuming the beam is torsionally restrained at supports and the exposure is
service class 2 check its bending capacity.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

The presence of notches only affects the shear stress in the joists.

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Characteristic Strengths and Modulus Of Elasticity
Values in Nmm−2 for machine graded timber of strength
class C16
Table 1.  Bending parallel to grain, 𝑓 , = 16 Nmm-2
EN 338
 Compression parallel to grain, 𝑓 , , = 17 Nmm-2
 Modulus of elasticity 5-percentile value, 𝐸 , =
5400 Nmm-2
Design action
𝐹 = 𝛾 𝐺 + 𝛾 𝑄 = 1.35 × 0.2 + 1.5 × 2 = 3.27 kN m-2
𝐹 = joist spacing × effective span × load
𝐹 = 0.6 × 3.4 × 2.79 = 5.7 kN
Bending
𝐹 𝑙 3.27 × 3.4
𝑀 , = = = 4.73 kNm
8 8
𝑀 , 4.73(10)
𝜎 , , = = = 9.5 Nmm-2
𝑊 75 × 200
6
Bending strength
As the compressive edge of the beam is not restrained, the
bending strengths is = 𝑘 𝑓 ,
EC5 Table
𝑙 = 0.9𝑙 + 2ℎ = 0.9 × 3500 + 2 × 200 = 3550 𝑚𝑚
6.1
0.78 𝑏 0.78 × 75
𝜎 , = 𝐸 . = × 5.4(10) = 33.37
ℎ𝑙 200 × 3550
§6.3.3(4) 𝑓 , 16 𝑘 = 1
𝜆 , = = = 0.69 ≤ 0.75
𝜎 , 33.37
Thus 𝑘 = 1

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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Since the joists are required to carry permanent and variable
EC5 Table 𝑘
(imposed) actions, the critical load duration class is
3.1 = 0.8
‘medium-term’
EC5 Table
Partial Factors for solid timber, (for ultimate limit states) 𝛾 = 1.3
2.3
since the joists form part of a load sharing system the 𝑘
§6.6(2)
design strengths can be multiplied by a load sharing factor, = 1.1
𝑓 , 16
𝑘 𝑓 , , =𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 = 1 × 1 × 0.8 × Section
§6.3.3(3) 𝛾 1.3
OK
= 9.85 Nmm-2 > 𝜎 , (9.5 Nmm-2 )

2.6.5 Column Example, Column resisting and axial load to EC5

A mechanically graded timber column of strength class C16 consists of a 100 𝑚𝑚

square section which is restrained at both ends in position but not in direction.
Assuming that the service conditions comply with Service Class 2 and the actual
height of the column is 3.75𝑚, calculate the design axial long term load that the
column can support.

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Characteristic Strengths and Modulus Of Elasticity
Values in Nmm−2 for machine graded timber of
𝑓, ,
strength class C16
Table 1. EN  Compression parallel to grain, 𝑓 , , = = 17 Nmm-2
338 𝐸,
17 Nmm-2
= 5400 Nmm-2
 Modulus of elasticity 5-percentile value,
𝐸 , = 5400 Nmm-2
Slenderness ratio
𝑙
𝜆 =𝜆 =
𝑖
𝑙 = 1.0 × 𝑙 = 1.0 × 3750 = 3750 𝑚𝑚
§6.3.2(1) 𝑑𝑏 𝜆 = 𝜆 = 129.9
𝐼 12 𝑏 100
𝑖= = = = = 28.87
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 12 12
𝑙 3750
𝜆 =𝜆 = = = 129.9
𝑖 28.87
§6.3.2(1) Relative slenderness ratio

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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

129.9 17
𝜆 , =𝜆 , = = 2.32
𝜋 5400
𝜆 , and 𝜆 , are > 0.3
Thus, these must be satisfied 𝜎 , , = 𝑘 , 𝑓 , , and
𝜎 , , =𝑘 , 𝑓, ,
§6.3.2(Eqn.
Factor for members within the straightness limits 𝛽 = 0.2
6.29)
Axial load capacity
𝑘 = 𝑘 = 0.5 1 + 𝛽 𝜆 , − 0.3 + 𝜆 ,
= 0.5[1 + 0.2 × (2.32 − 0.3) + 2.32 ]
= 3.37
§6.3.2(3) 1
𝑘 , =𝑘 , =
𝑘 + 𝑘 −𝜆 ,
1
= = 0.17
3.37 + √3.37 − 2.32
Since the joists are required to carry permanent and
EC5 Table
variable (imposed) actions, the critical load duration 𝑘 = 0.8
3.1
class is ‘medium-term’
EC5 Table Partial Factors for solid timber, (for ultimate limit
𝛾 = 1.3
2.3 states)
since the joists form part of a load sharing system
§6.6(2) the design strengths can be multiplied by a load 𝑘 = 1.1
sharing factor,
Design compressive strength parallel to the grain
𝑘 = 0.8 (Service class 2 and medium-term
loading)
𝑘, , 17
𝑓, =𝑘 = 0.8 × = 10.46 Nmm-2
𝛾 1.3
𝜎 , , ≤𝑘 , 𝑓, ,
𝜎 , , = 0.17 × 10.46 = 1.77 Nmm-2
Axial load capacity of the column, 𝑁
𝑁 = 𝜎 , , 𝐴 = 1.77 × 100 = 17.7 kN

2.6.6 Column Example, Column resisting and axial load to EC5

A mechanically graded timber column of strength class C16 consists of a 100 𝑚𝑚

square section which is restrained at both ends in position but not in direction.
Assuming that the service conditions comply with Service Class 2 and the actual
height of the column is 3.75𝑚, Check the adequacy of the column to resist a long-
term axial load of 10 kN applied 35𝑚𝑚 eccentric to the 𝑦 − 𝑦 axis.

47
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REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Characteristic Strengths and Modulus of Elasticity
Values in Nmm−2 for machine graded timber of strength
Table 1. EN class 𝐶16
338  Compression parallel to grain, 𝑓 , , = 17 Nmm-2
 Modulus of elasticity 5-percentile value, 𝐸 , =
5400 Nmm-2
Slenderness ratio
𝑙
𝜆 =𝜆 =
𝑖
𝑙 = 1.0 × 𝑙 = 1.0 × 3750 = 3750 𝑚𝑚
§6.3.2(1) 𝑑𝑏
𝐼 12 𝑏 100
𝑖= = = = = 28.87
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 12 12
𝑙 3750
𝜆 =𝜆 = = = 129.9
𝑖 28.87

EC5 Table 𝑘
𝑘 = 0.8 (Service class 2 and medium-term loading)
3.1 = 0.8
EC5 Table
Partial Factors for solid timber, (for ultimate limit states) 𝛾 = 1.3
2.3
Depth factor
.
150
ℎ 𝑘
§3.2(3) 𝑘 = min
= 1.08
1.3
. .
150 = 150 100 = 1.08
ℎ

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Buckling
Design compression stress,
𝑁 10(10)
𝜎, , = = = 1 Nmm-2
𝐴 10 × 10
Design bending stress about 𝑦 − 𝑦 axis,
𝑀 𝑀 , 0.035 × 10(10)
𝜎 , , = = = = 2.1 Nmm-2
𝑊 𝑏ℎ 100 × 100
6 6
Design bending strength about the 𝑦 − 𝑦 axis
𝑓 , 16
𝑓 , =𝑘 𝑘 = 1.08 × 0.8 × = 10.63 Nmm-2
𝛾 1.3
Design compression strength
𝑓, , 17
𝑓, =𝑘 = 0.8 × = 10.46 Nmm-2
𝛾 1.3
Design bending stress about z-z 𝜎 , , = 0 .
Relative slenderness ratio
129.9 17
𝜆 , =𝜆 , = = 2.32
§6.3.2(1) 𝜋 5400
𝜆 , and 𝜆 , are > 0.3
Thus, these must be satisfied 𝜎 , , = 𝑘 , 𝑓 , , and 𝜎 , , =
𝑘 , 𝑓, ,
Axial load capacity
𝑘 = 𝑘 = 0.5 1 + 𝛽 𝜆 , − 0.3 + 𝜆 ,
= 0.5[1 + 0.2 × (2.32 − 0.3) + 2.32 ] = 3.37
1 1
§6.3.2(3) 𝑘 , =𝑘 , = =
𝑘 + 𝑘 −𝜆 , 3.37 + √3.37 − 2.32

= 0.17
Compression factor 𝑘 , = 0.17
, ,
use the more stringent condition of , ,
+ +
, , , , ,

𝑘 , ,
≤ 1.0 and , ,
+𝑘 , ,
+𝑘 , ,
≤ 1.0
, , , , , , ,
Thus check
§6.3.2(3) 𝜎, , 𝜎 , , 𝜎 ,, OK
+ +𝑘 ≤ 1.0
𝑘 , 𝑓, , 𝑓 , , 𝑓 ,
1 2.1 0
+ +𝑘 = 0.56 + 0.2 = 0.76 ≤ 1.0
0.17 × 10.46 10.63 𝑓 ,
Thus 100𝑚𝑚 × 100𝑚𝑚 column is adequate in buckling

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

Lateral torsional stability
𝑙 = 𝑙 = 3750𝑚𝑚
§6.3.3(2) 0.78 𝑏 0.78 × 100
𝜎 , = 𝐸. = × 5.4(10) = 112.3
ℎ𝑙 100 × 3750

§6.3.3(4) 𝜆 , = ,
= = 0.4 ≤ 0.75 𝑘 = 1
, .
Checking lateral torsional stability using
𝜎 , 𝜎, ,
+ ≤ 1.0
§6.3.3(6) 𝑘 𝑓 , 𝑘 , 𝑓, ,
2.1 1
+ = 0.04 + 0.52 = 0.56 ≤ 1.0
1 × 10.63 0.17 × 10.46
Section is OK in lateral torsional buckling

3 CONNECTIONS IN TIMBER STRUCTURES

3.1 CONNECTIONS IN TIMBER STRUCTURES

The performance of a timber structure is dependent on the efficiency of the connections.

Usage of nails is common for simple constructions but for more complex structures
specialised connectors are used such as bolts, shear-plates, split rings, coach screws or
glued-in threaded rods. The application of these requires some knowledge of design and
construction skills. The shrinkage and swelling characteristics of timber in response to
drying and wetting, the possibility of fungal decay in the presence of moisture and the
need to protect metallic fasteners from fire or corrosion, call for special construction
detailing.

3.1.1 Factors affecting the detailing of connections.

Changes in moisture.

Changes in the moisture content of the timber will cause the timber to swell and shrink.
The dimensional changes in the direction parallel to the grain can be ignored in most
cases. The dimensional change in the perpendicular-to grain direction can be large,
especially if the moisture content variation is large. This must be borne in mind when a
horizontal timber member is connected to a vertical timber or steel member. If the
connectors prevent shrinkage, splitting of the timber may occur. This type of splitting often
occurs when treated timber, which generally still has a high moisture content, is bolted to
uprights. Figure 3-1 shows how the timber may split when movement is prevented. The
splitting of the timber at the support may reflect negatively on the shear strength of the
member.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Figure 3-1: Splitting of timber because of differential shrinkage.

Perpendicular-to-grain tensile strength

Figure 3-2 illustrates the loads that can cause cleavage as a result of tensile loads
perpendicular to the grain. If this type of connection cannot be avoided, it is always good
policy to move the bolt down as far as possible.

Figure 3-2 Loading of member in tension. Cracking may occur when end distance is insufficient.

Cleavage often occurs in trusses where one of the chords, i.e., top compression member
or bottom tie, must transfer the loads between the web members and the web members
are some distance apart. Figure 3-3 shows such a cleaving action.

Figure 3-3 Cleaving of member as a result of tension perpendicular to the grain.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Shear strength

The horizontal shear strength of timber is low, typically one tenth of the bending strength.
This can cause problems when there is an eccentricity between the loaded point and the
support. This is aggravated when the loaded point has damaged the supporting member,
by for instance, a bolt hole. The effective shear transfer area is greatly reduced at the bolt
hole. Figure 3-4 shows an eccentrically loaded support for a truss. Note that the bolt hole
is in an area of large shear as well as bending stress. The high stresses at these supports
must be borne in mind, when designing the truss.

Figure 3-4 Shear force and bending in member as a result of an eccentric connection and support.

3.1.2 Selection of Fasteners.

Mechanical fasteners

A mechanical fastener is any device, metallic, plastic or timber, which transfers load from
one piece of timber to another piece of timber. The most common types of fasteners are
metallic and include:

 Nails
 Dowels
 Screws
 Bolts
 Coach-screws
 Toothed ring connectors
 Split rings
 Nail plates

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Most fasteners transfer forces through bearing on the timber and shear in the connector.
Screws may under certain circumstances be used in withdrawal, although end grain
withdrawal is not recommended.

Fastener strength

The strength of the various fasteners, together with end and edge distances should be
obtained from the manufacturers’ literature.

Structural efficiency

Structural efficiency can be described as the load that can be transferred divided by the
area required by the connectors. It can be shown that nails or dowels into pre-drilled holes
through steel plates, are the most efficient connectors. These are followed by bolts,
toothed-ring connectors, and split rings. Nails in pre-drilled holes are in the region of twice
as efficient as any of the other connectors. In terms of cost efficiency, bolts may be
cheaper than nails. The choice of connector will depend on the available space for the
connection and the aesthetics.

End-grain connectors, where the load transfer is through direct tension, are the most
efficient connectors. The shorter the load path can be made, the more efficient the
connector becomes. Glued-in threaded rods may be used to obtain very efficient
connections.

Figure 3-5 Bolted connection showing the convoluted load path for the transfer of the forces.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Figure 3-6 Shortened load path when glued-in rods are used.

3.1.3 Designing for durability

Irrespective of the fastener type, a joint should be designed and constructed for durability.
The durability of timber structures is influenced by a number of factors.

Fungal decay

Decay or fungal attack is the result of the action of fungi, which break down the chemical
structure of timber if suitable conditions prevail. A combination of the following
circumstances creates such suitable conditions:

 The moisture content must be higher than 20%. It is unusual for this to happen
except where timber is exposed to rain, timber is in direct contact with trapped
water or placed directly in the ground. Fungal attack may also occur in the following:
inadequately ventilated swimming pool structures, bathrooms, laundries, under-
floor areas, saunas, cooling towers as well as bridge and pier structures close to
the water.
 Oxygen must be present even in small quantities. Timber will not decay if
permanently immersed in water.
 The temperature must be in the range of 5ºC to 40ºC. Above and below this
temperature range, decay virtually ceases. The optimal temperature range for
fungal growth is 25ºC to 35ºC.
 The timber on which the fungal lives must be either naturally or chemically
unprotected.

End-grain is especially susceptible to the ingress of moisture and this is where decay
usually begins.

Other Timber Hazards

Timber that is exposed to high levels of ultra-violet radiation, rain and extremes of
temperature can suffer from splits, cracks, and discolouration. It can also be subject to
insect attack and marine borers. These factors do not affect the calculations of the design
but must be borne in mind, when the connection is being detailed.

3.1.4 Joint Detailing Principles

To achieve good joint design and structural detailing, the following general principles
should be observed:

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

 Avoid connections that can trap moisture. Ensure proper drainage and ventilation
of especially the end-grain.
 Avoid exposing unprotected timber to the weather. If capping is used, ensure that
all the moisture can escape and that the capping is properly ventilated. Capping
that leaks and is not ventilated will hasten the onset of and promote fungal decay.
 Avoid placing especially the end-grain of timber in direct contact with concrete.
Concrete is hygroscopic and will increase the moisture content on the interface
between the concrete and the timber. If possible, leave an air gap between the
timber and the concrete. If the timber cannot be supported away from the concrete,
insert a steel plate between the timber and the concrete. The steel plate will act as
a moisture barrier.
 If moisture can enter at bolt holes, treat the timber in the hole with a preservative
that does not leach out. If leaching is a problem, the bolts can be covered with a
grease or a silicon sealant.
 Use chemically treated timber where moisture ingress could be a problem.
Remember for treatment that stops fungal decay but not swelling and shrinkage
due to moisture ingress, always treat timber with an additional water-repellent.
 Corrosion resistant fasteners should be used in salt-water or seaside environment.
Corrosion resistance in ascending order: steel, aluminium, stainless steel, copper,
and copper alloys.
 Where possible, transfer forces through direct bearing, thereby shortening the load
path.

In coastal areas, large diameter bolts may be used, where a certain percentage of the
area is sacrificial, and the bolt maintains enough strength after corrosion has taken place.
Bituminous or epoxy coating can improve the performance of bolts. Hot-dipped or electro-
plated zinc coated bolts may be used in structures where a high chemical hazard exists.

Some Practical Joint Details

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Figure 3-7 A method of avoiding splitting because of large tension perpendicular to the grain.

Figure 3-8 Air gap to prevent ingress of moisture into end-grain of column.

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 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Figure 3-9 Transfer of loading through bearing pads.

Fire Resistance

Large cross-sectional timber members are fairly fire resistant, but exposed metal
connectors are not as they lose strength rapidly at elevated temperatures. They also
conduct heat into the interior of the timber, where the timber then chars. Where a fire
rating is required, the metal connectors may be protected by an intumescent paint (forms
a protective char around your asset that prevents fire damage) or by embedding the
connector in the timber. Non-conducting fibre bolts or dowels may be considered.

Figure 3-10 Protection of metal connection to achieve the required fire rating.

Design Check List

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The following may be used as a checklist when considering the design of joints:

 Is the connection detail simple?

 Has shrinkage restraint of wet timber been avoided?
 Has the connector type been selected according to:
o Structural requirement?
o Cost efficiency?
o Practical application?
 Is corrosion protection required?
 Are fastener spacing and end-distances maintained?
 Will service moisture content exceed 20% and if so, has adequate provision been
made for fungal protection?
 Have moisture traps been avoided and has adequate space been allowed for
ventilation?
 Has the end-grain been protected against moisture ingress?
 Is it necessary to apply preservative treatment to the timber and/or the bolt holes
of the connection?
 Must fire protection be applied to the connectors?

58
3.2 Sample connection details

Column Base Details

The following details illustrate how the timber is kept away from possible moisture ingress into the end-grain.

Figure 3-12 Column base with cruciform

Figure 3-11 Column base with two angle bracket slotted into the timber. Force
brackets, force transfer through bearing on transfer through direct bearing on metal
pad. plate.
Figure 3-13 Column base with anchor bolts
glued into timber column. Force transfer
through direct bearing on metal plate.
 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

Arch Bases

Arches can be either tied or the base can transfer the horizontal thrust into a concrete base that is designed to resist the
horizontal forces. The following sketches show the two types of bases.

Figure 3-14 Arch or portal frame base plate with tie road. Figure 3-15 Pinned based for an arched structure

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Beam-to-column connections

Beam to column connections are generally not moment resisting. A few details are given in the following sketches.

Figure 3-16 Beam to column detail where the beams are pitched. Figure 3-17 Beam to steel column detail.

Figure 3-18 Beam to column connection where the column is Figure 3-19 Beam to column connection, where the connectors have
continuous past the beam level. been recessed and are hidden.

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Beam to wall or concrete connections.

The following details show how timber beams can be connected to brickwork and concrete walls and beams.

Figure 3-21 : Connection Figure 3-22 Beam built into brick wall with wedged
Figure 3-20 : Beam to concrete connection. for sloped beam. blocking to improve torsional restraint.
Channel bracket may be used to improve lateral
torsional restraint at the support.

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Beam to beam connections

Beam to beam connections can be either exposed or hidden. It is important to avoid loading perpendicular to the grain if
possible.

Figure 3-24 Harness over loaded beam, all Figure 3-25 Timber beam to concrete beam
loads transferred by direct bearing or wall.
Figure 3-23 Force transfer in direct bearing
and through coach screws or bolts. Note that
rotation of loaded beam is prevented.

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Beam or column splices.

The following sketches may be used as guidelines for good splicing practice.

Figure 3-27 Splicing of beams when only Figure 3-28 Splicing of members with
Figure 3-26 Splicing of member that must shear force must be transferred between glued-in threaded rods and end
transfer bending moment and shear. the right hand side and the left. plates. Not suitable where large
moisture content variation is
expected.

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Large-span truss connections.

The following are a few illustrations of large span truss connections .

Figure 3-31 Spaced chords where, where the

Figure 3-30 External plate connection for resultant forces lie in the same plane. Large
Figure 3-29 Metal plates slotted into diameter bolts or shear plates and split rings
members with limited width.
the timber members. Connection may be used.
completed by using metal dowels in
tight fitting holes, or bolts.

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Apex joints for portal frames.

Apex joints in portal frames may be pinned or may have to transfer limited moments. In all cases the apex joint must be able
to transfer shear forces. The following sketches show a few possible details.

Figure 3-32: Hinged apex connection for a

portal frame. Figure 3-33: Pinned connection, using a
shear plate or split ring to transfer the shear. Figure 3-34 Moment connection using
threaded rods and steel end plates. Rods can
be threaded into the steel plates and then
bent, or simply welded onto the end plates.

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Figure 3-36 Compression ring for apex

of dome type structure. Note that a
certain amount of moment transfer is
Figure 3-35 : Moment connection at apex effected by nailing possible.
oval nails (glulam rivets) through round holes. The distortion
of the nails ensures that the nails cannot be easily extracted.

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Figure 3-39 Eaves joint

Figure 3-38: Eaves joint using plywood on
Figure 3-37 Eaves joint for portal frame. either side and nailing. manufactured by using large
Steel bracket makes it possible to assemble
the joint on site. Threaded rods must be finger joints.
glued under factory conditions.

68
3.3 Timber connection design

3.3.1 Introduction

This section covers design of timber connections including nails, screws, dowels,
and bolts.

Relevant Standards
Table 3-1: Relevant standards

Code Reference Title

BS EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design
BS EN 1995-1-1 Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures. General.
Common rules and rules for buildings
BS EN 1995-1-2 Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures. General.
Structural fire design

3.3.1.1 symbols
𝑎 fastener spacing parallel to grain
𝑎 fastener spacing perpendicular to grain
𝑎 , fastener end spacing parallel to grain. Loaded end
𝑎 , fastener end spacing parallel to grain. Unloaded end
𝑎 , fastener edge spacing parallel to grain. Loaded end
𝑎 , fastener edge spacing parallel to grain. Unloaded end
𝑑 fastener diameter
𝑑 effective fastener diameter
𝐹, Characteristic load-carrying capacity per shear plane per fastener
𝑘 Factor used in calculations
𝑛 the number of fasteners in line parallel to grain
𝑛 the effective number of fasteners in line parallel to grain
𝑡 timber or board thickness or penetration depth with i = 1 or 2
𝑓, , characteristic compressive strength of timber perpendicular to grain.
𝑓,, Characteristic embedment strength in timber member i
𝑑 fastener diameter
𝐸 Mean value of Modulus of Elasticity
𝐺 Mean value of shear Modulus
𝑀 , Characteristic fastener yield moment
𝛽 Ratio between embedment strength of the members
𝛼 Angle typically between force and grain direction/ load and loaded edge etc
𝜌 density
𝐹 , Characteristic axial withdrawal capacity of fastener
𝐹 , Design axial withdrawal capacity of fastener
 CSE 314 31-3-2023 12:32:59

3.3.2 Load Carrying capacity of nails , bolt, screws, and dowels

3.3.2.1 Single Shear :

Characteristic load carrying capacity of nails , dowels screws and bolts and
staples per shear plane in line with BS EN 1995-1-1 (8,2,2). Use minimum value
from above equations.

𝑡 = head side thickness, 𝑡 = point side thickness.

For fasteners in single shear

𝑓, , 𝑡 𝑑 (a)
⎧
𝑓, , 𝑡 𝑑 (b)
⎪
⎪
⎪
, ,
𝛽 + 2𝛽 1+ + +𝛽 1+ + ,
(c)
⎪
( )
𝐹 , = min 1.05 × , ,
2𝛽 (1 + 𝛽) +
,
−𝛽 + ,
(d)
⎨ , , Eqn.
⎪ ( )
3-1
,
⎪1.05 ×
, ,
2𝛽 (1 + 𝛽) + −𝛽 + ,
(e)
, ,
⎪
⎪
1.15 × 2𝑀 , 𝑓, , 𝑑+ ,
(f)
⎩

The term ,
is identified as the rope effect and the first part of the equations
is the load carrying capacity according to the Johansen yield theory. The ratio of
the contribution of the rope effect capacity to Johansen part should be limiting to
the following

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Round nails 15%

Square-grooved nails 25%
Other nails 50%
Screw 100%
Bolts 25%
Dowels 0%

3.3.2.2 Double Shear :

Characteristic load carrying capacity of nails , dowels screws and bolts and
staples per shear plane in line with BS EN 1995-1-1 (8,2,2). Use minimum value
from above equations.

𝑡 = least of head side thickness and point side, 𝑡 = central member thickness
(in double shear.)

𝐹, =
𝑓 , , 𝑡 𝑑 (g)
⎧
⎪ 0.5 × 𝑓 , , 𝑡 𝑑 (h)
⎪
( ) Eqn.
min 1.05 × , , 2𝛽(1 + 𝛽) + ,
−𝛽 + ,
(j) 3-2
⎨ , ,

⎪
⎪ 1.15 × 2𝑀 , 𝑓 , , 𝑑+ ,
(k)
⎩

With 𝛽 = , ,
, ,

1.1.1 Characteristic Embedment strengths

𝑓 , = 0.082 𝜌 𝑑 . 𝑑 Nmm-
2

Nails (not pre-drilled) Eqn. 3-3

Note also applies to screws ≤ 6 mm dia

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𝑓 , = 0.082(1 − 0.01 𝑑)𝜌 Nmm-

2

Nails pre-drilled. Eqn. 3-4

Note also applies to screws > 6 mm dia
𝑓 , , = 0.082(1 − 0.01 𝑑)𝜌 Nmm-
2
Bolts /Dowels up to 30mm
Eqn. 3-5
Nails and screws > 8 mm dia

Where

𝑓, , Eqn.
𝑓 , , =
𝑘 sin (𝛼) + cos (𝛼) 3-6

𝑓 , Embedment strength in N/mm2

𝜌 the characteristic timber density in kg/m3

𝑑 nail diameter in mm

𝑓 , , Embedment strength with load parallel to grain in N/mm2

𝑓 , , Embedment strength with load at angle α to grain in N/mm2

1.35 + 0.015𝑑 for softwoods

𝑘 = 1.3 + 0.015𝑑 for LVL
Eqn.
0.9 + 0.015 for hardwoods 3-7

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1.1.2 Minimum Edge and Spacing distances

Table 3-2 Minimum edge and spacing distances for Bolts...Applicable to screws with d>6 "mm"

Spacing and edge Angle Minimum spacing or

distances distance
a1 parallel to grain 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 (4 + |cos(𝛼)|)𝑑
a2 perpendicular to 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 4𝑑
grain
a3,t loaded end −90 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 90 max(7𝑑 ; 80𝑚𝑚_
a3,c unloaded end 90 ≤ 𝛼 < 150 max([1 + 6𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)𝑑
0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 210 ∶ 4𝑑)
210 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 270 4𝑑
max (1 + 6sin(α))d
a4,t loaded edge 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 180 max([2 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼]𝑑 ∶ 3𝑑)
a4,c loaded edge 180 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 3𝑑

Table 3-3 Minimum edge and spacing distances for Dowels...

Spacing and edge Angle Minimum spacing

distances or distance
a1 parallel to grain 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 (3 + 2| cos 𝛼 |)𝑑

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a2 perpendicular to 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 3𝑑
grain
a3,t loaded end −90 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 90 max{7𝑑 ; 80𝑚𝑚}
a3,c unloaded end 90 ≤ 𝛼 < 150 max{ a , sin α d ; 3𝑑}
150 ≤ 𝛼 < 210 3𝑑
210 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 270 max{ a , sin α d ; 3𝑑}
a4,t loaded edge 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 180 max{[2 + 2 sin α ]d ; 3𝑑}
a4,c loaded edge 180 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 3𝑑

Table 3-4 Minimum edge and spacing distances for Nails (Applicable to screws with 𝒅 < 𝟔𝒎𝒎)

Spacing and Angle Minimum spacing or distance

edge distances
Without Predrilling Without
Predrilling
a1 parallel to 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 (d < 5mm :( (7 +8|cos α | (4
grain 5+5|cos α | )d + |𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 | )𝑑
)d
d>=5mm :(
5+7|cos α |
)d
a2 perpendicular 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 5𝑑 7𝑑 (4
to grain + |𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 | )𝑑
a3,t loaded end −90 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 90 (10 +5cos α (15 +5cos α (7
)d )d + 5𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 )𝑑
a3,c unloaded 90o <= 270o 10𝑑 15𝑑 7𝑑
end
a4,t loaded edge 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 180 (d < 5mm :( (d < 5mm :( (d < 5mm :( 3
5+2|cos α | 7+2|cos α | + 2|cos α | )d
)d )d d>=5mm :( 3
d>=5mm :( d>=5mm :( + 4|cos α | )d
5+5|cos α | 7+5|cos α |
)d )d
a4,c loaded edge 180 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 360 5𝑑 7𝑑 3𝑑

1.2 Screws

1.2.1 Laterally loaded screws.

The effect of the threaded part of the screw shall be considered, when it is taking
the shear load by using the effective diameter def.

When the smooth diameter of the screw penetrates the point side of a joint by
more than {4𝑑} then 𝑑 = the smooth diameter

when this is not the case 𝑑 = 1.1 × thread root diameter

When the screw diameter is greater than 6mm the strength /spacing rules
applicable to bolts applies.

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When the screw diameter is less/or equal to 6mm the strength /spacing rules
applicable to nails applies.

1.2.2 Axially loaded screws.

For axially loaded screws the evaluation of the resistance of the axially loaded
screws should include the following factors

 withdrawal failure of the threaded portion of the screw

 The tear of failure of the head.( relevant when screw is used to fasten a steel
plate. ( The tear off resistance should exceed the tensile strength of the screw)
 The pull through failure of the screw head
 The tensile failure of the screw
 The buckling failure of the screw in compression
 Plug shear of the timber associated with a group of screws used with steel plates
Table 3-5 minimum edge and end distances and spacings of axially loaded screws

Min screw spacing in plane parallel to grain 𝒂𝟏 𝟕𝒅

Min screw spacing perpendicular to plane parallel to grain 𝑎 5𝑑
Min end distance of c.o.g of threaded part of screw 𝑎 10𝑑
Min edge distance of c.o.g of threaded part of screw 𝑎 4𝑑

𝑛 𝑓 , 𝑑𝑙 𝜌 .
𝐹 , , =
1.2 cos (𝛼) + sin (𝛼) 𝜌

where
. . .
𝑓 , = 0.52 𝑑 𝑙 𝜌

𝑑
𝑘 = min ; 1.0
8
1.3 Nails

1.3.1 Laterally loaded nails.

 A nail is either smooth or grooved.

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 For smooth nails the pointside penetration length should be at least 8d

 For nails other than smooth the pointside penetration should be at least 6d
 Nails in end grain cannot normally be considered as capable of transmitting
lateral forces. Eurocode 5 includes exceptions to this rule para 8.3.1.2(4)

Timber at risk of splitting should be predrilled for nails when

 the characteristic density of the timber is more than 500 kg/m3

 the diameter d is greater than 6mm
 When the thickness of the timber members is smaller than 𝑡 =
( )
max 7𝑑 ;

As an alternative to this rule the edge distances above may be adjusted such that
for 𝜌 ≤ 420 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 then 𝑎 ≥ 10𝑑 and for 420𝑘𝑔/𝑚 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 then
𝑎 ≥ 14𝑑

For one row of nails in a row parallel to the grain ,the load carrying capacity
parallel to the grain is

𝐹 , , =𝑛 𝐹 ,

where

𝐹 , , = Effective characteristic load- carrying capacity of one row of

fasteners parallel to the graine

𝑛 = the effective number of fasteners in line parallel to grain

𝐹, = the characteristic load-carrying capacity of each fastener parallel

to grain

For nails the effective number of fasteners 𝑛 = 𝑛{ }

where

𝑛 = actual number of nails in row parallel to grain

𝑘 = value give in table below

Spacing kef
not predrilled predrilled
𝑎 ≥ 14𝑑 1.0 1.0
𝑎 = 10𝑑 0.85 0.85
𝑎 = 7𝑑 0.7 0.7
𝑎 = 4𝑑 - 0.5

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1.3.2 Axially Loaded Nails

Only nails which are classified as threaded should be used for withstanding axial
loads.

A threaded nail has its shank profiled or deformed over a minimum of 4.5𝑑 and
has a characteristic withdrawal parameter 𝑓 , greater than or equal to 6 N/mm2
when measure in timber with a characteristic density of 350 kg/m3 at 20degC and
65% humidity

Only the threaded part of the nail is considered capable of transmitting axial loads.

. nails are not capable of transmitting axial loads in end grain wood

The characteristic withdrawal capacity of nails 𝐹 , for nails driven in

perpendicular to grains should be taken as the smaller values from the equations
below

For nails which are not smooth

𝐹 , = min{𝑓 , 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑓 , 𝑑 }

For smooth nails

𝐹 , = min{𝑓 , 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑓 , 𝑑𝑡𝑓 , 𝑑 }

where

𝑓 , = the characteristic pointside withdrawal strength:

𝑓 , = the characteristic headside pull-through strength:

𝑑 = nail diameter

𝑡 = the pointside penetration length or the length of the threaded part

of the pointside member

𝑡 = thickness of headside members

𝑑 = the nail head diameter

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3.4 Bolts

3.4.1 Laterally loaded bolts

For one row of n bolts parallel to the grain direction, the load-carrying capacity
parallel to the grain, should be calculated using the effective number of bolts 𝑛
where

.
𝑎
𝑛 = min 𝑛 ; 𝑛 ×
13𝑑

where

𝑑 = diameter of bolts

𝑎 = spacing between bolts in grain directions

𝑛 = number of bolts

For loads perpendicular to grain the effective number of bolts = 𝑛 =𝑛

3.4.2 Axially loaded bolts

The axial load capacity of a bolt should be taken as the lower value of

--the bolt tensile capacity

--the load bearing capacity of either the washer or the steel plate if applicable

The bearing capacity of a washer should be calculated assuming a characteristic

compressive strength on the contact area of 3.0 × 𝑓 , ,

𝑓, , = characteristic compressive strength of timber perpendicular to grain.

The bearing capacity per bolt of a steel plate should not exceed that of a circular
washer with a diameter which is the minimum of : 12t or 4d ..(t is thickness of
plate and d = diameter of bolt.

3.5 Dowels

The various statements applying to bolts as provided above apply except for the
spacing and end distances.

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3.6 Examples

3.6.1 Timber joints

A balcony in timber and the front end is supported by a tie rod made of steel .The
steel rod is attached to the floor beam with 12 No wood screws. The supporting
floor beam has dimensions 115x270mm. the wood screws have length 60mm ,
diameter 8mm and ultimate strength 410 MPa.

Assume the effective diameter is equal to the thread diameter i.e. 𝑑 = 𝑑. The
tensile resistance perpendicular to the grain of the floor beam is assumed to be
sufficient to support the force from the rod.

Geometry

 Steel thickness 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚

 Screw diameter 𝑑 = 𝑑 = 8𝑚𝑚
 Screw length 𝑙 = 60𝑚𝑚
 No of screws = 12
REF CALCS OUTPUT
Fig.8.3 Screw length in timber 𝑡 = 𝑙 − 𝑡 = 60 − 8 = 52𝑚𝑚 𝑡 = 52𝑚𝑚
𝜌
Capacity of the connection
= 390 𝑘𝑔
Density of glulam GL30c
/𝑚
𝑓
Wood screw strength
= 410 𝑀𝑃𝑎
3.1.3 Partial coefficient ; connection 𝛾 = 1.3
Strength modification factors for service classes and load-
Table 3.1 duration classes 𝑘 = 0.65
Service class 3, Medium term action, Glulam timber

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REF CALCS OUTPUT

Yield moment wood screw
8.3.1.1(4)
𝑀 , = 0.3 𝑓 𝑑 . = 0.3 × 410 × 8 . = 2.74(10 ) 𝑁𝑚𝑚
Embedded strength parallel to the fibres
8.3.1.1(4) For predrilled holes
;
𝑓 , , = 0.082 1 − 0.01 𝑑 𝜌 = 0.082(1 − 0.01 × 8) × 390
Eqn. 8.16
= 29.92 𝑀𝑃𝑎
8.5.1.1(2)
Correction factor : for softwood
𝑘 = 1.35 + 0.015𝑑 = 1.35 + 0.015 × 8 = 1.47
Eqn.8.33
𝑓, , 29.92
8.5.1.1(2) 𝑓 , , = =
𝑘 sin 𝛼 + cos 𝛼 1.47 × sin (45 ) + cos (45 )
= 24.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎
For a thick steel plate – timber connection failure modes in
single shear

⎧ 4𝑀 , 𝐹 ,
⎪ 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 2+ −1 + (c)
⎪ 𝑓, 𝑑𝑡 4
𝐹 , = min
⎨ 𝐹 ,
2.3 𝑀 , 𝑓, 𝑑+ (d)
⎪
⎪ 4
8.2.3(3) ⎩ 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 (e)
𝐹 ,
Eqn.8.10
⎧ 4 × 2.74(10 )
⎪24.2 × 52 × 8 2+
24.2 × 8 × 52
− 1 = 11.1
= min
⎨
⎪ 2.3 2.74(10 ) × 24.2 × 8 = 5.3
⎩ 𝑓 , 𝑡 𝑑 = 24.2 × 52 × 8 = 10.1
= 5.3 𝑘𝑁
Characteristic capacity ; 𝐹 , = 5.3 𝑘𝑁

.
Design capacity 𝐹 , =𝑘 ,
= 0.65 × .
= 2.65𝑘𝑛
Total capacity of connection 𝐹 = 𝑛 × 𝐹 , = 2.65 × 12 =
31.8 𝑘𝑁

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3.6.2 Example

 Design tensile force 𝑁 = 250 𝑘𝑁

 Plate thickness = 8 𝑚𝑚
 Load duration class M, service class 2
 Bolt diameter 𝑑 = 16𝑚𝑚
 Ultimate Tensile strength of bolt 𝑓 = 360 𝑀𝑃𝑎
 Glulam GL30c 𝜌 = 390 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
REF CALCS OUTPUT
Strength Properties
8.5.1.1(1) Yield moment of Bolt
𝑀 , = 0.3 𝑓 𝑑 . = 0.3 × 360 × 8 . = 146 𝑁𝑚
Embedded strength of wood parallel to the fibres
8.3.1.1(4) For predrilled holes
;
𝑓 , , = 0.082 1 − 0.01 𝑑 𝜌 = 0.082(1 − 0.01 × 16) × 390
Eqn. 8.16
= 26.86 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Resistance of a single bolt
Resistance of a single bolt is a sum of shear and tensile
resistances
Double shear steel to timber joints with 𝑡 = 0.5𝑑 failure mode
“j” and “k” that is pinned support for bolt in relation to steel plate
8.5.1.3 For thin steel plates as the outer members of a double shear
connection
8.2.3(3) 0.5 𝑓 , , 𝑡 𝑑 (j)
𝐹 , = min 𝐹 ,
Eqn. 8.12 1.15 2 𝑀 , 𝑓 , , 𝑑 + (k)
4
0.5 × 26.9(10 ) × 0.09 × 0.016 = 19.3
𝐹 , = min
1.15 × 2 × 146 × 29.6(10 ) × 0.016 = 13.52
= 13.52 𝑘𝑁
The characteristic shear capacity of is 13.2 𝑘𝑁 / 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡
Withdrawal capacity
Since a washer is note used , but a continuous plate
A fictious washer diameter is min{12 × 8 ; 4 × 16} =
8.5.2(2) 64 𝑚𝑚
Area of washer 𝐴 = (64 − 16 ) = 3016 𝑚𝑚
𝐹 , , = 3 × 2.5 × 3016 = 24.2 𝑘𝑁 per side

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Bolt resistance
.
𝐹 = 𝐹 , +2 , ,
= 13.52 + 2 × = 25.62 𝑘𝑁 per
bolt
𝑘
Table 3.1 Glulam Medium term loading service class 2
= 0.8
𝛾
Table 2.3 Glulam timber
= 1.25
Since the plate is continuous , the whole withdrawal capacity if
2.4.1 determined using
. × .
𝐹 = = 16.8 𝑘𝑁 /bolt
.
Connection layout
No of bolts depend on no of rows in the connection, the group
effect is dependent on number of fasteners in a row ,
Table 8.4 minimum distance between bolts = 4𝑑 = 4 × 16 = 64 𝑚𝑚
edge distance to unloaded edge = 3𝑑 = 3 × 16 = 48 𝑚𝑚
( × )
max no. of rows perpendicular to grain 𝑛 = +
1 = 3.7; ∴ 3 rows
Group effect
No of bolts depend on group effect
The spacing of the bolts parallel to grain chosen is 7𝑑 (which is
more than the standard)
8.5.1.1(4) 3 𝑛 × 16.8 = 250

.
𝑎 7𝑑 250
𝑛 × =𝑛 . × =
13𝑑 13𝑑 3 × 16.8
𝑛 > 7.7 = 8 bolts per row

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4 Bibliography

Jelušič, P., Kravanja, S., 2022. Optimal Design and Competitive Spans of Timber
Floor Joists Based on Multi-Parametric MINLP Optimization. Materials 15,
3217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093217

Porteous, J., Kermani, A., 2007. Structural timber design to Eurocode 5.

Blackwell Pub, Oxford ; Malden, MA.

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